Historical Basis of Modern Understanding

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For orders and information please contact the publisher SCARECROW PRESS, INC. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.scarecrowpress.com COVER IMAGE: GAO XINGJIAN © SOPHIE ELBAZ / SYGMA / CORBIS LITERATURE • CHINESE LITERATURE MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE LI-HUA YING HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts, No. 35 Modern Chinese literature has been flourishing for more than a century, with varying degrees of intensity and energy at different junctures of history and points of locale. Although it has been challenged and enriched by external influences, it is an integral part of world literature in constant dialogue with its counterparts across the globe—contributing to the wealth of worldwide literary culture. In terms of themes and styles, modern Chinese literature is rich and var- ied: from revolutionary to pastoral, romanticism to feminism, and modernism to postmodernism, as well as critical, psychological, socialist, and magical real- ism. Indeed, it encompasses a full range of ideological and aesthetic concerns. This Historical Dictionary of Modern Chinese Literature presents a broad perspective of the development and history of literature in modern China. It includes a chronology, introduction, bibliography, and more than 300 cross- referenced dictionary entries on authors, literary and historical developments, trends, genres, and concepts playing a central role in the evolution of modern Chinese literature. Li-hua Ying is director of the Chinese and Japanese Program at Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. She is also the executive director of the Association of Shufa Calligraphy Education, an academic organization based in the United States. YING HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE HD Modern Chinese Lit Litho.indd1 1HD Modern Chinese Lit Litho.indd1 1 10/28/09 1:59:21 PM10/28/09 1:59:21 PM Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. Science Fiction Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2004. 2. Hong Kong Cinema, by Lisa Odham Stokes, 2007. 3. American Radio Soap Operas, by Jim Cox, 2005. 4. Japanese Traditional Theatre, by Samuel L. Leiter, 2006. 5. Fantasy Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2005. 6. Australian and New Zealand Cinema, by Albert Moran and Errol Vieth, 2006. 7. African-American Television, by Kathleen Fearn-Banks, 2006. 8. Lesbian Literature, by Meredith Miller, 2006. 9. Scandinavian Literature and Theater, by Jan Sjåvik, 2006. 10. British Radio, by Seán Street, 2006. 11. German Theater, by William Grange, 2006. 12. African American Cinema, by S. Torriano Berry and Venise Berry, 2006. 13. Sacred Music, by Joseph P. Swain, 2006. 14. Russian Theater, by Laurence Senelick, 2007. 15. French Cinema, by Dayna Oscherwitz and MaryEllen Higgins, 2007. 16. Postmodernist Literature and Theater, by Fran Mason, 2007. 17. Irish Cinema, by Roderick Flynn and Pat Brereton, 2007. 18. Australian Radio and Television, by Albert Moran and Chris Keating, 2007. 19. Polish Cinema, by Marek Haltof, 2007. 20. Old Time Radio, by Robert C. Reinehr and Jon D. Swartz, 2008. 21. Renaissance Art, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2008. 22. Broadway Musical, by William A. Everett and Paul R. Historical Basis of Modern Understanding Historical Basis of Modern Understanding Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Modern understandings of DNA have evolved from the discovery of nucleic acid to the development of the double-helix model In the 1860s, Friedrich Miescher ([link]), a physician by profession, was the first person to isolate phosphate-rich chemicals from white blood cells or leukocytes He named these chemicals (which would eventually be known as RNA and DNA) nuclein because they were isolated from the nuclei of the cells Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered nucleic acids Link to Learning To see Miescher conduct an experiment step-by-step, click through this review of how he discovered the key role of DNA and proteins in the nucleus A half century later, British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith was perhaps the first person to show that hereditary information could be transferred from one cell to another 1/6 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding “horizontally,” rather than by descent In 1928, he reported the first demonstration of bacterial transformation, a process in which external DNA is taken up by a cell, thereby changing morphology and physiology He was working with Streptococcus pneumoniae, the bacterium that causes pneumonia Griffith worked with two strains, rough (R) and smooth (S) The R strain is non-pathogenic (does not cause disease) and is called rough because its outer surface is a cell wall and lacks a capsule; as a result, the cell surface appears uneven under the microscope The S strain is pathogenic (diseasecausing) and has a capsule outside its cell wall As a result, it has a smooth appearance under the microscope Griffith injected the live R strain into mice and they survived In another experiment, when he injected mice with the heat-killed S strain, they also survived In a third set of experiments, a mixture of live R strain and heat-killed S strain were injected into mice, and—to his surprise—the mice died Upon isolating the live bacteria from the dead mouse, only the S strain of bacteria was recovered When this isolated S strain was injected into fresh mice, the mice died Griffith concluded that something had passed from the heat-killed S strain into the live R strain and transformed it into the pathogenic S strain, and he called this the transforming principle ([link]) These experiments are now famously known as Griffith's transformation experiments Two strains of S pneumoniae were used in Griffith’s transformation experiments The R strain is non-pathogenic The S strain is pathogenic and causes death When Griffith injected a mouse with the heat-killed S strain and a live R strain, the mouse died The S strain was recovered from the dead mouse Thus, Griffith concluded that something had passed from the heat-killed S strain to the R strain, transforming the R strain into S strain in the process (credit "living mouse": modification of work by NIH; credit "dead mouse": modification of work by Sarah Marriage) Scientists Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty (1944) were interested in exploring this transforming principle further They isolated the S strain from the dead mice and isolated the proteins and nucleic acids, namely RNA and DNA, as these were possible candidates for the molecule of heredity They conducted a systematic elimination study They used enzymes that specifically degraded each component and then used each mixture separately to transform the R strain They found that when DNA was degraded, the resulting mixture was no longer able to transform the bacteria, whereas all of the other combinations were able to transform the bacteria This led them to conclude that DNA was the transforming principle 2/6 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding Career Connection Forensic Scientists and DNA AnalysisDNA evidence was used for the first time to solve an immigration case The story started with a teenage boy returning to London from Ghana to be with his mother Immigration authorities at the airport were suspicious of him, thinking that he was traveling on a forged passport After much persuasion, he was allowed to go live with his mother, but the immigration authorities did not drop the case against him All types of evidence, including photographs, were provided to the authorities, but deportation proceedings were started nevertheless Around the same time, Dr Alec Jeffreys of Leicester University in the United Kingdom had invented a technique known as DNA fingerprinting The immigration authorities approached Dr Jeffreys for help He took DNA samples from the mother and three of her children, plus an unrelated mother, and compared the samples with the boy’s DNA Because the biological father was not in the picture, DNA from the three children was compared with the boy’s DNA He found a match in the boy’s DNA for both the mother and his three siblings He concluded that the boy was indeed the mother’s son Forensic scientists analyze many items, including documents, handwriting, ...452 • BIBLIOGRAPHY Golden, Sean, and John Minford. “Yang Lian and the Chinese Tradition.” In How- ard Goldblatt, ed., Worlds Apart: Recent Chinese Writing and Its Audiences. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 119–37. Holton, Brian. “Translating Yang Lian.” In Yang Lian, Where the Sea Stands Still: New Poems.” Bloodaxe Books, 1999, 173–191. Lee, Mabel. “Before Tradition: The Book of Changes and Yang Lian’s YI [Yi] and the Affirmation of the Self Through Poetry.” In Mabel Lee and A. D. Sy- rokomla-Stefanowska, eds., Modernization of the Chinese Past. Sydney: Wild Peony, 1993, 94–106. ——— . “The Philosophy of the Self and Yang Lian.” In Yang Lian, Masks and Crocodile. Sydney: Wild Peony, 1990. Li, Xia. “Swings and Roundabouts: Strategies for Translating Colour Terms in Poetry.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology (Copenhagen). 5, 2 (1997): 257–66. ——— . “Poetry, Reality and Existence in Yang Lian’s ‘Illusion City.’” Journal of Asian and African Studies (Brastislava) 4, 2 (1995): 149–65. Yip, Wai-lim. “Crisis Poetry: An Introduction to Yang Lian, Jiang He and Misty Poetry.” Renditions 23 (1985): 120–30. Ye Lingfeng Lee, Leo Ou-fan. “Decadent and Dandy: Shao Xunmei and Ye Lingfeng.” In Lee, Shanghai Modern: The Flowering of a New Urban Culture in China, 1930– 1945. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999, 232–66. Liu, Jianmei. “Shanghai Variations on ‘Revolution Plus Love.” Modern Chinese Literature and Culture 14, 1 (Spring 2002): 51–92. Ye Shengtao Anderson, Marsten. “The Specular Self: Subjective and Mimetic Elements in the Fiction of Ye Shaojun.” Modern China 15, 1 (Jan. 1989): 72–101. ——— . “Lu Xun, Ye Shaojun, and the Moral Impediments to Realism.” In An- derson, The Limits of Realism: Chinese Fiction in the Revolutionary Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, 76–118. Hsia, C. T. “Yeh Shao-chun.” In Hsia, A History of Modern Chinese Fiction. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971, 57–71. Prusek, Jaroslav. “Yeh Shao-chun and Anton Chekhov.” In Prusek, The Lyrical and the Epic: Studies in Modern Chinese Literature. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980, 178–94. BIBLIOGRAPHY • 453 Yu Dafu Chan, Wing-ming. “The Self-Mocking of a Chinese Intellectual: A Study of Yu Dafu’s An Intoxicating Spring Night.” In Marian Galik, ed., Interliterary and Intraliterary Aspects of the May Fourth Movement 1919 in China. Bratislava: Veda, 1990, 111–18. Denton, Kirk, A. “The Distant Shore: The Nationalist Theme in Yu Dafu’s Sink- ing.” Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 14 (1992): 107–23. ——— . “Romantic Sentiment and the Problem of the Subject.” In Joshua Mostow, ed., and Kirk A. Denton, China section, ed., Columbia Companion to Modern East Asian Literatures. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003, 478–84. Dolezalova, Anna. Yu Ta-fu: Specific Traits of His Literary Creation. Bratislava: Publishing House of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, 1970. Egan, Michael. “Yu Dafu and the Transition to Modern Chinese Literature.” In Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era. Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977, 309–24. Feng, Jin. “From Girl Student to Proletarian Woman: Yu Dafu’s Victimized Hero and His Female Other.” In Feng, The New Woman in Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2004, 60–82. Feuerwerker, Yi-tsi Mei. “Text, Intertext, and the Representation of the Writing Self in Lu Xun, Yu Dafu, and Wang Meng.” In Ellen Widmer and David Wang, eds., From May Fourth to June Fourth: Fiction and Film in Twentieth-Century China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993, 167–93. Galik, Marian. “Yu Dafu and His Panaesthetic Criticism.” In Galik, The Genesis of Modern Chinese Literary Criticism (1917–1930). London: Curzon Press, 1980, 104–28. Keaveney, Christopher T. The Subversive Self in Modern Chinese Literature: The Creation Society’s Reinvention of the Japanese Shishosetsu. New York: Palgrave For orders and information please contact the publisher SCARECROW PRESS, INC. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.scarecrowpress.com COVER IMAGE: GAO XINGJIAN © SOPHIE ELBAZ / SYGMA / CORBIS LITERATURE • CHINESE LITERATURE MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE LI-HUA YING HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts, No. 35 Modern Chinese literature has been flourishing for more than a century, with varying degrees of intensity and energy at different junctures of history and points of locale. Although it has been challenged and enriched by external influences, it is an integral part of world literature in constant dialogue with its counterparts across the globe—contributing to the wealth of worldwide literary culture. In terms of themes and styles, modern Chinese literature is rich and var- ied: from revolutionary to pastoral, romanticism to feminism, and modernism to postmodernism, as well as critical, psychological, socialist, and magical real- ism. Indeed, it encompasses a full range of ideological and aesthetic concerns. This Historical Dictionary of Modern Chinese Literature presents a broad perspective of the development and history of literature in modern China. It includes a chronology, introduction, bibliography, and more than 300 cross- referenced dictionary entries on authors, literary and historical developments, trends, genres, and concepts playing a central role in the evolution of modern Chinese literature. Li-hua Ying is director of the Chinese and Japanese Program at Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. She is also the executive director of the Association of Shufa Calligraphy Education, an academic organization based in the United States. YING HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE HD Modern Chinese Lit Litho.indd1 1HD Modern Chinese Lit Litho.indd1 1 10/28/09 1:59:21 PM10/28/09 1:59:21 PM Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. Science Fiction Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2004. 2. Hong Kong Cinema, by Lisa Odham Stokes, 2007. 3. American Radio Soap Operas, by Jim Cox, 2005. 4. Japanese Traditional Theatre, by Samuel L. Leiter, 2006. 5. Fantasy Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2005. 6. Australian and New Zealand Cinema, by Albert Moran and Errol Vieth, 2006. 7. African-American Television, by Kathleen Fearn-Banks, 2006. 8. Lesbian Literature, by Meredith Miller, 2006. 9. Scandinavian Literature and Theater, by Jan Sjåvik, 2006. 10. British Radio, by Seán Street, 2006. 11. German Theater, by William Grange, 2006. 12. African American Cinema, by S. Torriano Berry and Venise Berry, 2006. 13. Sacred Music, by Joseph P. Swain, 2006. 14. Russian Theater, by Laurence Senelick, 2007. 15. French Cinema, by Dayna Oscherwitz and MaryEllen Higgins, 2007. 16. Postmodernist Literature and Theater, by Fran Mason, 2007. 17. Irish Cinema, by Roderick Flynn and Pat Brereton, 2007. 18. Australian Radio and Television, by Albert Moran and Chris Keating, 2007. 19. Polish Cinema, by Marek Haltof, 2007. 20. Old Time Radio, by Robert C. Reinehr and Jon D. Swartz, 2008. 21. Renaissance Art, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2008. 22. Broadway Musical, by William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird, 2008. 23. American Theater: Modernism, by James Fisher and Felicia Hardison Londré, 2008. 24. German Cinema, by Robert C. Reimer and Carol J. Reimer, 2008. 25. Horror Cinema, by Peter Hutchings, 2008. 26. Westerns in Cinema, by Paul Varner, 2008. 27. Chinese Theater, by Tan Ye, 2008. 28. Italian Cinema, by Gino Moliterno, 2008. 29. Architecture, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2008. 30. Russian and Soviet Cinema, by Peter Rollberg, 2008. 31. traditions instead of political concerns. In that sense, this project subscribes to a growing trend that takes a more general view of a literary institution aptly termed xiandai zhongwen/huawen wenxue (modern literature written in Chinese), which includes works from not only the PRC, Taiwan, and Hong Kong but also the Chinese diaspora. Needless to say, the scope is enormous, and in some cases the definition of “Chineseness” is hard to pin down. I have chosen, for the sake of convenience, to leave out many au- thors in Southeast Asia, which has large Chinese communities still creat- ing and reading literature in the Chinese language. For that and many other reasons, this dictionary is by no means comprehensive or definitive. The criteria for selection are admittedly arbitrary and subjective. The writers whose names are precluded are not necessarily deemed less worthy. These absences could only be attributed, in some cases, to the limited knowledge and lapse of judgment on my part, and in others, to the continuously evolv- ing arena of modern Chinese literature. I want to thank Professor Tan Ye, who got me started on this project. For the readers interested in Chinese theater, Professor Ye’s Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater, also published by the Scarecrow Press, is infinitely more informative than the few entries I have devoted to the genre. Finally, the unfailing love and support my husband, Charles Chao, and son, Kyle Chao, have shown me have sustained me throughout the years. To them I owe a debt of gratitude. x • PREFACE xi The Pinyin system is used to transliterate Chinese terms, except for names that are commonly Romanized, therefore, Taipei instead of Taibei, Chiang Kai-shek instead of Chiang Jieshi, Hong Kong not Xianggang. With regard to writers whose names have more than one transliteration, the Pinyin transliteration is the primary form used with the additional transliteration(s) provided in the dictionary as “a.k.a.” (also known as) and in the bibliography in the parenthesis immediately following the Pinyin name. For the sake of consistency, Beijing is used instead of Beiping, the official name adopted during the Republican period (1911–1949). In the Chinese convention, the surname goes before the given name. When the author’s name is mentioned for the first time, the full name is used; subsequently, only the surname is given. In the case of pen names, the conventional use of the full name is adopted. Hence, Lu Xun, instead of Lu, is used throughout the entry. When a title is mentioned for the first time, the Pinyin title goes before the English translation. Subsequent mentions of the same title are in Pin- yin alone. Pinyin titles are not capitalized, except for the first letter of the first word and proper names. English translations of Chinese titles are, however, capitalized. Whenever possible, published English titles, shown in italics within parentheses, are used; in the case when no English pub- lication is available, an English translation, not italicized, is provided by the author. When a term has an entry of its own in the dictionary, the term appears in boldface the first time it is mentioned in an entry other than its own. There are a few acronyms and abbreviations used throughout the dictionary; they are listed below with their full names: CCP: Chinese Communist Party DPP: Democratic Progressive Party KMT: Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) PRC: People’s Republic of China ROC: Republic of China Reader’s Notes xiii 1891 Su Manshu publishes his translation of Lord Byron’s poems, Bailun shi xuan (Poems by Byron), the first collection of Western poetry in Chinese. 1898 “Lun baihua wei weixin zhi ben” (The Vernacular Language as the Basis for Reforms) by Qiu Tingliang published. 1902 Liang 2005 Ba Jin dies. Zhang Jie, Zong Pu, and others win the Mao Dun Literature Prize. Bi Feiyu, Wang Anyi, Jia Pingwa, Shi Tiesheng, and oth- ers win the Lu Xun Literature Prize. A Private Life, a translation of Chen Ran’s 1996 novel Siren shenghuo, published. 2006 Tie Ning elected president of the Chinese Writers’ Association, the first woman to hold that position. The Chinese Poetry of Bei Dao, 1978–2000: Resistance and Exile published. 2007 My South Seas Sleeping Beauty: A Tale of Memory and Longing, a translation of Zhang Guixing’s Wo sinian de chang mian zhong de nan guo gongzhu; The Old Capital: A Novel of Taipei, a translation of Zhu Tienxin’s story collection Gu Du; and Cries in the Drizzle, a translation of Yu Hua’s novel Zai xiyu zhong huhuan, published. 2008 Chi Zijian, Yu Jian, Han Shaogong, and others win the Mao Dun Literature Prize. The Song of Everlasting Sorrow: A Novel of Shanghai, a translation of Wang Anyi’s 1999 novel Changhen ge, published. 2009 Liang Yusheng dies. Zhang Ailing’s novel Xiao tuanyuan (A Small Reunion) published. xx • CHRONOLOGY xxi Modern Chinese literature has been flourishing for over a century, with varying degrees of intensity and energy at different junctures of history and points of locale. It is solidly an integral part of world literature, for from the moment it was born, it has been in dialogue with its counterparts from the rest of the world. As it has been challenged and enriched by ex- ternal influences, it has contributed to the wealth of literary culture of the world. Gone are the days when a Western reader picked up a book of mod- ern Chinese literature for nonliterary reasons and when Chinese novels or poems were treated as sociopolitical documents. Nowadays, it is more likely that readers appreciate a Chinese novel because it is a great piece of art, not simply because it provides knowledge and information about Chinese society and politics. Indeed, the best literature written in Chinese is on a par with the best literature written in any other language; this has been especially true during the past three decades, which have given us some internationally recognized names, even a Nobel laureate. In terms of themes and styles, modern Chinese literature is rich and varied: from the revolutionary to the pastoral, from romanticism to feminism, from mod- ernism to postmodernism, critical realism, psychological realism, socialist realism, and magic realism, you name it. Indeed, it encompasses a full range of ideological and aesthetic concerns. In some ways, what gives modern Chinese literature its vibrant diver- sity is its geographic range. Here the term Chinese literature should not be mistaken for “literature of China”—although the People’s Republic of China (PRC) itself is already a mind-boggling size—for its creators and readers are widely spread all over the globe. It is not an exaggeration to say that where there are Chinese communities, there is Chinese literature being read and written. Beyond the borders of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, there is a whole population of Chinese writers scattered throughout Southeast Asia, Europe, and North America who are connected in their Introduction love of the Chinese language as the medium of artistic expression. This is the landscape of Chinese literature today. In the study of Chinese history, modern China is generally divided into three periods: jindai (the recent era), 1840–1911; xiandai (the modern era), 1911–1949; and dangdai (the present era), 1949 to the present. The curtains of the jindai era were forced open by guns and cannons of West- ern forces in the mid-19th century. During the next six decades, the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) lost the Opium Wars to Great Britain, its navy was soundly defeated by Japan, and its territories were ceded to the Europeans, Russians, and Japanese. Although the Republican Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen succeeded in overthrowing the feeble and corrupt Qing .. .Historical Basis of Modern Understanding “horizontally,” rather than by descent In 1928, he reported the first demonstration of bacterial transformation, a process... bacteria, whereas all of the other combinations were able to transform the bacteria This led them to conclude that DNA was the transforming principle 2/6 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding Career... in Hershey and Chase's experiments? 5/6 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding Sulfur is an element found in proteins and phosphorus is a component of nucleic acids 6/6