Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities

Telemark University College Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics Faculty of Technology, Postboks 203, Kjølnes ring 56, N-3901 Porsgrunn, Norway. Tel: +47 35 57 50 00 Fax: +47 35 57 54 01 Introduction to Visual Studio and C# HANS-PETTER HALVORSEN, 2012.08.17 2 Table of Contents 1 Introduction 5 1.1 Visual Studio 5 1.2 C# . 6 1.3 .NET Framework 6 1.4 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) . 7 2 Visual Studio . 8 2.1 Introduction . Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities By: OpenStaxCollege Environmental Debate Across the country, countless people have protested, even risking arrest, against the Keystone XL Pipeline (Credit: modification of image by “NoKXL”/Flickr Creative Commons) Keystone XL You might have heard about Keystone XL in the news It is a pipeline system designed to bring oil from Canada to the refineries near the Gulf of Mexico, as well as to boost crude oil production in the United States While a private company, TransCanada, will own the pipeline, U.S government approval is required because of its size and location The pipeline is being built in four phases, with the first two currently in operation, bringing oil from Alberta, Canada, east across Canada, south through the United States into Nebraska and Oklahoma, and northeast again to Illinois The third and fourth phases 1/3 Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities of the project, known as Keystone XL, would create a pipeline southeast from Alberta straight to Nebraska, and then from Oklahoma to the Gulf of Mexico Sounds like a great idea, right? A pipeline that would move much needed crude oil to the Gulf refineries would increase oil production for manufacturing needs, reduce price pressure at the gas pump, and increase overall economic growth Supporters argue that the pipeline is one of the safest pipelines built yet, and would reduce America’s dependence on politically vulnerable Middle Eastern oil imports Not so fast, say its critics The Keystone XL would be constructed over an enormous aquifer (one of the largest in the world) in the Midwest, and through an environmentally fragile area in Nebraska, causing great concern among environmentalists about possible destruction to the natural surroundings They argue that leaks could taint valuable water sources and construction of the pipeline could disrupt and even harm indigenous species Environmentalist groups have fought government approval of the proposed construction of the pipeline, and as of press time the pipeline projects remain stalled Of course, environmental concerns matter when discussing issues related to economic growth But how much should they factor in? In the case of the pipeline, how we know how much damage it would cause when we not know how to put a value on the environment? Would the benefits of the pipeline outweigh the opportunity cost? The issue of how to balance economic progress with unintended effects on our planet is the subject of this chapter Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • • • The Economics of Pollution Command-and-Control Regulation Market-Oriented Environmental Tools The Benefits and Costs of U.S Environmental Laws International Environmental Issues The Tradeoff between Economic Output and Environmental Protection In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Ohio was so polluted that it spontaneously burst into flame Air pollution was so bad at that time that Chattanooga, Tennessee was a city where, as an article from Sports Illustrated put it: “the death rate from tuberculosis was double that of the rest of Tennessee and triple that of the rest of the United States, a city in which the filth in the air was so bad it melted nylon stockings off women’s legs, in which executives kept supplies of clean white shirts in their offices so they could change when a shirt became too gray to be presentable, in which headlights were turned on at high noon because the sun was eclipsed by the gunk in the sky.” 2/3 Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities The problem of pollution arises for every economy in the world, whether high-income or low-income, and whether market-oriented or command-oriented Every country needs to strike some balance between production and environmental quality This chapter begins by discussing how firms may fail to take certain social costs, like pollution, into their planning if they not need to pay these costs Traditionally, policies for environmental protection have focused on governmental limits on how much of each pollutant could be emitted While this approach has had some success, economists have suggested a range of more flexible, market-oriented policies that reduce pollution at a lower cost We will consider both approaches, but first let’s see how economists frame and analyze these issues 3/3 Embedded Systems Design: An Introduction to Processes, Tools, and Techniques by Arnold S. Berger ISBN: 1578200733 CMP Books © 2002 (237 pages) An easy-to-understand guidebook for those embarking upon an embedded processor development project. Table of Contents Embedded Systems Design—An Introduction to Processes, Tools, and Techniques Preface Introduction Chapter 1 - The Embedded Design Life Cycle Chapter 2 - The Selection Process Chapter 3 - The Partitioning Decision Chapter 4 - The Development Environment Chapter 5 - Special Software Techniques Chapter 6 - A Basic Toolset Chapter 7 - BDM, JTAG, and Nexus Chapter 8 - The ICE — An Integrated Solution Chapter 9 - Testing Chapter 10 - The Future Index List of Figures List of Tables List of Listings List of Sidebars TEAMFLY Team-Fly ® Embedded Systems Design—An Introduction to Processes, Tools, and Techniques Arnold Berger CMP Books CMP Media LLC 1601 West 23rd Street, Suite 200 Lawrence, Kansas 66046 USA www.cmpbooks.com Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all instances where CMP Books is aware of a trademark claim, the product name appears in initial capital letters, in all capital letters, or in accordance with the vendor’s capitalization preference. Readers should contact the appropriate companies for more complete information on trademarks and trademark registrations. All trademarks and registered trademarks in this book are the property of their respective holders. Copyright © 2002 by CMP Books, except where noted otherwise. Published by CMP Books, CMP Media LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher; with the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. The programs in this book are presented for instructional value. The programs have been carefully tested, but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher does not offer any warranties and does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information herein and is not responsible for any errors or omissions. The publisher assumes no liability for damages resulting from the use of the information in this book or for any infringement of the intellectual property rights of third parties that would result from the use of this information. Developmental Editor: Robert Ward Editors: Matt McDonald, Julie McNamee, Rita Sooby, and Catherine Janzen Layout Production: Justin Fulmer, Rita Sooby, and Michelle O’Neal Managing Editor: Michelle O’Neal Cover Art Design: Robert Ward Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by: Publishers Group West 1700 Fourth Street Berkeley, CA 94710 1-800-788-3123 www.pgw.com ISBN: 1-57820-073-3 This book is dedicated to Shirley Berger. Preface Why write a book about designing embedded systems? Because my experiences working in the industry and, more recently, working with students have convinced me that there is a need for such a book. For example, a few years ago, I was the Development Tools Marketing Manager for a semiconductor manufacturer. I was speaking with the Software Development Tools Manager at our major account. My job was to help convince the customer that they should be using our RISC processor in their laser printers. Since I owned the tool chain issues, I had to address his specific issues before we could convince him that we had the appropriate support for his design team. Since we didn’t Understanding Our Environment An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Third Edition Edited by Roy M Harrison The University of Birmingham, UK R S « C ROYAL SOCE ITY OF CHEMS ITRY ISBN 0-85404-584-8 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © The Royal Society of Chemistry 1999 All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review as permitted under the terms of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 OWF, UK For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org Typeset by Paston PrePress Ltd, Beccles, Suffolk Printed by Redwood Books Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire Preface The field of environmental chemistry goes from strength to strength Twenty-five years ago it existed in the UK in the form of a few isolated research groups in Universities, Polytechnics, and Research Institutes, but was very definitely a minority interest It was not taught appreciably in academic institutions and few books dealt with any aspect of the subject The awakening of environmental awareness, first in a few specialists and subsequently in the general public has led to massive changes Environmental chemistry is now a component (optional or otherwise) of many chemistry degree courses, it is taught in environmental science courses as an element of increasing substance, and there are even a few degree courses in the subject Research opportunities in environmental chemistry are a growth area as new programmes open up to tackle local, national, regional, or global problems of environmental chemistry at both fundamental and applied levels Industry is facing ever tougher regulations regarding the safety and environmental acceptability of its products When invited to edit the second edition of 'Understanding Our Environment', I was delighted to take on the task The first edition had sold well, but had never really met its original very difficult objective of providing an introduction to environmental science for the layman It has, however, found widespread use as a textbook for both undergraduate and postgraduate-level courses and deserved further development with this in mind I therefore endeavoured to produce a book giving a rounded introduction to environmental chemistry and pollution, accessible to any reader with some background in the chemical sciences Most of the book was at a level comprehensible by others such as biologists and physicians who have a modest acquaintance with basic chemistry and physics The book was intended for those requiring a grounding in the basic concepts of environmental chemistry and pollution The third edition follows very much the same ethos as the second, but I have tried to encourage chapter authors to develop a more international approach through the use of case studies, and to make the book more easily useable for teaching in a wide range of contexts by the incorporation of worked examples where appropriate and of student questions The book is a companion volume to 'Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control' (also published by the Royal Society of Chemistry) which is both more diverse in the subjects covered, and in some aspects appreciably more advanced Mindful of the quality and success of the second edition, it is fortunate that Understanding Our Environment An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Third Edition Edited by Roy M Harrison The University of Birmingham, UK R S « C ROYAL SOCE ITY OF CHEMS ITRY ISBN 0-85404-584-8 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © The Royal Society of Chemistry 1999 All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review as permitted under the terms of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 OWF, UK For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org Typeset by Paston PrePress Ltd, Beccles, Suffolk Printed by Redwood Books Ltd, Trowbridge, Wiltshire Preface The field of environmental chemistry goes from strength to strength Twenty-five years ago it existed in the UK in the form of a few isolated research groups in Universities, Polytechnics, and Research Institutes, but was very definitely a minority interest It was not taught appreciably in academic institutions and few books dealt with any aspect of the subject The awakening of environmental awareness, first in a few specialists and subsequently in the general public has led to massive changes Environmental chemistry is now a component (optional or otherwise) of many chemistry degree courses, it is taught in environmental science courses as an element of increasing substance, and there are even a few degree courses in the subject Research opportunities in environmental chemistry are a growth area as new programmes open up to tackle local, national, regional, or global problems of environmental chemistry at both fundamental and applied levels Industry is facing ever tougher regulations regarding the safety and environmental acceptability of its products When invited to edit the second edition of 'Understanding Our Environment', I was delighted to take on the task The first edition had sold well, but had never really met its original very difficult objective of providing an introduction to environmental science for the layman It has, however, found widespread use as a textbook for both undergraduate and postgraduate-level courses and deserved further development with this in mind I therefore endeavoured to produce a book giving a rounded introduction to environmental chemistry and pollution, accessible to any reader with some background in the chemical sciences Most of the book was at a level comprehensible by others such as biologists and physicians who have a modest acquaintance with basic chemistry and physics The book was intended for those requiring a grounding in the basic concepts of environmental chemistry and pollution The third edition follows very much the same ethos as the second, but I have tried to encourage chapter authors to develop a more international approach through the use of case studies, and to make the book more easily useable for teaching in a wide range of contexts by the incorporation of worked examples where appropriate and of student questions The book is a companion volume to 'Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control' (also published by the Royal Society of Chemistry) which is both more diverse in the subjects covered, and in some aspects appreciably more advanced Mindful of the quality and success of the second edition, it is fortunate that CHAPTER Environmental Cycling of Pollutants ROY M HARRISON INTRODUCTION: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING The earlier chapters of this book have followed the traditional subdivision of the environment into compartments (e.g atmosphere, oceans, etc.) Whilst these sub-divisions accord with human perceptions and have certain scientific logic, they encourage the idea that each compartment is an entirely separate entity and that no exchanges occur between them This, of course, is far from the truth Important exchanges of mass and energy occur at the boundaries of the compartments and many processes of great scientific interest and environmental importance occur at these interfaces A physical example is that of transfer of heat between the ocean surfaces and the atmosphere, which has a major impact upon climate and a great influence upon the general circulation of the atmosphere A chemically based example is the oceanic release of dimethyl sulfide to the atmosphere, which may, through its decomposition products, act as a climate regulator (see Chapter 4) Pollutants emitted into one environmental compartment will, unless carefully controlled, enter others Figure illustrates the processes affecting a pollutant discharged into the atmosphere.1 As mixing processes dilute it, it may undergo chemical and physical transformations before depositing in rain or snow (wet deposition) or as dry gas or particles (dry deposition) The deposition processes cause pollution of land, freshwater, or the seas, according to where they occur Similarly, pollutants discharged into a river will, unless degraded, enter the seas Solid wastes are often disposed into a landfill Nowadays these are carefully designed to avoid leaching by rain and dissemination of pollutants into groundwaters, which might subsequently be used for potable supply In the past, however, instances have come to light where W H Schroeder and D A Lane, Environ Sci TechnoL, 1988, 22, 240 Dry transformations Air concentrations Wet transformations Transport and diffusion Initial mixing Scavenging Total emissions Manmade Natural Scavenging Dry deposition Wet deposition Figure Schematic diagram of the atmospheric cycle of a pollutant1 (Reprinted from Environmental Science and Technology by permission of the American Chemical Society) insufficient attention was paid to the potential for groundwater contamination, and serious pollution has arisen as a result Another important consideration regarding pollutant cycling is that of degradability, be it chemical or biological Chemical elements (other than radioisotopic forms) are, of course, non-degradable and hence once dispersed in the environment will always be there, although they may move between compartments Thus, lead, for example, after emission from industry or motor vehicles, has a rather short lifetime in the atmosphere, but upon deposition causes pollution of vegetation, soils, and waters.2 On a very long time-scale, lead in these compartments will leach out from soils and transfer to the oceans, where it will concentrate in bottom sediments Some chemical elements undergo chemical changes during environmental cycling which completely alter their properties For example, nitrate added to soil as fertilizer can be converted to gaseous nitrous oxide by biological denitrification processes Nitrous oxide is an unreactive gas with a long atmospheric lifetime which is destroyed only by breakdown in the stratosphere As will be seen later, nitrogen in the environment may be present in a wide range of valence states, each conferring different properties Some chemical compounds are degradable in the environment For example, methane (an important greenhouse gas) is oxidized via carbon R M Harrison and D P H Laxen, 'Lead Pollution: Causes and Control', Chapman & Hall, London, 1981 monoxide to carbon dioxide and water Thus, although the chemical elements are conserved, methane itself is destroyed and were it not continuously replenished would disappear from the .. .Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities of the project, known as Keystone XL, would create a pipeline southeast from Alberta straight to Nebraska, and then... subject of this chapter Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • • • The Economics of Pollution Command -and- Control Regulation... became too gray to be presentable, in which headlights were turned on at high noon because the sun was eclipsed by the gunk in the sky.” 2/3 Introduction to Environmental Protection and Negative Externalities