Chemical engineering volume 1 fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer elsevier (1999)

Coulson & Richardson's CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME SIXTH EDITION Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer J M COULSON Late Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and J F RICHARDSON Department of Chemical and Biological Process Engineering University of Wales, Swansea WITH J R BACKHURST and J H HARKER Department of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne ELSEVIER BUTERWORTH HEMEMA" AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON SAN DlEGO SAN FRANCISCO* SINGAPORE PARIS NEWYORK OXFORD SYDNEY TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First published by Pergamon Press 1954 Second edition 1964 Third edition 1977 Fourth edition 1990 Fifth edition 1996 Fifth edition (revised) 1997, 1999 Sixth edition 1999 Reprinted 2000,2003,2004,2005,2007,2009 Copyright 1990, 1996, 1999, J H Harker and J R Backhurst, J M Coulson, J F Richardson All rights reserved The rights of J H Harker and J R Backhurst, J M Coulson, J F Richardson to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44)(0) 1865 843830; fax (+44)(0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury andor damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-7506-4444-0 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com Printed and bound in Great Britain 09 10 11 12 12 11 10 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries w.elcvier.com I w.bookaid.org I w.sabre.org Preface to Sixth Edition It is somewhat sobering to realise that the sixth edition of Volume appears 45 years after the publication of the first edition in 1954 Over the intervening period, there have been considerable advances in both the underlying theory and the practical applications of Chemical Engineering; all of which are reflected in parallel developments in undergraduate courses In successive editions, we have attempted to adapt the scope and depth of treatment in the text to meet the changes in the needs of both students and practitioners of the subject Volume continues to concentrate on the basic processes of Momentum Transfer (as in fluid flow), Heat Transfer, and Mass Transfer, and it is also includes examples of practical applications of these topics in areas of commercial interest such as the pumping of fluids, the design of shell and tube heat exchangers and the operation and performance of cooling towers In response to the many requests from readers (and the occasional note of encouragement from our reviewers), additional examples and their solutions have now been included in the main text The principal areas of application, particularly of the theories of Mass Transfer across a phase boundary, form the core material of Volume however, whilst in Volume 6, material presented in other volumes is utilised in the practical design of process plant The more important additions and modifications which have been introduced into this sixth edition of Volume are: Dimensionless Analysis The idea and advantages of treating length as a vector quantity and of distinguishing between the separate role of mass in representing a quantity of matter as opposed to its inertia are introduced Fluid Flow The treatment of the behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids is extended and the methods used for pumping and metering of such fluids are updated Heat Transfer A more detailed discussion of the problem of unsteady-state heat transfer by conduction where bodies of various shapes are heated or cooled is offered together with a more complete treatment of heat transfer by radiation and a re-orientation of the introduction to the design of shell and tube heat exchangers Mass Transfer The section on mass transfer accompanied by chemical reaction has been considerably expanded and it is hoped that this will provide a good basis for the understanding of the operation of both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic reactions As ever, we are grateful for a great deal of help in the preparation of this new edition from a number of people In particular, we should like to thank Dr D.G Peacock for the great enthusiasm and dedication he has shown in the production of the Index, a task he has undertaken for us over many years We would also mention especially Dr R.P Chhabra of the Indian Institute of Technology at Kanpur for his contribution on unsteady-state heat transfer by conduction, those commercial organisations which have so generously contributed new figures and diagrams of equipment, our publishers who cope with our xv mi CHEMICAL ENGINEERING perhaps overwhelming number of suggestions and alterations with a never-failing patience and, most of all, our readers who with great kindness, make so many extremely useful and helpful suggestions all of which, are incorporated wherever practicable With their continued help and support, the signs are that this present work will continue to be of real value as we move into the new Millenium Swansea, I999 Newcastle upon Tyne, 1999 J.F RICHARDSON J.R BACKHURST J.H.HARKER Contents Professor J M Coulson xiii Preface to Sixth Edition xv Preface to F i f h Edition xvii Preface to Fourth Edition Xix Preface to Thud Edition xxi xxiii Preface to Second Edition xxv Preface to First Edition xxvii Acknowledgements 1 Units and Dimensions 1.1 1.2 1.3 I 1.5 1.6 I 1.8 I Introduction Systems of units 1.2.1 The centimetre-gram-second (cgs) system 1.2.2 The metre-kilogram-second (mks system) and the Systeme International d'Unit6s (SI) 1.2.3 The foot-pound-second (fps) system 1.2.4 The British engineering system 1.2.5 Non-coherent system employing pound mass and pound force simultaneously 1.2.6 Derived units 1.2.7 Thermal (heat) units 1.2.8 Molar units 1.2.9 Electrical units Conversion of units Dimensional analysis Buckingham's ll theorem Redefinition of the length and mass dimensions 1.6.1 Vector and scalar quantities 1.6.2 Quantity mass and inertia mass Further reading References Nomenclature Flow of Fluids -Energy and Momentum Relationships 2.1 2.2 5 12 15 20 20 21 22 22 22 25 Part Fluid Flow 2 27 21 27 Introduction Internal energy V vi CONTENTS Types of fluid 2.3.1 The incompressible fluid (liquid) 2.3.2 The ideal gas 2.3.3 The non-ideal gas The fluid in motion 2.4 I Continuity 2.4.2 Momentum changes in a fluid 2.4.3 Energy of a fluid in motion 2.4.4 Pressure and fluid head 2.4.5 Constant flow per unit area 2.4.6 Separation Pressure-volume relationships 2.5.1 Incompressible fluids 2.5.2 Compressible fluids Rotational or vortex motion in a fluid 2.6 I The forced vortex 2.6.2 The free vortex Further reading References Nomenclature 30 31 31 34 39 39 41 Flow of Liquids in Pipes and Open Channels 58 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Introduction The nature of fluid flow 3.2.1 Flow over a surface 3.2.2 Flow in a pipe Newtonian fluids 3.3.1 Shearing characteristics of a Newtonian fluid 3.3.2 Pressure drop for flow of Newtonian liquids through a pipe 3.3.3 Reynolds number and shear stress 3.3.4 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for streamline flow 3.3.5 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe 3.3.6 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for turbulent flow 3.3.7 Flow through curved pipes 3.3.8 Miscellaneous friction losses 3.3.9 Flow over banks of tubes 3.3.10 Flow with a free surface Non-Newtonian Fluids 3.4.1 Steady-state shear-dependent behaviour 3.4.2 Time-dependent behaviour 3.4.3 Viscoelastic behaviour 3.4.4 Characterisation of non-Newtonian fluids 3.4.5 Dimensionless characterisation of viscoelastic flows 3.4.6 Relation between rheology and structure of material 3.4.7 Streamline flow in pipes and channels of regular geometry 3.4.8 Turbulent flow 3.4.9 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow Further reading References Nomenclature Flow of Compressible Fluids 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction Flow of gas through a n o u l e or orifice 4.2.1 Isothermal flow 4.2.2 Non-isothermal flow Velocity of propagation of a pressure wave 44 46 47 47 48 48 48 50 52 54 55 56 56 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 74 75 82 83 87 87 93 94 103 105 1I3 I4 118 120 120 121 136 138 138 139 140 143 143 143 144 147 152 CONTENTS 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Converging-diverging nozzles for gas flow Maximum flow and critical pressure ratio 4.4 I 4.4.2 The pressure and area for flow 4.4.3 Effect of back-pressure on flow in nozzle Flow in a pipe 4.5.1 Energy balance for flow of ideal gas 4.5.2 Isothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.3 Non-isothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.4 Adiabatic flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 4.5.5 Flow of non-ideal gases Shock waves Further reading References Nomenclature Flow of Multiphase Mixtures 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Introduction Two-phase gas (vapour)-liquid flow 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Flow regimes and flow patterns 5.2.3 Hold-up 5.2.4 Pressure, momentum, and energy relations 5.2.5 Erosion Flow of solids-liquid mixtures 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 Homogeneous non-settling suspensions 5.3.3 Coarse solids 5.3.4 Coarse solids in horizontal flow 5.3.5 Coarse solids in vertical flow Flow of gas-solids mixtures 5.4.1 General considerations 5.4.2 Horizontal transport 5.4.3 Vertical transport 5.4.4 Practical applications Further reading References Nomenclature Flow and Pressure Measurement 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Introduction Fluid pressure 6.2.1 Static pressure 6.2.2 Pressure measuring devices 6.2.3 Pressure signal transmission- the differential pressure cell 6.2.4 Intelligent pressure transmitters 6.2.5 Impact pressure Measurement of fluid flow 6.3.1 The pitot tube 6.3.2 Measurement by flow through a constriction 6.3.3 The orifice meter 6.3.4 The nozzle 6.3.5 The venturi meter 6.3.6 Pressure recovery in orifice-type meters 6.3.7 Variable area meters- rotameters 6.3.8 The notch or weir 6.3.9 Other methods of measuring flowrates Further reading References Nomenclature vii 154 154 156 158 158 159 160 169 170 174 174 178 179 179 181 181 182 182 183 186 187 194 195 195 196 198 198 210 213 213 214 223 224 226 227 229 232 232 233 233 234 237 240 242 243 244 245 248 254 255 256 257 26 264 272 272 272 viii CONTENTS Liquid Mixing - Introduction types of mixing 7.1.1 Single-phase liquid mixing 7.1.2 Mixing of immiscible liquids 7.1.3 Gas-liquid mixing 7.1.4 Liquid-solids mixing 7.1.5 Gas-liquid-solids mixing 7.1.6 Solids-solids mixing 7.1.7 Miscellaneous mixing applications 7.2 Mixing mechanisms 7.2.1 Laminar mixing 7.2.2 Turbulent mixing 7.3 Scale-up of stirred vessels 7.4 Power consumption in stirred vessels 7.4.1 Low viscosity systems 7.4.2 High viscosity systems Mow patterns in stirred tanks 7.5 7.6 Rate and time for mixing 7.7 Mixing equipment 7.7.1 Mechanical agitation 7.7.2 Portable mixers 7.7.3 Extruders 7.7.4 Static mixers 7.7.5 Other types of mixer 7.8 Mixing in continuous systems 7.9 Further reading 7.10 References 7.1 Nomenclature 7.1 Pumping of F1uh-l~ 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Introduction Pumping equipment for liquids 8.2.1 Reciprocating pump 8.2.2 Positive-displacement rotary pumps 8.2.3 The centrifugal pump Pumping equipment for gases 8.3.1 Fans and rotary compressors 8.3.2 Centrifugal and turbocompressors 8.3.3 The reciprocating piston compressor Power required for the compression of gases 8.3.4 The use of compressed air for pumping 8.4 I The air-lift pump Vacuum pumps Power requirements for pumping through pipelines 8.6.1 Liquids 8.6.2 Gases Further reading References Nomenclature 274 274 274 274 275 27 275 275 276 277 277 279 280 282 282 288 294 298 301 30 306 306 307 310 310 31 31 312 314 I4 315 316 321 329 344 344 346 347 347 358 358 364 367 368 374 376 376 377 Part Heat Transfer 379 Heat Transfer 381 9.1 9.2 Introduction Basic considerations Individual and overall coefficients of heat transfer 9.2 I 9.2.2 Mean temperature difference 38 38 38 384 CONTENTS 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.1 9.12 9.13 9.14 Heat transfer by conduction 9.3.1 Conduction through a plane wall 9.3.2 Thermal resistances in series 9.3.3 Conduction through a thick-walled tube 9.3.4 Conduction through a spherical shell and to a particle 9.3.5 Unsteady state conduction 9.3.6 Conduction with internal heat source Heat transfer by convection 9.4.1 Natural and forced convection 9.4.2 Application of dimensional analysis to convection 9.4.3 Forced convection in tubes 9.4.4 Forced convection outside tubes 9.4.5 Flow in non-circular sections 9.4.6 Convection to spherical particles 9.4.7 Natural convection Heat transfer by radiation 9.5.1 Introduction 9.5.2 Radiation from a black body 9.5.3 Radiation from real surfaces 9.5.4 Radiation transfer between black surfaces 9.5.5 Radiation transfer between grey surfaces 9.5.6 Radiation from gases Heat transfer in the condensation of vapours 9.6.1 Film coefficients for vertical and inclined surfaces 9.6.2 Condensation on vertical and horizontal tubes 9.6.3 Dropwise condensation 9.6.4 Condensation of mixed vapours Boiling Liquids 9.7.1 Conditions for boiling 9.7.2 Types of boiling 9.7.3 Heat transfer coefficients and heat Bux 9.7.4 Analysis based on bubble characteristics 9.7.5 Sub-cooled boiling 9.7.6 Design considerations Heat transfer in reaction vessels 9.8.1 Helical cooling coils 9.8.2 Jacketed vessels 9.8.3 Time required for heating or cooling Shell and tube heat exchangers 9.9.1 General description 9.9.2 Basic components 9.9.3 Mean temperature difference in multipass exchangers 9.9.4 Film coefficients 9.9.5 Pressure drop in heat exchangers 9.9.6 Heat exchanger design 9.9.7 Heat exchanger performance 9.9.8 Transfer units Other forms of equipment 9.10.1 Finned-tube units 9.10.2 Plate-type exchangers 9.10.3 Spiral heat exchangers 9.10.4 Compact heat exchangers 9.10.5 Scraped-surface heat exchangers Thermal insulation 9.1 1.1 Heat losses through lagging 9.1 1.2 Economic thickness of lagging 9.1 1.3 Critical thickness of lagging Further reading References Nomenclature ix 387 387 390 392 392 394 412 414 414 415 417 426 433 434 435 438 438 439 441 447 458 465 47 47 474 476 478 482 482 484 486 490 492 494 496 496 499 50 502 502 506 510 17 523 526 534 535 540 540 548 550 550 553 555 555 557 557 56 562 566 CONTENTS X Part Mass Transfer 10 Mass Transfer 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Diffusion in binary gas mixtures 10.2 I Properties of binary mixtures 10.2.2 Equimolecular counterdiffusion 10.2.3 Mass transfer through a stationary second component 10.2.4 Diffusivities of gases and vapours 10.2.5 Mass transfer velocities 10.2.6 General case for gas-phase mass transfer in a binary mixture 10.2.7 Diffusion as a mass flux 10.2.8 Thermal diffusion 10.2.9 Unsteady-state mass transfer 10.3 Multicomponent gas-phase systems 10.3.1 Molar flux in terms of effective diffusivity 10.3.2 Maxwell’s law of diffusion 10.4 Diffusion in liquids 10.4.1 Liquid phase diffusivities 10.5 Mass transfer across a phase boundary 10.5.1 The two-film theory 10.5.2 The penetration theory 10.5.3 The film-penetration theory 10.5.4 Mass transfer to a sphere in a homogenous fluid 10.5.5 Other theories of mass transfer 10.5.6 Interfacial turbulence 10.5.7 Mass transfer coefficients 10.5.8 Countercurrent mass transfer and transfer units 10.6 Mass transfer and chemical reaction in a continuous phase 10.6.1 Steady-state process 10.6.2 Unsteady-state process 10.7 Mass transfer and chemical reaction in a catalyst pellet 10.7 I Flat platelets 10.7.2 Spherical pellets 10.7.3 Other particle shapes 10.7.4 Mass transfer and chemical reaction with a mass transfer resistance external to the pellet 10.8 Practical studies of mass transfer 10.8.1 The j-factor of Chilton and Colburn for flow in tubes 10.8.2 Mass transfer at plane surfaces 10.8.3 Effect of surface roughness and form drag 10.8.4 Mass transfer from a fluid to the surface of particles 10.9 Further reading 10.10 References 10.11 Nomenclature Part Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer 11 The Boundary Layer 11.1 1.2 11.3 11.4 Introduction The momentum equation The streamline portion of the boundary layer The turbulent boundary layer 11.4.1 The turbulent portion 11.4.2 The laminar sub-layer 11.5 Boundary layer theory applied to pipe flow 11.5.1 Entry conditions 11.5.2 Application of the boundary-layer theory 57 573 573 575 575 576 577 58 586 587 588 589 590 593 593 594 596 597 599 600 602 614 617 618 618 619 62 626 626 63 634 636 638 642 644 646 646 649 65 65 654 655 656 66 663 663 668 670 675 675 677 68 68 682 ... reading References Nomenclature vii 15 4 15 4 15 6 15 8 15 8 15 9 16 0 16 9 17 0 17 4 17 4 17 8 17 9 17 9 18 1 18 1 18 2 18 2 18 3 18 6 18 7 19 4 19 5 19 5 19 6 19 8 19 8 210 213 213 214 223 224 226 227 229 232 232 233... 47 47 48 48 48 50 52 54 55 56 56 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 74 75 82 83 87 87 93 94 10 3 10 5 1I3 I4 11 8 12 0 12 0 12 1 13 6 13 8 13 8 13 9 14 0 14 3 14 3 14 3 14 4 14 7 15 2 CONTENTS 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Converging-diverging... homogenous fluid 10 .5.5 Other theories of mass transfer 10 .5.6 Interfacial turbulence 10 .5.7 Mass transfer coefficients 10 .5.8 Countercurrent mass transfer and transfer units 10 .6 Mass transfer and chemical