Themes and Concepts of Biology

Concepts of RDBMS and SQL Server 2000 Themes and Concepts of Biology Themes and Concepts of Biology Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking Similarly, some biologists study the early molecular evolution that gave rise to life; since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with three questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? And once we know something is alive, how we find meaningful levels of organization in its structure? And, finally, when faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions Properties of Life All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life 1/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology Order A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems (credit: “Ivengo”/Wikimedia Commons) Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions In multicellular organisms ([link]), similar cells form tissues Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function) Organs work together to form organ systems Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal (credit: Alex Lomas) Organisms respond to diverse stimuli For example, plants can grow toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch ([link]) Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis) Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response 2/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology Link to Learning Watch this video to see how plants respond to a stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey Reproduction Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape Growth and Development All organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young ([link]) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the same characteristics (credit: Rocky Mountain Feline Rescue) Regulation Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses 3/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body Homeostasis Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) and other mammals living in ice-covered regions maintain their body temperature by generating heat and reducing heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin (credit: “longhorndave”/Flickr) In order to function properly, cells need to have appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals These conditions may, however, change from one ...Int. J. Med. Sci. 2009, 6 http://www.medsci.org 287IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall JJoouurrnnaall ooff MMeeddiiccaall SScciieenncceess 2009; 6(5):287-295 © Ivyspring International Publisher. All rights reserved Review Revision of late periprosthetic infections of total hip endoprostheses: pros and cons of different concepts Bernd Fink  Department of Joint Replacement, General and Rheumatic Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Clinic Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen, Germany  Correspondence to: Prof. Dr. med. Bernd Fink, M.D., Department of Joint Replacement, General and Rheumatic Ortho-paedics, Orthopaedic Clinic Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen, Germany, Phone: ++49-7145-912201, Fax: ++49-7145-912922, E-mail: b.fink@okm.de Received: 2009.04.16; Accepted: 2009.09.02; Published: 2009.09.04 Abstract Many concepts have been devised for the treatment of late periprosthetic infections of total hip prostheses. A two-stage revision with a temporary antibiotic-impregnated cement spacer and a cemented prosthesis appears to be the most preferred procedure although, in recent times, there seems to be a trend towards cementless implants and a shorter period of anti-biotic treatment. Because of the differences in procedure, not only between studies but also within studies, it cannot be decided which period of parenteral antibiotic treatment and which spacer period is the most suitable. The fact that comparable rates of success can be achieved with different treatment regimens emphasises the importance of surgical removal of all foreign materials and the radical debridement of all infected and ischaemic tissues and the contribution of these crucial procedures to the successful treatment of late peripros-thetic infections. Key words: periprosthetic infections, hip endoprostheses Introduction Periprosthetic infections occur with an incidence of less than 1% of patients but nevertheless are a se-rious complication of hip arthroplasties [1,2]. When early infections occur, within 4 weeks of implantation, the implant can be left in place with a high probability of cure whereas late infections require prosthesis re-vision to eradicate the infection [3,4]. In such cases, one can differentiate between one-stage and two-stage revisions. In the former a new prosthesis is implanted immediately after the removal of all foreign material in one operation. Two-stage revision involves an ini-tial operation to remove all foreign materials and this is followed by an interim phase of 6 – 10 weeks, either left as a Girdlestone situation or with the implantation of a cement spacer. Individual aspects of both forms of revision have been treated very differently in the past so, in the following paragraphs, the different concepts are summarized and their respective ad-vantages and disadvantages discussed. One stage revision The advantage of the one-stage revision is that only one operation is required and functional prob-lems associated with a Girdlestone situation, such as leg shortening and instability, or, in the case of a ce-ment spacer, spacer fracture, abraded particles from the spacer or bone resorption, can be avoided. Most surgeons have used bone cement laden with antibiot-ics during the re-implantation whereby the antibiotic contained in the cement or added to it is specific for the pathogen involved [5-7]. A prerequisite for this procedure is the isolation of the organism(s) THE VOCABULARY AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page i THE VOCABULARY AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SECOND EDITION Milton Orchin Roger S. Macomber Allan R. Pinhas R. Marshall Wilson A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page iii Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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ISBN 0-471-68028-1 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page iv CONTENTS 1 Atomic Orbital Theory 1 2 Bonds Between Adjacent Atoms: Localized Bonding, Molecular Orbital Theory 25 3 Delocalized (Multicenter) Bonding 54 4 Symmetry Operations, Symmetry Elements, and Applications 83 5 Classes of Hydrocarbons 110 6 Functional Groups: Classes of Organic Compounds 139 7 Molecular Structure Isomers, Stereochemistry, and Conformational Analysis 221 8 Synthetic Polymers 291 9 Organometallic Chemistry 343 10 Separation Techniques and Physical Properties 387 11 Fossil Fuels and Their Chemical Utilization 419 12 Thermodynamics, Acids and Bases, and Kinetics 450 13 Reactive Intermediates (Ions, Radicals, Radical Ions, Electron-Deficient Species, Arynes) 505 14 Types of Organic Reaction Mechanisms 535 15 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 591 v ftoc.qxd 6/11/2005 9:32 AM Page v vi CONTENTS 16 Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy: Infrared, Microwave, and Raman Spectra 657 17 Mass Spectrometry 703 18 Electronic Spectroscopy and Photochemistry 725 Name Index 833 Compound Index 837 General Index 849 ftoc.qxd 6/11/2005 CHAPTER BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY Concepts Community structure Species diversity Spatial structure Nutrition structure Species interactions Definition the group of different species, occupy a given area interacting either directly or indirectly Definition Community has specific attributes that population doesn’t have: food chains, food webs, ecological pyramids changing of physical environmental factors materials and energy are accumulated and modified environmental improvement by advantageous ways Community’s names Distribution place Dominant species Life forms Categories Community’s boundary Many communities have obvious boundaries However, many communities not have obvious boundaries which overlap on each others, set up ecotones or buffer zones between main communities Ecotone community Community structure The number of species and their relative abundance define diversity Spatial structure and nutrition structure Interactions between populations in community Species component and number of individuals in each species Based on the Based on function the role Autotrophs Group of dominant species Group of minor species Group of random species Heterotrophs Consumers Decomposers Types of consumers Consumers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Relation between species component and number of individuals in species The more diverse of the number of species in community – the less number of individuals in species and in reverse From pole zone to equatorial zone, from open sea to coast, number of species is increasing, number of individuals in each species is decreasing In the development process of community, the number of species is increasing From low altitude to high altitude, from sea surface to oceanbed, number of species as well as number of individuals in species is decreasing Relation between species component and number of individuals in species To count Species diversity the number of species Diversity of community determines Ecosystem diversity Genetic diversity Interactions between populations in community Interactions between populations in community Amensalism Negative Positive interactions interactions Competition Predation Interaction between Commensalism Plants and Animals Protocooperation Mutualism Amensalism A inhibited – B unaffected (- & 0) www.rfviet.com thugian.com.vn www.tin247.com agriviet.com rimf.org.vn Competition (populations inhibit one another) Species compete with each others when their ecological niches coincide with each others Principle “cạnh tranh loại trừ”: There can not have two species which have coincided ecolodical niches Competition is one of motives of evolution Competition Occurs when limitation of living resources The closer of species to each other (in category) the more cutthroat competition If two species (different taxonomy) compete with each other – the one which has higher evolution level will be the winner If two species (same taxonomy) compete with each other – the one which has higher biological potential will be the winner The two species will live peacefully together if both of them have ability to separate ecological niches The two species (different taxonomy) also can live together Mô hình toán cạnh tranh quần thể N1: số lượng cá thể loài 1, với dung lượng K1 tốc độ tăng trưởng r1 Tương tự loài N2, K2 r2 dN KN  rN dt K dN dt dN dt = r1 N ( ) (4.1) = r2 N ( ) (4.2) K - N -α1N K1 K2 - N - α2N1 K2 1 2 hệ số cạnh tranh quần thể N1 N2 ngược lại Mô hình toán cạnh tranh quần thể theo (4.1) r1N1 [(K1 - N1 - N212) / K1] = dN1/dt = Biểu thức khi: r1 = 0; N1 = 0; K1 - N1 - N2 12 = N1 = K1 - N2 12 (4.3) N1=0 N2=K1/12 (điểm A, hình 4.1a) N2=0 N1=K1 (điểm B, hình 4.1a) theo (4.2) r2N2 [(K2 - N2 - N121) / K2] = dN2/dt = Biểu thức Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells Chapter 02 Basic Chemistry of Cells Multiple Choice Questions Which of the following elements is important in smaller quantities than is true for the six major elements in living things? A carbon B iron C oxygen D nitrogen E hydrogen Only six types of atoms—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur— make up about 95% of the body weight of organisms Blooms Level: Analyze Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.01 List the six types of atoms basic to cells Section: 02.01 Topic: Chemistry Which six elements are the main components in living organisms? A carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur B copper, iron, magnesium, sodium, water, zinc C carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphate, sulfate D calcium, hydrogen, iron, potassium, sulfur, water E aluminum, magnesium, nitrogen, silicon, sodium, sulfur Only six types of atoms—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur— make up about 95% of the body weight of organisms Blooms Level: Remember Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.01 List the six types of atoms basic to cells Section: 02.01 Topic: Chemistry 2-1 Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells Which of the following is positively charged? A proton B electron C atomic mass D neutron E isotope A proton is a subatomic particle with positive charge, located within the nucleus of an atom and has one atomic mass unit Blooms Level: Apply Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry Which of the following changes would cause an atom to become a different element? A increase the number of neutrons B increase the number of electrons C increase the number of protons D decrease the number of neutrons E decrease the number of electrons All atoms of an element have the same number of protons Blooms Level: Apply Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Learning Outcome: 02.01.03 Distinguish between the atomic symbol, number, mass, and isotopes Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry 2-2 Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells A neutral atom of phosphorus was found to have an atomic number of 15 and a mass number of 31 What is the total number of electrons in this atom? A 16 B 15 C 31 D E 46 The atomic number not only tells you the number of protons, but it also tells you the number of electrons when the atom is electrically neutral Blooms Level: Analyze Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Learning Outcome: 02.01.03 Distinguish between the atomic symbol, number, mass, and isotopes Learning Outcome: 02.02.02 Determine how many electrons are in the outer shell of a neutral atom when provided only with the atomic number Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry A chemist found one atom with protons, neutrons and electrons Another atom has protons, neutrons and 10 electrons Which of the following statements is correct? A Both atoms have the same mass number B Both atoms have -2 electrical charge C Both atoms are isotopes of the same element D Both atoms are chemically non-reactive and would not interact with other atoms E Both atoms have fulfilled the octet rule All atoms of an element have the same number of protons The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons The charge atom is determined by the number of electrons and protons Atoms with electrons filling the outer shell are following the octet rule Blooms Level: Evaluate Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges ... collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on earth It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent Art Connection 7/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology. .. organisms Biology is very broad and includes many branches and subdisciplines Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others 13/16 Themes and Concepts. .. as the biology of brain activity, genetic engineering of custom organisms, and the biology of evolution that uses the laboratory tools of molecular biology to retrace the earliest stages of life