Pollination and Fertilization

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION – INNOVATIVE CLINICAL AND LABORATORY ASPECTS Edited by Shevach Friedler In Vitro Fertilization – Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects Edited by Shevach Friedler Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Martina Blecic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com In Vitro Fertilization – Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects, Edited by Shevach Friedler p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0503-9 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Innovative Clinical Aspects of IVF 1 Chapter 1 The Role of Low-Dose hCG in the Late Follicular Phase of Controlled Ovarian Hyper Stimulation (COH) Protocols 3 Mahnaz Ashrafi and Kiandokht Kiani Chapter 2 Gene Expression and Premature Progesterone Rise 15 Inge Van Vaerenbergh and Christophe Blockeel Chapter 3 The Role of Ultrasound in the Evaluation of Endometrial Receptivity Following Assisted Reproductive Treatments 31 Mitko Ivanovski Part 2 Innovative Laboratory Aspects of IVF, Present and Future Techniques 69 Chapter 4 Methods for Sperm Selection for In Vitro Fertilization 71 Nicolás M. Ortega and Pablo Bosch Chapter 5 Analysis of Permissive and Repressive Chromatin Markers in In Vitro Fertilized Bovine Embryos Just After Embryonic Genome Activation 87 Clara Slade Oliveira, Naiara Zoccal Saraiva, Letícia Zoccolaro Oliveira and Joaquim Mansano Garcia Chapter 6 Safety in Assisted Reproductive Technologies: Insights from Gene Expression Studies During Preimplantation Development 103 Daniela Bebbere, Luisa Bogliolo, Federica Ariu, Irma Rosati and Sergio Ledda VI Contents Chapter 7 Third Millennium Assisted Reproductive Technologies: The Impact of Oocyte Vitrification 123 P. Boyer, P. Rodrigues, P. Tourame, M. Silva, M. Barata, J. Perez-Alzaa and M. Gervoise-Boyer Chapter 8 Preimplantation Genetic Pollination and Fertilization Pollination and Fertilization Bởi: OpenStaxCollege In angiosperms, pollination is defined as the placement or transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower In gymnosperms, pollination involves pollen transfer from the male cone to the female cone Upon transfer, the pollen germinates to form the pollen tube and the sperm for fertilizing the egg Pollination has been well studied since the time of Gregor Mendel Mendel successfully carried out self- as well as cross-pollination in garden peas while studying how characteristics were passed on from one generation to the next Today’s crops are a result of plant breeding, which employs artificial selection to produce the present-day cultivars A case in point is today's corn, which is a result of years of breeding that started with its ancestor, teosinte The teosinte that the ancient Mayans originally began cultivating had tiny seeds—vastly different from today’s relatively giant ears of corn Interestingly, though these two plants appear to be entirely different, the genetic difference between them is miniscule Pollination takes two forms: self-pollination and cross-pollination Self-pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species Self-pollination occurs in flowers where the stamen and carpel mature at the same time, and are positioned so that the pollen can land on the flower’s stigma This method of pollination does not require an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollen as food for pollinators Link to Learning Explore this interactive website to review self-pollination and cross-pollination 1/18 Pollination and Fertilization Living species are designed to ensure survival of their progeny; those that fail become extinct Genetic diversity is therefore required so that in changing environmental or stress conditions, some of the progeny can survive Self-pollination leads to the production of plants with less genetic diversity, since genetic material from the same plant is used to form gametes, and eventually, the zygote In contrast, crosspollination—or out-crossing—leads to greater genetic diversity because the microgametophyte and megagametophyte are derived from different plants Because cross-pollination allows for more genetic diversity, plants have developed many ways to avoid self-pollination In some species, the pollen and the ovary mature at different times These flowers make self-pollination nearly impossible By the time pollen matures and has been shed, the stigma of this flower is mature and can only be pollinated by pollen from another flower Some flowers have developed physical features that prevent self-pollination The primrose is one such flower Primroses have evolved two flower types with differences in anther and stigma length: the pin-eyed flower has anthers positioned at the pollen tube’s halfway point, and the thrum-eyed flower’s stigma is likewise located at the halfway point Insects easily cross-pollinate while seeking the nectar at the bottom of the pollen tube This phenomenon is also known as heterostyly Many plants, such as cucumber, have male and female flowers located on different parts of the plant, thus making self-pollination difficult In yet other species, the male and female flowers are borne on different plants (dioecious) All of these are barriers to self-pollination; therefore, the plants depend on pollinators to transfer pollen The majority of pollinators are biotic agents such as insects (like bees, flies, and butterflies), bats, birds, and other animals Other plant species are pollinated by abiotic agents, such as wind and water Everyday Connection Incompatibility Genes in FlowersIn recent decades, incompatibility genes—which prevent pollen from germinating or growing into the stigma of a flower—have been discovered in many angiosperm species If plants not have compatible genes, the pollen tube stops growing Self-incompatibility is controlled by the S (sterility) locus Pollen tubes have to grow through the tissue of the stigma and style before they can enter the ovule The carpel is selective in the type of pollen it allows to grow inside The interaction is primarily between the pollen and the stigma epidermal cells In some plants, like cabbage, the pollen is rejected at the surface of the stigma, and the unwanted pollen does not germinate In other plants, pollen tube germination is arrested after growing one-third the length of the style, leading to pollen tube death Pollen tube death is due either to apoptosis (programmed cell death) or to degradation of pollen tube RNA The degradation results from the activity of a ribonuclease encoded by the S locus The ribonuclease is secreted from the cells of the style in the ...[...]... matters concern the weather, changing climate, geomorphology, continental drift, sea level, and oceans—not just life in and under the rain forest canopy Such variables affect the origin, presence, and extinction of players in the game The biological setting is traditionally known, thanks to G.E Hutchinson, as the ‘ecological theater’ and the ‘evolutionary play.’ In the rain forest, there is a relentless... height and an unpredictable flowering tempo, the canopy access system and the long-term project enabled us to reliably collect plant and insect specimens The plant specimens are maintained at the herbarium of the Sarawak Forest Department and are distributed to herbaria at the Kyoto University Museum in Japan, Kew Botanical Garden in the United Kingdom, and other locations Many new species of plants and. .. At the base of the food chain, plants are fixed in space; the fungi that grow with them are also immobile Their reproductive propagules, however, exhibit impressive mobility Animals locate and harvest their food as they explore the forest and feed on fungi, roots, wood, sap, dung, leaves, fruit, nectar, pollen, seeds, or flowers In turn, the predators that follow such prey include the human hunters, and. .. dispensing pollen and nectar As they drop the last of their flowers, the plants begin to sprout offspring in the form of seeds and fruit, which are afterwards dropped or carried away Consumers, certainly including humans and animals of all kinds, come in as though filling a vacuum They have taken their cue for the localized event from its coincident weather patterns or, if from nothing else, the colors or... constitute the flip side of species richness and biological diversity The second unifying theme is the double standard of the rain forest Large-scale events, like general flowering or a severe drought, are uncommon, while the normal, annual flowering of certain trees and understory plants in a warm and humid environment has taken place consistently for millions of years 1.2 Pollen, Seeds, and the Red Queen... (Strauss 1997) But, if they repeatedly cause extensive damage, they threaten their own survival and propagation One may reasonably expect them to follow options to the evolutionary arms race One of the most attractive is mutualism (if you can’t beat them, join them) That selective pressure, in particular, may be a basis for the evolution of rather unusual pollination systems—wherein pollination is by species... Olesen and Jordano 2002; Ricklefs 2003; Degen and Roubik 2004) Seeds are normally destroyed, either on the mother plant or on the way to another site, by insects or pathogens Of course many are consumed by larger animals, which either defecate or drop them where they can grow, or digest them as food Pollen grains, in IN VITRO FERTILIZATION – INNOVATIVE CLINICAL AND LABORATORY ASPECTS Edited by Shevach Friedler In Vitro Fertilization – Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects Edited by Shevach Friedler Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Martina Blecic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com In Vitro Fertilization – Innovative Clinical and Laboratory Aspects, Edited by Shevach Friedler p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0503-9 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Innovative Clinical Aspects of IVF 1 Chapter 1 The Role of Low-Dose hCG in the Late Follicular Phase of Controlled Ovarian Hyper Stimulation (COH) Protocols 3 Mahnaz Ashrafi and Kiandokht Kiani Chapter 2 Gene Expression and Premature Progesterone Rise 15 Inge Van Vaerenbergh and Christophe Blockeel Chapter 3 The Role of Ultrasound in the Evaluation of Endometrial Receptivity Following Assisted Reproductive Treatments 31 Mitko Ivanovski Part 2 Innovative Laboratory Aspects of IVF, Present and Future Techniques 69 Chapter 4 Methods for Sperm Selection for In Vitro Fertilization 71 Nicolás M. Ortega and Pablo Bosch Chapter 5 Analysis of Permissive and Repressive Chromatin Markers in In Vitro Fertilized Bovine Embryos Just After Embryonic Genome Activation 87 Clara Slade Oliveira, Naiara Zoccal Saraiva, Letícia Zoccolaro Oliveira and Joaquim Mansano Garcia Chapter 6 Safety in Assisted Reproductive Technologies: Insights from Gene Expression Studies During Preimplantation Development 103 Daniela Bebbere, Luisa Bogliolo, Federica Ariu, Irma Rosati and Sergio Ledda VI Contents Chapter 7 Third Millennium Assisted Reproductive Technologies: The Impact of Oocyte Vitrification 123 P. Boyer, P. Rodrigues, P. Tourame, M. Silva, M. Barata, J. Perez-Alzaa and M. Gervoise-Boyer Chapter 8 Preimplantation Genetic Testing: Current Status and Future 307 Ann. For. Sci. 60 (2003) 307–317 © INRA, EDP Sciences, 2003 DOI: 10.1051/forest:2003022 Original article Daylength, temperature and fertilization effects on desiccation resistance, cold hardiness and root growth potential of Picea mariana seedlings Stephen J. COLOMBO a *, Chris GLERUM a † and D. Paul WEBB b a Ontario Forest Research Institute, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1235 Queen Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario P6A 2E5, Canada b Great Lakes Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada (Received 17 January 2002; accepted 19 August 2002) Abstract – Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. seedlings were hardened for overwintering under four regimes. In three regimes, seedlings were kept inside a heated greenhouse for 11 weeks during and after dormancy induction (August to mid-November), with either 1. Natural daylengths (46° 31’ N) and warm temperatures of 20 °C or more (NDW), 2. As 1, but fertilized (NDWF) or 3. As 1, but with shortened daylengths (SD). In the fourth regime (OD), seedlings were hardened outside at naturally declining temperatures and daylengths without fertilizer. Seedlings hardened in any warm temperature treatment had buds with more needle primordia and shoots more resistant to desiccation than OD seedlings. Initially, cold hardiness tended to be greatest in SD seedlings. As hardening progressed OD seedlings became equally cold hardy to SD. In late November when all trees were outside, NDW seedlings were usually least cold hardy. Spring root growth potential was least in OD seedlings. cold hardiness / desiccation / needle primordia / transpiration / water potential Résumé – Effets de la longueur du jour, de la température et de la fertilisation sur la résistance à la dessiccation et au froid, et au potentiel de croissance de plants de Picea mariana. On a soumis des semis de Picea mariana (Mill.) à quatre traitements pour les endurcir au froid en vue de la période hivernale. Pour trois traitements les plants ont été installés sous serre chauffée pendant 11 semaines, pendant et après l’induction de la dormance, avec les 3 modalités suivantes : (1) longueur naturelle du jour (latitude 46° 31’ N) et chauffage à une température égale ou supérieure à 20 °C (NDW); (2) comme le traitement 1, mais avec fertilisation (NDWF); (3) comme le traitement 1 mais en jours courts (SD). Pour le quatrième traitement (OD) les plants ont été endurcis à l’extérieur avec la baisse de température et la diminution de la longueur des jours des conditions naturelles, sans faire appel à une fertilisation. Les plants issus des traitements comportant une phase sous serre chaude présentaient des bourgeons ayant davantage d’ébauches foliaires et des pousses plus résistantes à la dessication que les plants du traitement OD. Dans un premier stade, l’endurcissement au froid des plants SD tendait à être plus élevé. Ultérieurement celui des plants OD est devenu équivalent à celui des SD. Fin novembre, tous les plants étaient à l’extérieur, les plants NDW étaient moins résistants au froid. Le potentiel de croissance racinaire au printemps était moins élevé pour les plants OD. endurcissement pour la résistance au froid / dessication / ébauche racinaire / transpiration / potentiel hydrique 1. INTRODUCTION A series of morphological and physiological changes occur during dormancy enabling trees to survive stresses during the winter [19]. In seedlings of many tree genera, including Picea, these changes are initiated largely in response to short pho- toperiods [5] and entail the cessation of shoot elongation, ini- tiation of terminal buds, stem lignification, and increased cold hardiness. Other morphological changes also occur in the shoots at this time that increase the ability of seedlings to avoid water loss, such as needle cuticle thickening and wax deposi- tion [17, 37, 38]. Freezing and desiccation are related stresses affecting trees in winter. Extracellular freezing is a cause of desiccation as 619 Ann. For. Sci. 60 (2003) 619–624 © INRA, EDP Sciences, 2004 DOI: 10.1051/forest:2003054 Original article Vegetation control and fertilization in midrotation Pinus taeda stands in the southeastern United States Timothy J. ALBAUGH a *, H. Lee ALLEN a , Bruce R. ZUTTER b , Harold E. QUICKE c a Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University, Box 8008, Raleigh, NC 27695-8008, USA b Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA c BASF Corporation, Auburn, AL, USA (Received 5 July 2002; accepted 24 February 203) Abstract – We quantified Pinus taeda L. plantation response to vegetation control (VC) applied using site specific methods including chemical (glyphosate, imazapyr, metsulfuron methyl, and triclopyr) and mechanical means and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on a variety of sites ranging in age from ten to twenty-two years old at treatment initiation in the Piedmont and coastal plain of the southeastern United States. We examined pine and hardwood (the primary competing vegetation) basal area and pine volume and foliar nutrient responses in a 2 × 2 factorial combination of a one time application of VC and fertilization in a randomized complete block design with three or four replications at each site. Vegetation control reduced hardwood vegetation at least 70% at all sites. On average, annual pine volume growth response was greatest on the combined treatment (6.1 and 11.0 m 3 ha –1 yr –1 ) followed by fertilization alone (5.5 and 7.9 m 3 ha –1 yr –1 ) and then VC alone (1.1 and 4.5 m 3 ha –1 yr –1 ) for years one and two and years three and four, respectively. The range in pine volume response across all treatments for the sites examined here was –3 to 12 m 3 ha –1 yr –1 . There may be sites, not represented here, with greater water deficits, more competing vegetation, or where nitrogen and phosphorus are not the primary limiting factor that would be more responsive to VC. Fertilization alone did not significantly affect hardwood basal area at year two or four and the proportion of hardwood vegetation (as basal area) was about the same before treatment (12%) and up to four years after treatment (11%) in the check and fertilized treatments. We hypothesize that the combined treatment may provide the best pine response in later measurement periods as fertilization responses diminish because added nutrients are utilized and VC responses increase from increased nutrient and moisture availability to the pines provided the competing vegetation does not recover. vegetation control / fertilization / nitrogen / phosphorus / pine Résumé – Contrôle de la végétation et fertilisation de peuplements de Pinus taeda à mi-révolution dans les états du Sud-Est des USA. Nous avons évalué l’effet sur des plantations de Pinus taeda L. de différentes méthodes de contrôle de la végétation (VC) à savoir des traitements chimiques (glyphosate, imazapyr, metsulfuron, methyl et triclopyr) , des interventions mécaniques et une fertilisation phosphatée, ceci sur un ensemble de stations situées en plaine et en piedmont des Etats du Sud Ouest, portant des peuplements allant de 10 à 22 ans en début d’expérience. Nous avons étudié la surface terrière des pins et des feuillus (principale végétation concurrente) ainsi que le volume et la composition foliaire en nutrients des pins dans un dispositif en bloc complet à 2 ou 3 répétitions, avec une combinaison factorielle 2 × 2 d’une seule application de VC et de fertilisation. Le contrôle de la végétation réduit l’importance des feuillus de 70 % au moins, sur toutes les stations. En moyenne, c’est le traitement combiné qui a l’effet le plus important sur le volume de pin (6,1 et 11,0 m 3 ha –1 an –1 ) suivi par la fertilisation seule (5,5 et 7,9 m 3 ha –1 an –1 ) et par le VC seul (1,1 et 4,5 m 3 ha –1 an –1 ), les deux nombres entre parenthèses correspondant aux années 1 et, puis 3 et 4. L’amplitude de l’effet sur le volume des pins pour l’ensemble des traitements et des stations va de –3 à 12 m 3 ha ... the proper conditions for germination and propagation of the species 15/18 Pollination and Fertilization Fruits and seeds are dispersed by various means (a) Dandelion seeds are dispersed by wind,... contains a seed coat, cotyledons, endosperm, and a single embryo ([link]) Art Connection 9/18 Pollination and Fertilization The structures of dicot and monocot seeds are shown Dicots (left) have... would not have enough food reserves to reach the sunlight 12/18 Pollination and Fertilization Development of Fruit and Fruit Types After fertilization, the ovary of the flower usually develops into