Homeostasis and Osmoregulation

Homeostasis and Osmoregulation tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập lớn về tất cả các lĩnh v...

Imaging Cellular Metabolism 201 address such questions, it will be important to analyze cell cycle dependent events in large numbers of cells. A very promising new technique for measuring cell cycle dependent growth was demonstrated recently, using spatial light interference microscopy (SLIM) coupled with a fluorescence marker for S-phase to analyze cell cycle phase within a cell population (Mir et al., 2011). The applications for this technique to a range of cell types, as well as to microscopy systems that utilize multi-channel fluorescence imaging, open endless possibilities for developing variations on this method to image cellular metabolism in the context of cell growth even within a complex cellular population. 5. Conclusion The rapid progress recently made toward developing metabolic tracer molecules shows great promise for new applications in clinical diagnostics. Further characterization of novel imaging probes is needed to understand how they can be used to image and identify malignant tissues. Rapidly screening novel tracer molecules for efficacy in identifying tumors in cell culture systems, animal models and clinical trials is a crucial ongoing challenge aimed toward building a battery of tools for imaging cancer metabolism in patients. Feeding into clinical studies is a vast amount of knowledge gained from basic research characterizing metabolic pathways in single cells. This information has potential for wide use for diagnostic imaging, but awaits further research and development into translational medicine that will utilize novel biomarkers and imaging technologies. Finally, continued development of super-resolution imaging platforms for both basic research and clinical use are certain to have a major impact on our understanding of molecular complexes, especially with regard to colocalization of specific protein-protein, protein-RNA or protein-DNA complexes within the overall context of cellular architecture. 6. References Amiel, A., Litmanovitch T., Lishner M., Mor A., Gaber E., Tangi I., Fejgin M. & Avivi, L. 1998. Temporal differences in replication timing of homologous loci in malignant cells derived from CML and lymphoma patients. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 22: 225–231. Andersen, J.S., Lam Y.W. Leung A.K.L., Ong S._E., Lyon C., Lamond A.I., & Mann M. 2004. Nuclolar proteome dynamics. Nature. 433:77-83. Barwick, T., Bencherif B., Mountz J.M. & Avril N. 2009. Molecular PET and PET/CT imaging of tumour cell proliferation using F- 18 fluoro-L-thymidine: a comprehensive evaluation. Nucl. Med. Commun. 30: 908-17. Ben-Ari, Y., Brody Y., Kinor N., Mor A., Tsukamoto T., Spector D.L., Singer R.H. & Shav-Tal Y. 2010. The life of an mRNA in space and time. J Cell Sci. 123: 1761-1774. Ben-Haim, S. & Ell P. 2009. 18 F-FDG PET and PET/CT in the evaluation of cancer treatment response. J. Nucl. Med. 50: 88-99. Bolzer A., Kreth G., Solovei I., Koehler D., Saracoglu K., Fauth C., Muller S., Eils R., Cremer C., Speicher M.R. & Cremer, T. (2005) Three-Dimensional Maps of All Chromosomes in Human Male Fibroblast Nuclei and Prometaphase Rosettes. PLoS Biol 3(5): 157. Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response 202 Boisvert, F.M., Hedzel M.J. & Bazett-Jones, D.P 2000. Promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies are protein structures that do not accumulate RNA. J. Cell Biol. 148: 283-292. Bouchier-Hayes, L., Oberst A., McStay G.P., Connell S., Tait S.W.G., Dillon C.P., Flanagan J.M., Beere H.M. & Green D.R. 2009. Characterization of cytoplasmic caspase-2 activation by induced proximity. Mol. Cell. 25: 830-840. Chopra, A., Shan L., Eckelman W.C., Leung K., Latterner M., Bryant S.H. & Menkens A. 2011. Molecular Imaging Homeostasis and Osmoregulation Homeostasis and Osmoregulation Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable state inside the body of an animal Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes in order to maintain this steady state Examples of internal conditions maintained homeostatically are the level of blood glucose, body temperature, blood calcium level These conditions remain stable because of physiologic processes that result in negative feedback relationships If the blood glucose or calcium rises, this sends a signal to organs responsible for lowering blood glucose or calcium The signals that restore the normal levels are examples of negative feedback When homeostatic mechanisms fail, the results can be unfavorable for the animal Homeostatic mechanisms keep the body in dynamic equilibrium by constantly adjusting to the changes that the body’s systems encounter Even an animal that is apparently inactive is maintaining this homeostatic equilibrium Two examples of factors that are regulated homeostatically are temperature and water content The processes that maintain homeostasis of these two factors are called thermoregulation and osmoregulation Homeostasis The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a specific value of some aspect of the body or its cells called a set point While there are normal fluctuations from the set point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go back to this point A change in the internal or external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor; the response of the system is to adjust the activities of the system so the value moves back toward the set point For instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments are made to cool the animal If glucose levels in the blood rise after a meal, adjustments are made to lower them and to get the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use When a change occurs in an animal’s environment, an adjustment must be made so that the internal environment of the body and cells remains stable The receptor that senses the change in the environment is part of a feedback mechanism The stimulus—temperature, glucose, or calcium levels—is detected by the receptor The 1/8 Homeostasis and Osmoregulation receptor sends information to a control center, often the brain, which relays appropriate signals to an effector organ that is able to cause an appropriate change, either up or down, depending on the information the sensor was sending Thermoregulation Animals can be divided into two groups: those that maintain a constant body temperature in the face of differing environmental temperatures, and those that have a body temperature that is the same as their environment and thus varies with the environmental temperature Animals that not have internal control of their body temperature are called ectotherms The body temperature of these organisms is generally similar to the temperature of the environment, although the individual organisms may things that keep their bodies slightly below or above the environmental temperature This can include burrowing underground on a hot day or resting in the sunlight on a cold day The ectotherms have been called cold-blooded, a term that may not apply to an animal in the desert with a very warm body temperature An animal that maintains a constant body temperature in the face of environmental changes is called an endotherm These animals are able to maintain a level of activity that an ectothermic animal cannot because they generate internal heat that keeps their cellular processes operating optimally even when the environment is cold Concept in Action Watch this Discovery Channel video on thermoregulation to see illustrations of the process in a variety of animals Animals conserve or dissipate heat in a variety of ways Endothermic animals have some form of insulation They have fur, fat, or feathers Animals with thick fur or feathers create an insulating layer of air between their skin and internal organs Polar bears and seals live and swim in a subfreezing environment and yet maintain a constant, warm, body temperature The arctic fox, for example, uses its fluffy tail as extra insulation when it curls up to sleep in cold weather Mammals can increase body heat production by shivering, which is an involuntary increase in muscle activity In addition, arrector pili muscles can contract causing individual hairs to stand up when the individual is cold This increases the insulating effect of the hair Humans retain this reaction, which does not have the intended effect on our relatively hairless bodies; it causes 2/8 Homeostasis and Osmoregulation “goose bumps” instead Mammals use layers of fat as insulation also Loss of significant amounts of body fat will compromise an individual’s ability to conserve heat Ectotherms and endotherms use their circulatory systems to help maintain body temperature Vasodilation, the opening ...CELL METABOLISM – CELL HOMEOSTASIS AND STRESS RESPONSE Edited by Paula Bubulya Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response Edited by Paula Bubulya Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Igor Babic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published January, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response, Edited by Paula Bubulya p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-978-3 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Oligoglucan Elicitor Effects During Plant Oxidative Stress 1 Abel Ceron-Garcia, Irasema Vargas-Arispuro, Emmanuel Aispuro-Hernandez and Miguel Angel Martinez-Tellez Chapter 2 Regulation of Gene Expression in Response to Abiotic Stress in Plants 13 Bruna Carmo Rehem, Fabiana Zanelato Bertolde and Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida Chapter 3 Oxygen Metabolism in Chloroplast 39 Boris Ivanov, Marina Kozuleva and Maria Mubarakshina Chapter 4 Stress and Cell Death in Yeast Induced by Acetic Acid 73 M. J. Sousa, P. Ludovico, F. Rodrigues, C. Leão and M. Côrte-Real Chapter 5 Metabolic Optimization by Enzyme-Enzyme and Enzyme-Cytoskeleton Associations 101 Daniela Araiza-Olivera, Salvador Uribe-Carvajal, Natalia Chiquete-Félix, Mónica Rosas-Lemus, Gisela Ruíz- Granados, José G. Sampedro, Adela Mújica and Antonio Peña Chapter 6 Intracellular Metabolism of Uranium and the Effects of Bisphosphonates on Its Toxicity 115 Debora R. Tasat, Nadia S. Orona, Carola Bozal, Angela M. Ubios and Rómulo L. Cabrini Chapter 7 Photodynamic Therapy to Eradicate Tumor Cells 149 Ana Cláudia Pavarina, Ana Paula Dias Ribeiro, Lívia Nordi Dovigo, Cleverton Roberto de Andrade, Carlos Alberto de Souza Costa and Carlos Eduardo Vergani VI Contents Chapter 8 Wnt Signaling Network in Homo Sapiens 163 Bahar Nalbantoglu, Saliha Durmuş Tekir and Kutlu Ö. Ülgen Chapter 9 Imaging Cellular Metabolism 191 Athanasios Bubulya and Paula A. Bubulya Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response 6 fungi or plant cell wall fragments, and then a biological response could be the main factor determining the survival or decline of plants. Many fungal pathogens have β-glucans as major components of their cell walls, which are recognized by different plant species (Yoshikawa et al., 1993). The Albersheim working group, at the middle of 70's, was the first to extract glucans elicitors of phytoalexins (a natural antimicrobial compound) in soybean from the mycelial walls of Phytophthora megasperma by heat treatment. These fungal wall structures were analyzed by Sharp et al., (1984) detailing the primary structure of an active glucan from Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. glycinea (Pmg) obtained by partial acid hydrolysis, finding that the hepta-β-glucoside elicitor was the active subunit. Partial characterization of the fraction with elicitor activity from Pmg walls showed β- glucans with terminal residues 1-3 (42%), 1-6 (2%) and 1-3, 1-6 (27 %) glycosidic bonds (Sharp et al., 1984; Waldmüller et al., 1992). They observed that the obtention method of the cell wall fragments influenced the type of links present in the fungal elicitor. If the elicitor is released naturally or by heat treatment, then elicitors differ greatly from those glucans obtained by partial acid hydrolysis. While naturally released glucans have β-(1-3, 1-6) ramifications, β-(1-6) links are in greater proportion when glucans are released from acid hydrolysis (Waldmüller et al., 1992). 5.3 Oligoglucan receptors in plants The recognition of elicitors by plants could be possible if the oligoglucan-receptor interaction occurs (Yoshikawa et al., 1993). In plants, receptors of fungal elicitors are found on the cell surface, while bacterial receptors are found within the cell (Ebel & Scheel, 1997). Other binding sites for oligosaccharides, glycopeptides, peptides and proteins are located on the cell surface and in the membranes (Cosio et al., 1990). Hence, many defense responses could be activated against pathogens, if the correct single or complex mixtures of elicitors are applied in healthy or unhealthy plants. Binding proteins have been reported in soybean membranes for the hepta-β-glucosides (1-3, 1-6) and their branching fractions (Cosio et al., 1992). Other binding sites for yeast glycopeptides have been reported in tomato cells (Basse et al., 1993), for chitin- oligosaccharides these binding proteins have been found in tomato, rice (Baureithel et al., 1994) and parsley cells (Nürnberger et al., 1994). On the other hand, induction of phytoalexins by fungal β-glucans showed good correlation with the presence or absence of high affinity binding sites in several Fabaceae family plants (Cosio et al., 1996). A key method for assessing the presence of receptors on the membranes is through homogeneous ligand binding assays in isolated membranes (Yoshikawa et al., 1993). The radiolabeled ligand competition experiments using non-derivatized hepta-β-glucan as a competitive agent showed the existence of specific binding in at least four (alfalfa, bean, lupin and pea) of six species of Fabaceae family plants analyzed (Cosio et al., 1996). The active oligoglucans can be isolated from the cell wall of algae and phytopathogenic fungi (Shinya et al., 2006). The oligoglucan laminarin is a β-(1-3)-glucan branching β-(1-6) glucose, which significantly stimulates defense responses in various crops including tobacco. The best known fungal elicitor is the heptaglucan (penta-β-(1-6) glucose with two branches β-(1-3) glucose) that was isolated from the cell walls of Phytophthora megasperma. This oligoglucan elicits defense responses in soybean cell cultures but not in cell cultures of tobacco or Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response 36 Pezeshki, S.R. (1994). Responses of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) seedlings to hypoxia: leaf protein content, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxilase/oxigenase activity and photosynthesis. Photosynthetica, Vol. 30, pp. 59-68, ISSN 0300-3604. Pezeshki, S.R. (2001). Wetland plant responses to soil flooding. Environmental Experimental Botany, Vol. 46, pp. 299-312, ISSN 0098-8472. Porter, B.W.; Zhu, Y.J.; Webb, D.T. & Christopher, D.A. (2009). Novel thigmomorphogenetic responses in Carica papaya: touch decreases anthocyanin levels and stimulates petiole cork outgrowths. Annals of Botany, Vol.103, pp. 847–858, ISSN 0305-7364. Probert, M.E. & Keating, B.A. (2000). What soil constraints should be included in crop and forest models? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, Vol. 82, pp. 273–281, ISSN 0167-8809. Rauser, W. (1999). Structure and function of metal chelators produced by plants. Cell Biochem Biophys Vol.31, pp.19-48. Romero-Pueras, M.C.; Palma, J.M.; Gomez, L.A.; del Rio, L.A. & Sandalio, L.M. (2002). Cadmium causes oxidative modification of proteins in plants. Plant Cell Environmental, Vol.25, pp.677-686. Ros Barcelo, A. (1997). Lignification in plant cell walls. International Review Cytology, Vol.176, pp.87-132. Rubio, G.; Casasola, G. & Lavado, R.S. (1995). Adaptation and biomass production of two grasses in response to waterlogging and soil nutrient enrichment. Oecologia, Vol. 102, pp. 102–105, ISSN 0029-8549. Saab, I.N. & Sachs, M.M. (1995). Complete cDNA and genomic sequence encoding a flooding-responsive gene from maize (Zea mays L.) homologous to xyloglucan endotransglycosylase. Plant Physiology, Vol. 108, pp. 439-440, ISSN 0032-0889. Sachs, M.M.; Freeling, M. & Okimoto, R. (1980). The anaerobic proteins of maize. Cell, Vol. 20, pp. 761-767, ISSN 0092-8674. Salt, D.E.; Prince, R.C.; Pickering, I.J. & Raskin, I. (1995). Mechanism of cadmium mobility and accumulation in Indian Mustard. Plant Physiology, Vol.109, pp.1472-1433, ISSN 0032-0889. Sanders, D.; Brownlee, C. & Harper, J.F. (1999). Communicating with calcium. Plant Cell, Vol.11, pp.691-706, ISSN 1040-4651. Sanita di Toppi, L. & Gabrielli, R. (1999). Response to cadmium in higher plants. Environmental Experimental Botany, Vol.41, pp.105-130, ISSN 0098-8472. Scandalios, J.G. (2002). The rise of ROS. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, Vol.27, pp.483-486, 0968-0004. Schützendübel, A. & Polle, A. (2002). Plant responses to abiotic stresses:heavy metal- induced oxidative stress and protection by mycorrhization. Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol.53, pp.1351-1365, ISSN 0022-0957. Schützendübel, A.; Schwanz, P.; Teichmann, T.; Gross, K.; Langenfeld-Heyser, R.; Godbold, D. & Polle, A. (2001). Cadmium–induced changes in antioxidative systems, H 2 O 2 content and differentiation in pine (Pinus sylvestris) roots. Plant Physiology, Vol.127, pp.887-898, ISSN 0032-0889. Seki, M.; Narusaka, M.; Ishida, J.; Nanjo, T.; Fujita, M.; Oono, Y.; Kamiya, A.; Nakajima, M.; Enju, A.; Sakurai, T.; Satou, M.; Akiyama, K.; Taji, T.; Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, K.; Carninci, P.; Kawai, J.; Hayashizaki, Y. & Shinozaki, K. (2002). Monitoring the expression profiles of 7000 Arabidopsis genes under drought, cold and high- Regulation of Gene Expression in Response to Abiotic Stress in Plants 37 salinity stresses using a fulllength cDNA microarray. Plant Journal, Vol.31, pp.279- 292, ISSN 0960-7412. Snedden, W.A. & Fromm, H. (2001). Calmodulin as a versatile calcium signal transducer in plants. New Phytologist, Vol.151, pp. 35–66, ISSN 0028-646X. Sousa, C. A. F. & Sodek, L. (2002). The metabolic response of plants to oxygen deficiency. Brazilian Cell Metabolism – Cell Homeostasis and Stress Response 66 Ligeza, A., Tikhonov, A.N., Hyde, J.S. & Subczynski, W.K. (1998). Oxygen Permeability of Thylakoid Membranes: Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spin Labeling Study. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, Vol. 1365, No. 3, (July 1998), pp. 453-463, ISSN 0005- 2728 Lindahl, M. & Kieselbach, T. (2009). Disulphide Proteomes and Interactions with Thioredoxin on the Track Towards Understanding Redox Regulation in Chloroplasts and Cyanobacteria. Journal of Proteomics, Vol. 72, No. 3, (April 2009), pp. 416–438, ISSN 1876-7737 Maciejewska, U., Polkowska-Kowalczyk, L., Swiezewska, E. & Szkopinska, A. (2002). Plastoquinone: Possible Involvement in Plant Disease Resistance. Acta Biochimica Polonica, Vol. 49, No. 3, (n.d.), pp. 775–780, ISSN 0001-527X Maeda, H. & DellaPenna, D. (2007). Tocopherol functions in photosynthetic organisms. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, Vol. 10, No.3, (June 2007), pp. 260-265, ISSN 1369- 5266 Mateo, A., Funck, D., Mühlenbock, P., Kular, B., Mullineaux, P.M. & Karpinski, S. (2006). Controlled Levels of Salicylic Acid Are Required for Optimal Photosynthesis and Redox Homeostasis. Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol. 57, No. 8, (May 2006), pp. 1795-1807, ISSN 0022-0957 Matheson, I.B.C., Etheridge, R.D., Kratowich, N.R. & Lee, J. (1975). The Quenching of Singlet Oxygen by Amino Acids and Proteins. Photochemistry & Photobiology, Vol. 21, No. 3, (March 1975), pp. 165-171, ISSN 0031-8655 Matysik, J., Alia, Bhalu, B. & Mohanty, P. (2002). Molecular Mechanisms of Quenching of Reactive Oxygen Species by Proline under Stress in Plants. Current Science, Vol. 82, No. 5, (March 2002), pp.525–532, ISSN 0011-3891 Maurino, V.G.,& Peterhansel, C. (2010). Photorespiration: Current Status and Approaches for Metabolic Engineering. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, Vol. 13, No. 3, (June 2010), pp. 249-256, ISSN 1369-5266 Mehler, A.C. (1951). Studies on Reactions of Illuminated Chloroplasts. I. Mechanism of the Reduction of Oxygen and Other Hill Reagents. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Vol. 33, No. 1, (August 1951), pp. 65-77, ISSN 0003-9861 Mittler, R., Vanderauwera, S., Gollery, M. & Van Breusegem, F. (2004). The Reactive Oxygen Gene Network in Plants. Trends in Plant Science, Vol. 9, No. 10, (October 2004), pp. 490–498, ISSN 1360-1385 Miyake, C. & Asada, K. (1992). Thylakoid-Bound Ascorbate Peroxidase in Spinach Chloroplasts and Photoreduction of Its Primary Oxidation Product Monodehydroascorbate Radicals in Thylakoids. Plant & Cell Physiology, Vol. 33, No. 5, (July 1992), pp. 541-553, ISSN 0032-0781 Miyake, C., Schreiber, U., Hormann, H., Sano, S. & Asada, K. (1998). The FAD-Enzyme Monodehydroascorbate Radical Reductase Mediates Photoproduction of Superoxide Radicals in Spinach Thylakoid Membranes. Plant & Cell Physiology, Vol. 39, No. 8, (August 1998), pp. 821 – 829, ISSN 0032-0781 Morosinotto, T., Bassi, R., Frigerio, S., Finazzi, G., Morris, E. & Barber, J. (2006). Biochemical and Structural Analyses of a Higher Plant Photosystem II Supercomplex of a Photosystem I-Less Mutant of Barley. Consequences of a Chronic Over-Reduction of the Plastoquinone Pool. The FEBS Journal, Vol. 273, No. 20, (October 2006), pp. 4616-4630, ISSN 1742-464X Oxygen Metabolism in Chloroplast 67 Mozzo, M., Passarini, F., Bassi, R., van Amerongen, H. & Croce, R. (2008). Photoprotection in Higher Plants: the Putative Quenching Site is Conserved in All Outer Light- Harvesting Complexes of Photosystem II. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, Vol. 1777, No. 10, (October 2008), pp. 1263-1267, ISSN 0005-2728 Mubarakshina, M., Khorobrykh, S. & Ivanov, B. (2006). Oxygen Reduction in Chloroplast Thylakoids Results in Production of Hydrogen ... solutions and equipment to ensure accurate and sterile procedures 6/8 Homeostasis and Osmoregulation Section Summary Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium that is maintained in body tissues and organs... patient history and current condition, assessing and responding to patient needs before and during treatment, and monitoring the dialysis process Treatment may include taking and reporting a... systems constantly interact and exchange water and nutrients with the environment by way of consumption of food and water and through excretion in the form of sweat, urine, and feces Without a mechanism