This page intentionally left blank Body Size: The Structure and Function of Aquatic Ecosystems Ecologists have long struggled to predict features of ecological systems, such as the numbers and diversity of organisms. The wide range of body sizes in ecological communities, from tiny microbes to large animals and plants, is emerging as the key to prediction. Based on the relationship of body size with key biological rates and with the physical world experienced by aquatic organisms, we may be able to understand patterns of abundance and diversity, biogeography, interactions in food webs and the impact of fishing, adding up to a potential ‘periodic table’ for ecology. Remarkable progress on the unravelling, describing and modelling of aquatic food webs, revealing the fundamental role of body size, makes a book emphasizing marine and freshwater ecosystems particularly apt. Here, the importance of body size is examined at a range of scales, yielding broad perspectives that will be of interest to professional ecologists, from students to senior researchers. A LAN G. HILDREW is Professor of Ecology in the School of Biological and Chemical Sciences at Queen Mary, University of London. D AVID G. RAFFAELLI is Professor of Environmental Science at the University of York. R ONNI E DMONDS-BROWN is a Senior Lecturer in Environmental Sciences at the University of Hertfordshire. Body Size The Structure and Function of Aquatic Ecosystems Edited by ALAN G. HILDREW School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London, UK DAVID G. RAFFAELLI Environment Department, University of York, UK RONNI EDMONDS-BROWN Division of Geography and Environmental Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, UK CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK First published in print format ISBN-13 978-0-521-86172-4 ISBN-13 978-0-521-67967-1 ISBN-13 978-0-511-29508-9 © British Ecological Society 2007 2007 Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521861724 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written p ermission of Cambrid g e University Press. ISBN-10 0-511-29508-1 ISBN-10 0-521-86172-1 ISBN-10 0-521-67967-2 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not g uarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or a pp ro p riate. Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org hardback paperback paperback eBook (EBL) eBook (EBL) hardback Contents List of contributors page vii Preface ix 1 The metabolic theory of ecology and the role of body size in marine and freshwater ecosystems James H. Brown, Andrew P. Allen and James F. Gillooly 1 2 Body size and suspension feeding Stuart Humphries 16 3 Life histories and body size David Atkinson and Andrew G. Hirst 33 4 Relationship between biomass turnover and body size for stream communities Alexander D. Huryn and Arthur C. Benke 55 5 Body size in streams: macroinvertebrate community size composition along natural and human-induced environmental gradients Group Size and Structure Group Size and Structure Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Cadets illustrate how strongly conformity can define groups (Photo courtesy David Spender/ flickr) Dyads, Triads, and Large Groups A small group is typically one where the collection of people is small enough that all members of the group know each other and share simultaneous interaction, such as a nuclear family, a dyad, or a triad Georg Simmel (1858–1915) wrote extensively about the difference between a dyad, or two-member group, and a triad, which is a threemember group (Simmel 1902) In the former, if one person withdraws, the group can no longer exist One can think of a divorce, which effectively ends the “group” of the married couple, or of two best friends never speaking again In a triad, however, the dynamic is quite different If one person withdraws, the group lives on A triad has a different set of relationships If there are three in the group, two-against-one dynamics can develop and there exists the potential for a majority opinion on any issue Small groups generally have strong internal cohesiveness and a sense of connection The challenge, however, is for small groups to achieve large goals They can struggle to be heard or to be a force for change if they are pushing against larger groups In short, they are easier to ignore It is difficult to define exactly when a small group becomes a large group One step might be when there are too many people to join in a simultaneous discussion Another might be when a group joins with other groups as part of a movement that unites them These larger groups may share a geographic space, such as a fraternity or sorority on the 1/8 Group Size and Structure same campus, or they might be spread out around the globe The larger the group, the more attention it can garner, and the more pressure members can put toward whatever goal they wish to achieve At the same time, the larger the group becomes, the more the risk grows for division and lack of cohesion Group Leadership Often, larger groups require some kind of leadership In small, primary groups, leadership tends to be informal After all, most families don’t take a vote on who will rule the group, nor most groups of friends This is not to say that de facto leaders don’t emerge, but formal leadership is rare In secondary groups, leadership is usually more overt There are often clearly outlined roles and responsibilities, with a chain of command to follow Some secondary groups, like the army, have highly structured and clearly understood chains of command, and many lives depend on those After all, how well could soldiers function in a battle if they had no idea whom to listen to or if different people were calling out orders? Other secondary groups, like a workplace or a classroom, also have formal leaders, but the styles and functions of leadership can vary significantly Leadership function refers to the main focus or goal of the leader An instrumental leader is one who is goal-oriented and largely concerned with accomplishing set tasks One can imagine that an army general or a Fortune 500 CEO would be an instrumental leader In contrast, expressive leaders are more concerned with promoting emotional strength and health, and ensuring that people feel supported Social and religious leaders—rabbis, priests, imams, directors of youth homes and social service programs—are often perceived as expressive leaders There is a longstanding stereotype that men are more instrumental leaders and women are more expressive leaders And although gender roles have changed, even today many women and men who exhibit the opposite-gender manner can be seen as deviants and can encounter resistance Secretary of State and former presidential candidate Hillary Clinton provides an example of how society reacts to a high-profile woman who is an instrumental leader Despite the stereotype, Boatwright and Forrest (2000) have found that both men and women prefer leaders who use a combination of expressive and instrumental leadership In addition to these leadership functions, there are three different leadership styles Democratic leaders encourage group participation in all decision making These leaders work hard to build consensus before choosing a course of action and moving forward This type of leader is particularly common, for example, in a club where the members vote on which activities or projects to pursue These leaders can be well liked, but there is often a challenge that the work will proceed slowly since consensus building is time-consuming A further risk is that group members might pick sides and entrench themselves into opposing factions rather than reaching a solution In contrast, a laissezfaire leader (French for “leave it alone”) is hands-off, allowing group members to self2/8 Group Size and Structure manage and make their own decisions An example of this kind of leader might be an art teacher who opens the art cupboard, leaves materials on the shelves, and ...Unusual metal specificity and structure of the group I ribozyme from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 23S rRNA Tai-Chih Kuo 1 , Obed W. Odom 2 and David L. Herrin 2 1 Department of Biochemistry, Tapei Medical University, Taiwan 2 Section of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology and Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA Group I introns are cis-acting ribozymes whose sub- strates (5¢ and 3¢ splice sites) are attached intramolecu- larly. These introns have conserved uridine and guanosine nucleotides at the ends of the 5¢ exon and intron segments, respectively. Although sequence con- servation of group I introns is poor, their folded forms share a common core structure composed of two stacked-helix domains (P5–P4–P6 and P7–P3–P8) [1,2]. Group I introns can be differentiated into five major subgroups (IA, IB, IC, ID, and IE) with further subdi- visions that depend on the presence of peripheral domains that stabilize the core [3,4]. Studies of several group I ribozymes, but especially the intron from the large rRNA gene of Tetrahymena thermophila (Tt.LSU), indicate that some domains are modular, and that the catalytic site is buried inside the folded ribozyme [5–7]. The tertiary structure is stabilized by domain–domain interactions, such as hydrogen bond- ing of loop–receptor pairs, base triples, and pseudo- knots [1,2]. The group I self-splicing pathway consists of two consecutive transesterification reactions with the acti- vated phosphodiesters at the splice sites. First, the 3¢-OH of an exogenous guanosine nucleotide (GTP) Keywords Fe 2+ –EDTA; group I intron; Mn 2+ ; RNA structure; RNA–metal interactions Correspondence D. L. Herrin, Section of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, 1 University Station A6700, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA Fax: +1 512 4713843 Tel: +1 512 4713843 E-mail: herrin@mail.utexas.edu Website: http://www.biosci.utexas.edu/ MCDB/ (Received 9 February 2006, revised 3 April 2006, accepted 12 April 2006) doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05280.x Group I intron ribozymes require cations for folding and catalysis, and the current literature indicates that a number of cations can promote folding, but only Mg 2+ and Mn 2+ support both processes. However, some group I introns are active only with Mg 2+ , e.g. three of the five group I introns in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. We have investigated one of these ribozymes, an intron from the 23S LSU rRNA gene of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Cr.LSU), by determining if the inhibition by Mn 2+ involves catalysis, folding, or both. Kinetic analysis of guanosine-dependent cleavage by a Cr.LSU ribozyme, 23S.5DG b , that lacks the 3¢ exon and intron-terminal G shows that Mn 2+ does not affect guanosine binding or catalysis, but instead promotes misfolding of the ribozyme. Surprisingly, ribozyme mis- folding induced by Mn 2+ is highly cooperative, with a Hill coefficient larger than that of native folding induced by Mg 2+ . At lower Mn 2+ concentrations, metal inhibition is largely alleviated by the guanosine cosubstrate (GMP). The concentration dependence of guanosine cosub- strate-induced folding suggests that it functions by interacting with the G binding site, perhaps by displacing an inhibitory Mn 2+ . Because of these and other properties of Cr.LSU, the tertiary structure of the intron from 23S.5DG b was examined using Fe 2+ -EDTA cleavage. The NANOSCALE METALORGANIC FRAMEWORKS: SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATION OF BIMODAL MICRO/MESO-STRUCTURE AND NANOCRYSTALS WITH CONTROLLED SIZE AND SHAPE Thèse MINH-HAO PHAM Doctorat en génie chimique Philosophiae Doctor (Ph.D.) Québec, Canada © Minh-Hao Pham, 2013 iii Résumé Les composés à réseau moléculaire organométalliques (MOFs) ont émergé comme de nouvelles classes de matériaux hybrides organo-inorganiques avec des potentialités significatives en séparation, stockage de gaz, catalyse et support de médicaments. Ces lliques sont 2 g 1 et des volumes de pores supérieurs à 4.3 cm 3 g 1 . Dans cette thèse trois différentes approches ont été développées pour la synthèse des nanocristaux MOFs à deux modes micro-mésoporeux, ainsi que des nanocristaux MOFs à taille et forme contrôlable. En plus, ces nanocristaux MOFs ont été utilisé comme un agent structurant pour la synthèse de nanocomposite hybride platine-oxyde de titane (metal-oxideTiO 2 PtO x ) qui ont été utilisé visible. Dans ce travail: (i) La première approche implique une méthode utilisant un surfactant, suivi de traitement solvo-thermale en présence nanocristaux MOFs micro- -ionique tell que F127 (EO 97 PO 69 EO 97 ) pour induire une structure mésoporeuse provoque labilité de la cristallisation du mur des pores de la structure MOF. acétique contrôle la vitesse de cristallisation du réseau MOFs pour former une des nanocristaux de [Cu 3 (BTC) 2 ] et [Cu 2 (HBTB) 2 ] de structure mésoporeuse avec des diamètres de pores autour de 4.0 nm et des micropores intrinsèques ont été synthétisés. (ii) La méthodologie de modulation de la coordination a été développée pour contrôler la forme et la taille des nanocristaux MOFs. Des nanocubes et nanofeuilles de [Cu 2 (ndc) 2 (dabco)] n pyridine ou la pyridine uniquement, respectivement comme modulateurs sélectifs. Ces nanocristaux MOFs possèdent une cr 2 . (iii) La synthèse hydrothermale en contrôlant la taille de nanocristaux de carboxylates de structure iv MOFs, en utilisant simultanément des réactifs stabilisants et des réactifs contrôlant la déprotonation a été démontrée. Dans le cas de FeMIL-88BNH 2 , la molécule triblock copolymer a été utilisée comme un réactif stabilisant en coordonnant avec le métal et contrôlant la un agent déprotonant des liants carboxyliques en variant sa concentration dans le milieu réactionnel, ainsi il régule la vitesse de nucléation, conduisant à aussi contrôler la taille ainsi que le rapport longueur/largeur des nanocristaux. (iv) Finalement, des nanocomposites hybrides Fe 2 O 3 TiO 2 PtO x performante ont été développés en utilisant des nanocristaux FeMIL-88B composés de centres Fe 3 ( 3 O) liés par coordination insaturée comme template solide. Ce type de nanocomposites non seulement absorbe la lumière visible mais aussi améliore la séparation des électrons et des trous photo-les deux co- catalyseurs (Fe 2 O 3 and PtO x ) localisés sur deux opposites surfaces du creux. En conséquence, l'efficacité en photocatalyse de ce type de nanocomposites est élevée pour la production CULTURAL DIVERSITY, LEADERSHIP, GROUP SIZE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING SYSTEMS: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ZHONG YINGQIN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2004 CULTURAL DIVERSITY, LEADERSHIP, GROUP SIZE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING SYSTEMS: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ZHONG YINGQIN (B. Comp. (Hons.), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE SCHOOL OF COMPUTING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2004 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would not have completed this thesis without the help of many wonderful people. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the following people. Firstly, I am particularly grateful to my supervisor, Professor John Lim, for his guidance, patience and encouragement throughout the whole project. Thank you for making this project a reflective learning experience that provides the opportunity in building a solid foundation for my future research. I look forward to more years of research guided by him. Next, I would like to extend my appreciation to Liu Ying and all participants who have generously devoted their time in my experiment. Without their help and contribution, this project could never be accomplished. Moreover, special thanks to Professor Kim Hee Woong and Professor Xu Yunjie for their critical and helpful feedback to my honors year project, which is a pilot study of this thesis. Their feedback has definitely helped in improving this study. Last but not least, I am indebted to my family and all my friends, particularly Yan Jian, Zhuang Hua, Lin Jing, Huang Cheng, Xu Heng, Yee Lin, Wei Kiat, and Adela, for their support and encouragement. ii CONTENTS Page Title i Acknowledgement ii Contents iii Tables vi Figures vii Summary ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Literature Review 5 2.1. Overview 5 2.2. Meaningful Learning 5 2.3. Learning Models 8 2.4. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning 10 2.5. Cultural Diversity 15 2.5.1. Cultural Theories 16 2.5.2. Anxiety and Uncertainty Management Theory 18 2.6. Leadership 19 2.7. Group Size 22 2.8. Impacts of IT on Education 25 2.9. Summary 27 Chapter 3 Research Model and Hypotheses 28 3.1. Overview 28 3.2. Research Model and Research Question 28 3.2.1. Independent Variables 30 3.2.2. Dependent Variables 31 3.3. Hypotheses 3.3.1. Performance 32 32 iii Page 3.3.2. Satisfaction with Process 35 3.3.3. Attitude toward CLS Usage 36 Chapter 4 Research methodology 38 4.1. Overview 38 4.2. Experimental Design 38 4.3 Confederates and the Manipulation of Independent Variables 39 4.4. Dependent Variables 40 4.5. Learning Task and CLS 41 4.6. Experiment Procedure 42 Chapter 5 Data Analysis 44 5.1. Overview 44 5.2. Validation Tests 44 5.3. Hypotheses Tests 46 5.3.1. Performance 46 5.3.2. Satisfaction with Process 49 5.3.3. Attitude toward CLS Usage 52 Chapter 6 Discussion and Implication 57 6.1. Overview 57 6.2. Discussion 57 6.2.1. Performance 58 6.2.2. Satisfaction with Process 59 6.2.3. Attitude toward CLS Usage 61 6.2.4. Implications for Practice 62 6.3. Future Research 63 6.4. Limitations 64 Chapter 7 Conclusion 66 References 68 iv Page Appendix A Preexperimental Questionnaire 83 Appendix B Postexperimental Questionnaire 84 Appendix C Quiz 86 Appendix D Confederate Script 88 Appendix E Collaborative Learning System 108 v TABLES Page Table 2.1 GSS feature and its facilitation to group communication 12 Table 2.2 Media characteristics comparison: Face-to-face vs. online chat 14 Table 5.1 Results of construct validity and reliability tests 46 Table 5.2 Performance: mean score (standard deviation, number of groups) 47 Table 5.3 Performance: analysis of variance 47 Table 5.4 Performance: exploration of interaction effects 48 Table 5.5 Satisfaction with process: mean score (standard deviation, number 50 of groups) Table 5.6 Satisfaction with process: analysis of variance 50 Table 5.7 Satisfaction with process: exploration FROM NEGARA TO KOTA: THE SIZE AND STRUCTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN MARITIME CITIES SARAH MEI ISMAIL (B.A. ARCH., HONS.) NUS A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN HISTORY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2006 Acknowledgements I wish to thank the following people, without whom this thesis would not have been possible: My supervisor and mentor, Associate Professor Timothy P. Barnard. Thanks for the guidance, the advice, the patience, and above all, the truly masterful kick in the pants, without which this thesis would not have been written. My mother, See Poh Choo, for instilling a love of reading and history in me, and for not asking if I could get a job with a history degree. Head of Department Associate Professor Ian Gordon, for having enough faith in me to support this architecture graduate’s application to read for a masters in History. Deputy Head of Department Associate Professor Brian P. Farrell, for insisting that I teach military history, sending this thesis into new and unexpected ground. Thanks also for the practical aspects of early modern warfare; with the Field Marshal’s help, Melaka was conquered again. Dr. Quek Ser Hwee, for the moral support and friendship through the years, and the laksa. Dr Anthony Reid, for the suggestions and the extremely kind loan of Dr. Bulbeck’s Ph.D. thesis. Dr. David Bulbeck of Australian National University and Dr. William Cummings of the University of South Florida, for sharing their love and knowledge of Makassar. “I stand on the shoulders of giants.” ii Dr. Jan van der Putten, for the kind help in the various translations and vagaries of the Sejarah Melayu. Dr. Geoffrey Wade, for unnerving levels of interest. Kelly Lau, and the administrative staff of the History department. For teaching me that history is written by historians, but history happens because of people like them. To the postgraduates of the History Department. Without them, this thesis would have been completed much earlier, and it would have been the poorer for it. Thanks for the memories, the late nights, the stimulating conversations and various things that thankfully, will never be part of official history. To my aunt, Zuraidah Ibrahim, for professional services rendered pro bono. To the rest of my family, for their unquestioning support of my decision to pursue further studies. To God, for making coffee and chocolate available to the world. Such are the true building blocks of a thesis. And finally, to Zakir Hussain, for the unwavering support, the helpful suggestions, the friendship. And for the love and affection stuff. iii Contents 1. 2. 3. Acknowledgements ii Contents iv Summary vi List of Illustrations viii List of Abbreviations and Symbols ix The City in Early Modern Southeast Asia 1 The issue of sources 3 Writings on Southeast Asian cities: Defining the city 4 Methodology: Urban type, hierarchy and structure 7 Colonialism, War and Southeast Asian urbanism 15 Melaka: Between the winds 22 Historiographical overview and sources 22 Melaka: A historical overview 23 Melaka under the sultans 26 Melaka of the Portuguese 39 The two Melakas: Comparison 44 Melaka at War: Defense and the port cities 50 Makassar: Golden Cock of the East 55 Historiographical overview and sources 56 History: The rise and fall of Gowa 57 Makassar: City and polity 60 The city of Ujung Padang: Under Dutch rule 80 Influences on the urban form: Trade and war 82 iv 4. Conclusion: A Tale of Two Cities 87 Continuity and Change: The urban form 87 Viewed from the ramparts: War and the city 91 Writ in Stone: Changes in material culture 94 The city between monsoons: Further areas for study 98 Appendices 1. Approaches to city definition 101 2. Southeast Asian Cartography and Illustrations 113 3. The Melaka debate and limitations of sources 117 4. The Portuguese Attack and Melakan defense 126 5. Construction Timeline of ... clearly outlined roles and responsibilities, with a chain of command to follow Some secondary groups, like the army, have highly structured and clearly understood chains of command, and many lives depend.. .Group Size and Structure same campus, or they might be spread out around the globe The larger the group, the more attention it can garner, and the more pressure members... laissezfaire leader (French for “leave it alone”) is hands-off, allowing group members to self2/8 Group Size and Structure manage and make their own decisions An example of this kind of leader might