The Scope of Ecology

P1: SBT 9780521662161c03 CUNY946/Thomas 978 0 521 66216 1 July 11, 2007 12:10 3 Internal Reasons and the Scope of Blame JOHN SKORUPSKI One of Bernard Williams’ most influential themes has been the claim that there are only “internal” reasons. It is an important element in his moral philosophy, constituting, in particular, the main thrust in a striking critique of “modern morality,” a critique that has interesting affinities with that of Nietzsche. 1 Yet despite the very extensive discussion this theme has pro- duced, it also has been surprisingly elusive. Critics have found it hard to pin down the difference between “internal” and “external” reasons, and even harder to get clear about what bearing the claim that there are only internal reasons has on modern morality. What is it about this thing that Williams wishes to reject? Here we shall set ourselves a twofold aim: to examine (§§1–3)Williams’ argument for “internalism” – the thesis that there are only internal reasons – and to assess (§§4–6) what bearing internalism has on modern moral ideas, or on modern ideas about the nature of the moral. Williams often seems to weave his internalism into a Humean model of practical reasons – a model that has struck many philosophers as uncon- vincing, and indeed seriously misleading. However I shall suggest that Hume’s conception of practical reasons is neither the only possible starting point, nor the best starting point, for Williams’ questions about morality – notably, about the scope of blame. In Williams’ own account of what it is for something to be an “internal” reason the Humean conception some- times retreats into the background, although it never quite disappears from view. And in fact something like Williams’ internalism, with similar impli- cations for modern morality, can arise from a thought that is not connected with Hume’s particular model of practical reasons. It is that agents cannot be said to have reasons for acting which they are unable to recognize as reasons (even when they know the relevant facts). Not that this form of 1 Other aspects of this critique, which will not concern us here, relate to voluntariness and moral luck. I shall say more about what ‘modern morality’ is shorthand for, that is, what is being criticized, in §6. 73 P1: SBT 9780521662161c03 CUNY946/Thomas 978 0 521 66216 1 July 11, 2007 12:10 74 John Skorupski internalism about reasons produces any direct challenge to morality itself. For a guiding thread in our idea of the moral is its spontaneity: moral agents are accountable in so far as responsible – able to respond for themselves to moral considerations, recognize and act on them without having to be told by others what they are. Morality, at any rate in this common modern conception of it, is a matter of self-governance, not external command. A corollary is that inability to recognize moral reasons as reasons removes an agent from the scope of responsibility and blame, to an extent proportion- ate to the degree of the inability. Not only is the internalism about reasons of the kind I have just mentioned consistent with this: the conception of morality as self-governance is a special case of it. Yet that is not the end of the story. When this internalism is combined with a realistic view of people it challenges certain cherished modern moral assumptions: egalitarianism and universalism about the scope of responsibility and blame, rigorism about the The Scope of Ecology The Scope of Ecology Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with their environment One core goal of ecology is to understand the distribution and abundance of living things in the physical environment Attainment of this goal requires the integration of scientific disciplines inside and outside of biology, such as biochemistry, physiology, evolution, biodiversity, molecular biology, geology, and climatology Some ecological research also applies aspects of chemistry and physics, and it frequently uses mathematical models Link to Learning Climate change can alter where organisms live, which can sometimes directly affect human health Watch the PBS video “Feeling the Effects of Climate Change” in which researchers discover a pathogenic organism living far outside of its normal range Levels of Ecological Study When a discipline such as biology is studied, it is often helpful to subdivide it into smaller, related areas For instance, cell biologists interested in cell signaling need to understand the chemistry of the signal molecules (which are usually proteins) as well as the result of cell signaling Ecologists interested in the factors that influence the survival of an endangered species might use mathematical models to predict how current conservation efforts affect endangered organisms To produce a sound set of management options, a conservation biologist needs to collect accurate data, including current population size, factors affecting reproduction (like physiology and behavior), habitat requirements (such as plants and soils), and potential human influences on the endangered population and its habitat (which might be derived through studies in sociology and urban ecology) Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four 1/7 The Scope of Ecology specific levels, sometimes discretely and sometimes with overlap: organism, population, community, and ecosystem ([link]) Ecologists study within several biological levels of organization (credit “organisms”: modification of work by "Crystl"/Flickr; credit “ecosystems”: modification of work by Tom Carlisle, US Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters; credit “biosphere”: NASA) Organismal Ecology Researchers studying ecology at the organismal level are interested in the adaptations that enable individuals to live in specific habitats These adaptations can be morphological, physiological, and behavioral For instance, the Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) ([link]) is considered a specialist because the females preferentially oviposit (that is, lay eggs) on wild lupine This preferential adaptation means that the Karner blue butterfly is highly dependent on the presence of wild lupine plants for its continued survival 2/7 The Scope of Ecology The Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) is a rare butterfly that lives only in open areas with few trees or shrubs, such as pine barrens and oak savannas It can only lay its eggs on lupine plants (credit: modification of work by J & K Hollingsworth, USFWS) After hatching, the larval caterpillars emerge and spend four to six weeks feeding solely on wild lupine ([link]) The caterpillars pupate (undergo metamorphosis) and emerge as butterflies after about four weeks The adult butterflies feed on the nectar of flowers of wild lupine and other plant species A researcher interested in studying Karner blue butterflies at the organismal level might, in addition to asking questions about egg laying, ask questions about the butterflies’ preferred temperature (a physiological question) or the behavior of the caterpillars when they are at different larval stages (a behavioral question) The wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) is the host plant for the Karner blue butterfly 3/7 The Scope of Ecology Population Ecology A population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of the same species living in the same area at the same time (Organisms that are all members of the same species are called conspecifics.) A population is identified, in part, by where it lives, and its area of population may have natural or artificial boundaries: natural boundaries might be rivers, mountains, or deserts, while examples of artificial boundaries include mowed grass, manmade structures, or roads The study of population ecology focuses on the number of individuals in an area and how and why population size changes over time Population ecologists are particularly interested in counting the Karner blue butterfly, for example, because it is classified as federally endangered However, the distribution and density of this species is highly influenced by the distribution and abundance of wild lupine Researchers might ask questions about the factors leading to the decline of wild lupine and how these affect Karner blue butterflies For example, ecologists know that wild lupine thrives in open areas where trees and shrubs are largely absent In natural settings, ...van Gils et al. Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation 2010, 8:15 http://www.resource-allocation.com/content/8/1/15 Open Access REVIEW © 2010 van Gils et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Review The scope of costs in alcohol studies: Cost-of-illness studies differ from economic evaluations Paul F van Gils* †1 , Heleen H Hamberg-van Reenen †2 , Matthijs van den Berg †2 , Luqman Tariq †1 and G Ardine de Wit †1,3 Abstract Background: Alcohol abuse results in problems on various levels in society. In terms of health, alcohol abuse is not only an important risk factor for chronic disease, but it is also related to injuries. Social harms which can be related to drinking include interpersonal problems, work problems, violent and other crimes. The scope of societal costs related to alcohol abuse in principle should be the same for both economic evaluations and cost-of-illness studies. In general, economic evaluations report a small part of all societal costs. To determine the cost- effectiveness of an intervention it is necessary that all costs and benefits are included. The purpose of this study is to describe and quantify the difference in societal costs incorporated in economic evaluations and cost-of-illness studies on alcohol abuse. Method: To investigate the economic costs attributable to alcohol in cost-of-illness studies we used the results of a recent systematic review (June 2009). We performed a PubMed search to identify economic evaluations on alcohol interventions. Only economic evaluations in which two or more interventions were compared from a societal perspective were included. The proportion of health care costs and the proportion of societal costs were estimated in both type of studies. Results: The proportion of healthcare costs in cost-of-illness studies was 17% and the proportion of societal costs 83%. In economic evaluations, the proportion of healthcare costs was 57%, and the proportion of societal costs was 43%. Conclusions: The costs included in economic evaluations performed from a societal perspective do not correspond with those included in cost-of-illness studies. Economic evaluations on alcohol abuse underreport true societal cost of alcohol abuse. When considering implementation of alcohol abuse interventions, policy makers should take into account that economic evaluations from the societal perspective might underestimate the total effects and costs of interventions. Introduction Alcohol abuse results in problems on various levels in society. In terms of health, alcohol abuse is not only an important risk factor for chronic disease, but it is also related to unintentional and intentional injuries [1-3]. On the social level the WHO Expert Committee on Problems Related to Alcohol Consumption reported that social harms which can be related to drinking include interper- sonal problems, work problems, violent and other crimes [2]. From the economic point of view, the estimated tangi- ble costs of alcohol in the European Union were €125 bil- lion in 2003, including €59 billion worth of lost productivity through absenteeism, unemployment and lost working years due to premature death [4]. Another study reported that the weighted average costs in four high-income countries (France, USA, Scotland and Can- ada) were 1.4% of the gross domestic product [3]. To reduce the negative effect of alcohol abuse it is nec- essary for countries to develop an alcohol policy and implement prevention programs. An alcohol policy can be defined as a set of measures in a jurisdiction or society aimed at minimizing the health and social problems from alcohol consumption [2]. The alcohol abuse prevention * Correspondence: paul.van.gils@rivm.nl 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Aft er much painst aking effort and const ant struggl es, what I want to sa y at the ver y moment of compl eting m y M.A. t hesis is that without m y parents’ unceasing encouragement , I would have never compl ete d my graduat e education and t hus none of my accompli shm ents could have been possi ble. Without m y Laoshi A/P Lo Yuet Keung’s unfail ing enli ghtenment , I would remai n an i gnorant bo y finding his wa y in the m aze of academic schol arship, chasing into countl ess pit falls. Without m y fri ends’ support and t hei r stimulating exchanges with m e , m y int ell ect ual visi on could not have ex panded as it did and m y personal charact er would fail to devel op . Hard work alwa ys pa ys off , or at l east , as I believe, will eventuall y do. I spent almo st half a year writi ng m y thesis, not to mention t he preparation for it, and I have gained a lot i n this process . The most unforgett able experience is the revision st age of m y thesis. Laoshi had been questioning m y arguments rel entl essl y; I ha d to keep on defending m ysel f vis -à-vis his penet rating criti cisms . As a result, m y argum ent becomes more precise and cl earer, and m y thesis is I greatl y im proved. Through thi s academic exerci se, I have nurtured import ant qualities i n m yself as a schol ar , such as precis ion, prudence, perseverance. My grat itude m ust also be extended to t he foll owing people: A/P YUNG Sai Shing , whose semi nars inspired m e to stud y i ntell ect ual histor y with a new criti cal e ye. NEO P eng Fu Laoshi and m y res pect able seni or Miss Teoh Joo Ki ow kindl y lent me rel evant academic mat erials , which enabled me to stud y m ore effi cientl y. There are man y other t eachers and friends who have helped me i n one wa y or another. To them I owe m y deepest gratit ude. II A c k n o wl e d g e m e n t 目录 I III Ab s t r a c t V 序 VI 第一章 绪论 1. 问题与文献 1 2. 结构与概念 5 第二章 从政治批评与学术批评看荀子的 广义功利主义 1. 四强国的政治经验与功利主义的症结 19 2. 从学术批评检论荀子的广义功利主义 27 3. 政治境界论 37 4. 礼、法的分流与复合 46 5. 结论 52 第三章 论荀子广义功利主义的论理结构及其在儒学发展史上的意涵 1. 广义功利主义的论理结构 57 2. 儒家伦理学的两条进路 63 3. 结论 72 第四章 从哲学思辨返回经验现实 1. 本体论思潮 75 2. 知识论思潮 84 3. 试论荀子的经验性格及其成因 93 4. 结论 第五章 102 结论 129 III 参考书目 133 IV ABSTRACT Xun Zi was one of t he great est C onfuci an thinkers in the pre-Qin peri od. The purpose of thi s t hesis is to i nterpret the basi c charact er of his philosoph y. First of all, it argues that like Mo hists and Legalists , Xun Zi ’s thought also has a utilitari an character, but his util itari anism should be understood in a broader sense. He was concerned about the materi al needs of t he peopl e as well as t heir emoti onal needs. Second, Xun Zi ’s t hought also exhibits an em piri cal bent; unlike hi s predecessors Zi chan and Confucius, Xun Zi tri ed to const ruct a ki nd of epist emology bas ed on experi ence. Lastl y, the em piri cal character of Xun Zi’s thought was det ermi ned b y its utilitari an character . As such, utilitarianism is t herefor e fundamental to Xun Zi’s thought . In the context of i ntell ect ual histor y, both the utilit ari an and empirical charact er of Xun Zi’s thought exem plifi ed t he historical competition and reconcil i ation of two parti cul ar patt erns of cultures — the poli tical and intellectual culture s of the Zhou d ynast y and t he Warri ng St ates peri od. Speci fi call y, uti litari anism was the mainst ream thinking duri ng the Warri ng Stat es peri od in which Xun Zi lived, yet his broader sense of utilit ari anism inherited and absorbed the el ement s V of rites and musi c from the Zhou politi cal culture. Xun Zi ’s empiricism reflect ed the t rend of ret urning to the empi ri cal vi ews espoused earli er b y Zi chan, Confucius and ot hers. At the same tim e , Xun Zi also adopt ed man y i deas from t he “epist emol og i cal movem ent ” which rei gned in t he Warring St at es era. VI 我研究思想史的基本旨趣 （代序） 孟子说：“颂其诗，读其书，不知其人， 第一章 绪论 1. 问题与文献 本文试图探讨的核心问题，一言以蔽之，是要理解并诠释荀子 思想的基本性格。 先交代研究方法。迄今为止的荀学研究1大致存在两种研究框 架。第一种研究框架是“理学研究的理论框架”2，该框架主张以 孔、孟作为研究的基本坐标，以人性善恶作为讨论的重点3。韩愈 说：“„„尧以是传之舜，舜以是传之禹，禹以是传之汤，汤以是 传之文、武、周公，文、武、周公传之孔子，孔子传之孟轲，轲之 死不得其传焉。荀与扬也，择焉而不精，语焉而不详。”4程子也 1 我这里所用“荀学研究”一词只限于义理方面的研究，故不对《荀子》的训 诂、注释、考订成果进行回顾。 2 江心力《20 世纪前期的荀学研究》（北京：中国社会科学出版社，2005）， 页 6。 3 江氏原本的提法是“经学研究的理论框架”，考虑到将荀子与孔、孟严格对 立，并将其排斥在“道统”之外，至少可以追溯到韩愈，而尤其成为宋明理学 家论述荀子的标准模式。况且，“经学研究”的内涵极广，有今古、汉宋之 别，或讲义理，或明训诂，不能单用“道统”来界定“经学研究”的方法和流 派，但至少从韩愈以来的宋明理学家都采用“道统”的角度来论荀学，对照着 孟子的“性善”论来讲荀子的“性恶”论。鉴于上述两点理由，我袭江氏之 意，而改用“理学研究的理论框架”的提法。 4 韩愈〈原道〉，见《韩昌黎全集》（香港：广智书局，出版年月不详），页 174。 1 说：“荀子极偏驳，只一句性恶，大本已失。”5朱熹说：“荀、扬 不惟说性不是，从头到底皆不识。”6采取的都是这种理论框架。另 一种理论框架始于 20 世纪前期，这便是诸子学研究的框架，该框架 主张把荀子与诸子关系作为研究的出发点7，如胡适的《中国哲学史 大纲》、梁启超的《先秦政治思想史》、章太炎的《诸子学略说》 便采取这种研究框架。需要补充的是，“理学研究框架”对于荀子 的研究基本上采用“道统”，具体上特别是孔、孟，作为研究的参 照系；“诸子学研究框架”不但将孔、孟拿来与荀子进行对比，也 同样将其他诸子拿来与荀子进行比较，这种研究框架不只是关心理 学家所关注的性与天道，也关注心理、逻辑、音乐等各种课题。因 此，第二种理论框架其实只是第一种理论框架的扩大，而不应视为 两种截然不同的理论框架。 同是采取诸子学研究框架，但研究的问题可以千差万别。就荀 学研究而言，荀子的人性论、天道观、心理学、逻辑学、政治学等 是迄今为止荀子研究的热门领域，研究问题大都是从这些领域中提 取出来的。在天道观方面，胡适说：“荀子在儒家中最为特出，正 因为他能用老子一般人的‘无意志的天’来改正儒家墨家的‘善恶 赏罚’有意志的天，同时却又能免去老子庄子天道观念的安命守旧 种种恶果。”8这就告诉我们荀子吸收了道家的自然天道观，这个结 论后来被冯友兰、郭沫若、陈荣捷（Chan Wing-tsit，1901-1994） 5 黎靖德编，马镛、吴宣德整理《朱子语类》（海口：海南国际新闻出版中心, 1996），页 1375。 6 同上。 7 江心力《20 世纪前期的荀学研究》，页 6。 8 胡适《中国哲学史大纲》上册（上海：商务印书馆，1919），页 310。 2 等多数学者广泛接受9，成为理解荀子天道观的一个主流观点。值得 提出的是，廖名春对这种主流观点作出了必要的补充，他认为孔子 说的“天何言哉！四时行焉，百物生焉，天何言哉！”（《论 语·阳货》）孟子说的“天油然作云，沛然下雨，则苗勃然兴之 矣。”（《孟子·梁惠王上》）都是指自然的天。所以，那种只看 到道家自然天道观对荀子的影响，而忽视荀子对于孔孟天道观的继 承的观点，是有失偏颇的10。Paul R. Goldin 指出，荀子与中国传 统的神性的天道观的一个区别在于他否认具有意志的多变的天。11 在心理学方面，冯友兰提出：“荀子亦讲静虚，但谓心之虚， 乃‘不以所已臧害所将受’；心之静，乃‘不以梦剧乱知’。心之 主要功用为知虑，‘使之则谋’。‘梦剧’者，‘偷则自行’之随 便胡思乱想也。不使胡思乱想妨碍知谋，即是静也。故荀子虽讲静 虚，但不以庄子所说‘至人之用心若镜’为心之静虚状态，此荀子 9 冯友兰说：“荀子所言之天，则为自然之天，此盖亦由老庄之影响也。”见 《中国哲学史》（上海：商务印书馆，1935），页 355。郭沫若认为老子“取 消了殷周以来的人格神的天之至上权威，而建立了一个超绝时空的形而上学的 本体”；思、孟的天道观是“自然的理法”。荀子将二者统一起来，认为“自 然的理法就是神，就是天。”这个结论与胡适、冯友兰不同，但在继承道家自 然天道观这一点上，却与二家的看法一致。《先秦天道观之进展》，见《中国 古代社会研究（外二种）》（河北：石家庄出版社，2001），页 336、355； 陈 荣 捷 将 荀 子 的 天 道 观 理 解 为 一 种 “ 自 然 主 义 ” ， 见 A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy （ Princeton, N.J. ： Princeton University Press, 1963）, p.115. 10 11 廖名春《荀子新探》（台北：文津出版社，1994），页 200-201。 Paul R. Goldin, The philosophy of Xunzi, Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 1999, P.95. 3 采老庄之说，而加以修正变化也。” 12 A. C. Graham （ 1919- 1991）的看法与冯友兰基本上相同，他也注意到荀子“静虚”说与 庄子“至人用心若镜”说的上述区别，但他指出荀子与庄子“共享 了那个时代的相当数量的心理学术语”，例如虚、静、神明 13 。在 Graham 之后，赵吉惠也指出：“《荀子》一书与《文子》、《黄 帝四经》、《管子》四篇所共同使用的黄老之学的思想范畴，那就 更加明显了。这些范畴，例如：无为、自然、无欲、不争、虚静、 虚气、心术、天官、天君、天功、天心、天德、道法、养生、天 养、尚贤、赏罚、虚壹而静、贵贱有别、刑名法术，尚贤使能”14。 在冯友兰之后，Graham、赵吉惠之前，郭沫若、杜国庠、白奚对于 这个问题提出了另一种新颖的意见，他们认为荀子的“解蔽”思想 其实就是宋钘的“去宥”思想，荀子的“静虚”观念是从宋钘的 《心术》中承受过来的15。该意见的开拓性在于提示荀子与稷下学派 12 冯友兰《中国哲学史》，页 363。 13 A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao ： Philosophical Argument in Ancient China （ La Salle, Ill. ： Open Court ， 1989 ） , p.252. 中 文 译 本 有张海晏译《论道者：中国古代哲学论辩》（北京：中国社会科学出版社， 2003）。 14 赵吉惠〈荀学新解〉，见《国学沉思》（杭州：浙江人民出版社，1998）， 页 150。晖案：Graham 所列举的这些词汇是否能够代表当时的心理学术语， 赵吉惠所列举的这些概念是不是黄老之学的思想范畴，这还有待仔细的考证， 但必须承认他们从语言比较的角度开展荀子与黄老学派特别是稷下黄老学派的 比较研究，至少在方法上是有启发意义的，在内容上或许也可以作为考证的起 点或旁证。 15 郭沫若《十批判书》，见《中国古代社会研究（外二种）》，页 809；杜国 庠《先秦诸子思想概要》（北京：三联书店，1955），页 50；白奚《稷下学 4 的 一 种 思 想 关 联 。 最 近 ， 佐 藤 将 之 （ Masayuki Sato ， 1965- ） 指 出，荀子的“礼”论吸收了稷下学派的“分析话语”16，大概也是受 了郭、杜、白观点的启示而提出的。 在逻辑学方面，胡 适认为荀子的逻辑 学 17“介于儒家与法 家之 间，是儒法过渡时代的学说”18。胡适之所以说荀子上承儒家的逻辑 学，是因为他认为荀子继承了儒家“春秋派”的正名主义，不同之 处在于荀子摆脱了史官一字褒贬的作风；至于为什么摆脱史官一字 褒贬的作风就是“介于儒家与法家之间”，胡适并未交代清楚。冯 友兰在这个问题上提出了一个十分独到的看法，他指出：“《墨 经》之作，亦辩者之学之反动。盖辩者所持之论，皆与吾人之常识 违反。儒墨之学，皆注重实用，对于宇宙之见解，多根据常识。见 辩者之‘然不然可不可’，皆以为‘怪说觭辞’而竞起驳之。然辩 者立论，皆有名理的根据，故驳之者之立论，亦须根据名理。所以 墨家有《墨经》，儒家有荀子之〈正名〉篇，皆拥护常识，驳辩者 研 究 — 中 国 古 代 的 思 想 自 由 与 百 家 争 鸣 》 （ 北 京 ： 三 联 书 店 ， 1998 ） ， 页 288-292。不同的是，郭沫若专注在宋钘与荀子的比较，而杜国庠使用了“宋 尹学派”的提法，白奚使用了“稷下学派”的提法。 16 Masayuki Sato, The Confucian Quest for Order: The Origin and Formation of the Political Thought of Xun Zi (Leiden: Brill, 2003), p.162. 17 在荀学研究中，人们常用名学、辩学等概念指代荀子的逻辑学，其涵义虽未 能截然界定，不免有欠精确；但三者都涉及荀子的逻辑概念、推理和论证，这 是共同的。 18 SPE SPE 129723 Economic Evaluation within the Scope of the Field Development and Application of the Gas-Assisted Gravity Drainage (GAGD) Process in an Actual Northern Louisiana Field Paidin, W.R., Mwangi, P., and Rao, D.N., Louisiana State University Copyright 2010, Society of Petroleum Engineers This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Hydrocarbon Economics and Evaluation Symposium held in Dallas, Texas, USA, 8–9 March 2010 This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s) Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s) The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright Abstract The GAGD process was developed as an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method that takes advantage of the naturally occurring gravity segregation of injected gas from crude oil, common in such processes as WAG GAGD consists of placing horizontal producer wells near the bottom of the reservoir and injecting gas using (existing) vertical wells It is proposed that the injected gas will rise to the top to form a gas cap while oil and water drain down to the horizontal producers The work so far completed as part of the development of GAGD has encompassed a thorough literature review on the underlying mechanisms, selected scaled visual physical model experiments to confirm those mechanisms, and numerical simulations using commercial software to optimize the production configuration Quá trình GAGD phát triển phương pháp hồi dầu tăng cường (EOR) mà lợi dụng lực hấp dẫn tự nhiên phân biệt khí tiêm từ dầu thô, phổ biến trình WAG GAGD gồm đặt giếng sản xuất ngang gần đáy hồ chứa bơm khí sử dụng giếng khoan thẳng đứng (hiện có) Đó đề xuất khí tiêm tăng lên để tạo thành nắp xăng giá dầu nước cống xuống để nhà sản xuất ngang Công việc hoàn thành phần phát triển GAGD bao phủ tài liệu nghiên cứu kỹ lưỡng chế bản, lựa chọn thí nghiệm mô hình vật lý hình ảnh thu nhỏ để xác nhận chế, mô số cách sử dụng phần mềm thương mại để tối ưu hóa cấu hình sản xuất The final stage in the development of the GAGD process is the implementation in an actual field To this end a detailed cash flow analysis will be performed in which selected economic indicators, such as the net present value, payout time, profit to investment ratio and rate of return, will be calculated for a specific Northern Louisiana field and given operating conditions The operating conditions and resulting production profile have been optimized using numerical simulation and were used in the cash flow analysis For the other input parameters, such as oil prices, capital and operational expenditures, and tax rate, the average values for Northern Louisiana will be used The uncertainty in these parameters will be captured in a sensitivity study where their effect on the economic performance will be investigated Giai đoạn cuối phát triển trình GAGD việc thực lĩnh vực thực tế Để kết thúc phân tích dòng tiền chi tiết thực lựa chọn số kinh tế, chẳng hạn giá trị ròng tại, thời gian toán, lợi nhuận với tỷ lệ đầu tư tỉ suất lợi nhuận tính cho trường Bắc Louisiana cụ thể điều kiện vận hành định Các hoạt động điều kiện kết hồ sơ cá nhân sản xuất tối ưu hóa cách sử dụng mô số sử dụng phân tích dòng tiền Đối với thông số đầu vào khác giá dầu, vốn chi phí hoạt động, mức thuế suất thuế giá trị trung bình cho Bắc Louisiana sử ... 6/7 The Scope of Ecology B The study of nutrient cycling though the environment is an example of which of the following? organismal ecology population ecology community ecology ecosystem ecology. .. energy source for the ants Both the Karner blue larvae and the ants benefit from their interaction 4/7 The Scope of Ecology Ecosystem Ecology Ecosystem ecology is an extension of organismal, population,... is the host plant for the Karner blue butterfly 3/7 The Scope of Ecology Population Ecology A population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of the same species living in the