Critical findings in neuroradiology

Renato Hoffmann Nunes Ana Lorena Abello Mauricio Castillo Editors Critical Findings in Neuroradiology 123 Critical Findings in Neuroradiology Renato Hoffmann Nunes Ana Lorena Abello • Mauricio Castillo Editors Critical Findings in Neuroradiology Editors Renato Hoffmann Nunes Division of Neuroradiology Santa Casa de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil Ana Lorena Abello Research Fellow in Neuroradiology Department of Radiology University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC USA Mauricio Castillo James H Scatliff Distinguished Professor of Radiology Chief, Division of Neuroradiology University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC USA ISBN 978-3-319-27985-5 ISBN 978-3-319-27987-9 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-27987-9 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016933483 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland To my lovely family, especially to my mother, and to my wonderful friends who have supported me throughout this and other projects You have given me love and inspiration Thank you Ana Lorena Abello This book is dedicated to my wife Fernanda for her love and understanding and to my family for their unconditional support Renato Hoffmann Nunes Contents Part I Brain Cerebral Edema Juan Manuel González, Florencia Alamos, and Ana Lorena Abello Cerebral Herniation 13 Natalí Angulo Carvallo, Prabhumallikarjun Patil, and Ana Lorena Abello Intracranial Hypotension (Hypovolemia) Syndrome 21 Juan Manuel González and Florencia Álamos Ischemic Stroke in Adults 29 Felipe Torres Pacheco and Antônio José da Rocha Ischemic Stroke in Children 45 Felipe Torres Pacheco and Antônio José da Rocha Hypoxic–Ischemic Injuries 55 Francisco José Chiang and Ana Lorena Abello Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage 67 Marcos Rosa Jr., Renato Hoffmann Nunes, and Antônio José da Rocha Remote Cerebellar Hemorrhages 81 Ana Lorena Abello and Florencia Álamos Brain Vascular Malformations 85 João Maia Jacinto and Isabel Ribeiro Fragata 10 Venous Thrombosis 93 Ingrid Aguiar Littig and Antônio José da Rocha 11 Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas 103 Carlos Eduardo Baccin, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 12 Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 113 Ana Lorena Abello and Renato Hoffmann Nunes vii Contents viii 13 Incorrectly Clipped/Coiled Aneurysms 121 João Maia Jacinto and Isabel Ribeiro Fragata 14 Brain Death 129 Jaime Leal Pamplona, Ana Maria Braz, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 15 Meningitis, Empyema, and Brain Abscess in Adults 141 Thiago Luiz Pereira Donoso Scoppetta, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 16 Meningitis, Empyema, and Brain Abscess in Children 155 Thiago Luiz Pereira Donoso Scoppetta, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 17 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) 165 Ana Lorena Abello and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 18 Metabolic Brain Disorders in Children 173 Antonio Carlos Martins Maia Jr., Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 19 Basal Ganglia and Thalamic Lesions 187 Bruno de Vasconcelos Sobreira Guedes, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 20 Acute Temporal Lobe Lesions 201 Bruna Garbugio Dutra, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes 21 Traumatic Brain Injuries 211 Andrés Felipe Rodríguez 22 Epidural Hematoma 219 Mauricio Enrique Moreno and Florencia Álamos 23 Subdural Hematoma 225 Mauricio Enrique Moreno and Florencia Álamos 24 Pneumocephalus 231 Ana Lorena Abello 25 Child Abuse 239 Tito Navarro and Ana Lorena Abello 26 Pediatric Skull Fractures 247 Mariana Cardoso Diogo and Carla Ribeiro Conceição 27 Hydrocephalus in Children 255 Lillian Gonçalves Campos, Rafael Menegatti, and Leonardo Modesti Vedolin 28 Retained Foreign Bodies 265 Heitor Castelo Branco Rodrigues Alves, Antônio José da Rocha, and Renato Hoffmann Nunes Contents ix Part II Head and Neck 29 Preseptal Orbital Cellulitis in Children 275 Carlos Jorge da Silva 30 Postseptal Orbital Cellulitis in Children 279 Carlos Jorge da Silva 31 Invasive Fungal Sinusitis 285 Carlos Toyama 32 Temporal Bone Infections 293 Kenny Emmanuel Rentas and Benjamin Y Huang 33 Petrous Apicitis 301 Melissa Ann Davis 34 External Malignant Otitis 307 Carlos Toyama 35 Ludwig’s Angina 313 Benjamin Y Huang 36 Retropharyngeal Abscess in Children 319 Carlos Jorge da Silva 37 Lemierre Syndrome 325 Kenny Emmanuel Rentas and Benjamin Y Huang 38 Epiglottitis 331 João Lopes Dias and Pedro Alves 39 Orbital Trauma 335 Prashant Vijay Shankar 40 Temporal Bone Fractures 343 Benjamin Y Huang 41 Penetrating Neck Trauma 349 Prashant Vijay Shankar 42 Laryngeal Fractures 355 Carlos Toyama 43 Extracranial Artery Dissections 361 Kenny Emmanuel Rentas and Benjamin Y Huang Part III Spine 44 Nontraumatic Vertebral Collapse 371 Ana Lorena Abello 45 Spinal Cord Compression 381 Ana Lorena Abello and Florencia Álamos D.T Amaral et al 520 a b Fig 59.6 Incomplete fusion (a, b) Lateral lumbar spine radiographs in neutral position (a) and extension (b) show L3 to S1 posterior arthrodesis There are signs of retrolis- thesis of L2 that worsens in extension vertebral end-plate angle deviation >10° (arrows) manifests as cortical irregularity, abnormal bone resorption, and signs of osteolysis [11] For assessing fusion on radiographs, the following criteria are proposed [12]: Imaging Follow-Up • No motion or less than mm or 12 months: solid cortical bone bridging No motion or less than mm or 10° of motion angle between the vertebral bodies on lateral flexion and extension views There is no consensus for imaging follow-up schedule in patients with spinal devices Follow-up depends on the reason for the original surgical procedure Oncologic patients, for example, need a closer surveillance [1, 6] Following the immediate postoperative imaging, additional imaging is generally unnecessary as the findings related to healing can be misleading Expected postoperative findings, such as small epidural fluid collections, granulation tissue, and osteoclastic bone resorption, may be misinterpreted as abnormal [1, 6, 7] For long-term surveillance following a clinically successful spinal fusion, advanced diagnostic imaging is generally not indicated In this situation, radiographs are the modality of choice to ascertain hardware position and progression of osseous fusion However, radiographs not allow appropriated visualization of the spinal canal and nerve roots or of paravertebral soft tissue fluid collections; therefore, cross-sectional imaging (MRI or CT) is recommended for investigation of unexpected symptoms in all postoperative phases [7] 59 Misplaced Spinal Hardware 521 Main Differential Diagnosis Discitis/osteomyelitis: The following are signs of infection on radiographs and CT: disk space height loss, end-plate erosion, and vertebral destruction, and paraspinal/epidural phlegmon or abscess are signs of infection The initial inflammatory response due to bone-graft material and stimulating factors, such as BMP, can have a very similar appearance to discitis/osteomyelitis Most immediate postoperative fluid collections are seromas and hematomas which may have a complex appearance similar to infection Clinical and laboratory findings may aid in their differentiation Spinal hematoma: Acute onset of neurologic symptoms in the immediate postoperative setting should arouse clinical suspicion for a spinal hematoma which can be characterized using MRI and frequently requires urgent surgical decompression [1] Tips • Awareness of the preoperative imaging, the surgical technique and clinical history, clinical problems, and imaging findings that occur at specific time intervals greatly improves the accuracy and value of imaging in patients with spinal fusion • In early postoperative studies, besides checking the integrity of the neural foramina, thecal sac, spinal cord, and foramen transversarium, it is important to look for lesions in the major abdominal vessels, psoas musculature, posterior mediastinum, and prevertebral soft tissues • Generally, pedicle screws should be centered in the pedicle without cortical breaches or vascular contact and aligned with the superior end plate of the vertebral body • An interbody implant spacer location should be no less than mm from the posterior vertebral body margin to prevent protrusion into the spinal canal • Any signs of screw malfunction, such as changes in orientation, fractures, pseudarthrosis, subsidence, and surrounding osseous lucencies, must be reported References Young PM, Berquist TH, Bancroft LW, Peterson JJ Complications of spinal instrumentation Radiographics: Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc 2007;27(3): 775–89 Thakkar RS, Malloy JP, Thakkar SC, Carrino JA, Khanna AJ Imaging the postoperative spine Radiol Clin North Am 2012;50(4):731–47 Zampolin R, Erdfarb A, Miller T Imaging of lumbar spine fusion Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2014;24(2): 269–86 Bittane RM, de Moura AB, Lien RJ The postoperative spine: what the spine surgeon needs to know Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2014;24(2):295–303 Rutherford EE, Tarplett LJ, Davies EM, Harley JM, King LJ Lumbar spine fusion and stabilization: hardware, techniques, and imaging appearances Radiographics: Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc 2007;27(6):1737–49 Ha AS, Petscavage-Thomas JM Imaging of current spinal hardware: lumbar spine AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203(3):573–81 Willson MC, Ross JS Postoperative spine complications Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2014;24(2): 305–26 Park JB, Cho YS, Riew KD Development of adjacentlevel ossification in patients with an anterior cervical plate J Bone Joint Surg Am 2005;87(3):558–63 Murtagh RD, Quencer RM, Castellvi AE, Yue JJ New techniques in lumbar spinal instrumentation: what the radiologist needs to know Radiology 2011;260(2): 317–30 10 Ray CD Threaded fusion cages for lumbar interbody fusions An economic comparison with 360 degrees fusions Spine 1997;22(6):681–5 11 Petscavage-Thomas JM, Ha AS Imaging current spine hardware: part 1, cervical spine and fracture fixation AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203(2): 394–405 12 Olsen RV, Munk PL, Lee MJ, Janzen DL, MacKay AL, Xiang QS, et al Metal artifact reduction sequence: early clinical applications Radiographics: Rev Publ Radiol Soc N Am Inc 2000;20(3): 699–712 Index A Abscess See also Brain abscess; Retropharyngeal abscess in adults differential diagnosis, 148–150 findings, 145 pathophysiology, 143 bezold, 295–296 epidural, 296, 450, 452 postseptal, 280–281 spinal cord, 434 spinal epidural, 402 subperiosteal, 281, 295, 296 tonsillar, 328 Abusive head trauma (AHT), 239 Accessory atlantoaxial ligament, 467 Acidemia methylmalonic, 174, 178 propionic, 174, 178 Acidosis, primary lactic, 174, 180 Aciduria, methylmalonic, 174 Acquired metabolic disorders, 190–193 Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), 165–166 differential diagnosis, 170–171 etiology, 166–167 findings, 167–169 imaging follow-up, 169–170 imaging modality, 167 vs multiple sclerosis, 171 Acute hypertensive hemorrhage, 70 Acute invasive fungal sinusitis, 285 Acute lacunar stroke, 36 Acute mastoiditis (AM), 294, 295 Acute osteoporotic compression fracture, 378 Acute otitis media (AOM), 294 Acute stroke, 41 Acute subdural hematoma, 15, 16 Acute temporal lobe lesions, 201 differential diagnosis, 205–207 etiology, 201–202 imaging follow-up, 205 imaging modality, 202 infections and inflammatory lesions, 203 ADEM See Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) AHT See Abusive head trauma (AHT) Air embolism, cerebral, 232, 234 Alar ligaments, 467 Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score (ASPECTS), 33, 35 ALL See Anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) Allergic eyelid edema, 276 Allergic fungal sinusitis, 288 AM See Acute mastoiditis (AM) American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale, 493 Aneurysmal bone cyst, 390 Aneurysmal IPH, 77 Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, 113, 115 Angioedema, 276 Anterior atlantooccipital membrane, 467 Anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL), 466, 486 Anterior spinal artery (ASA) syndrome, 414 Anterior wedging of vertebral bodies, 482 AOM See Acute otitis media (AOM) Apical ligament, 467 Apical petrositis, 301 Apnea test, 130 Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) map, 33 Aqueductal stenosis, 258, 260 Arachnoid cyst dural, 385 intradural, 392 lesions, 385, 390–391 Arterial ischemic stroke, 45 Arterial spin labeling (ASL), 105 Arteriovenous malformation (AVM), 85, 406 intramedullary hemorrhage associated with, 411 Spetzler–Martin scale for, 87–89 Articular facet capsule, 466 Arytenoid cartilage, 358–359 Ascending transalar herniation, 16–18 Ascending transtentorial herniation (ATH), 16 Aseptic fibrous tissue reaction, 269 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 R Hoffmann Nunes et al (eds.), Critical Findings in Neuroradiology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-27987-9 523 Index 524 ASIA Impairment Scale See American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale ASPECTS See Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score (ASPECTS) Astrocytoma, 428, 429 ATH See Ascending transtentorial herniation (ATH) Atherosclerosis, 366 large-artery, 30 Atlantoaxial rotatory fixation, 486 Atlantoaxial subluxation, 486 Autopsy, 93 AVM See Arteriovenous malformation (AVM) Brainstem herniation, terminal, 130 Brain vascular malformations, 85 classification, 86 clinical manifestations, 86 differential diagnosis, 90–91 etiology, 86 findings, 87–90 imaging follow-up, 90 imaging modality, 87 Bridging vein thrombosis, 241 Buphthalmos, 340 Burst (Jefferson) fractures, 457, 459, 481 B Bacterial epiglottitis, 333 Barkow ligament, 467 Basal ganglia, 187 Basilar skull fracture, 248, 251 Behçet disease, 188, 192 Benign compression fracture, 372, 373, 377 Benign osteoporotic compression fracture, 378 Benign vs malignant fracture, 461–462 Bezold abscess, 295–296 Bilateral cerebral herniation, 14 Bilateral descending transtentorial herniation, 15–16 Bilateral facet dislocations, 458 Bilateral L4 spondylolysis, 481 Bilateral thalamic glioma, 189, 195, 198 Bilirubin encephalopathy, 184 Bithalamic stroke, 189, 195 Bleeding dyscrasias, 244 Blood blister-like aneurysms, 115 Blunt laryngotracheal injuries classification, 356 differential diagnosis, 359 findings, 357–359 imaging follow-up, 359 imaging modality, 356–357 Bone cyst, aneurysmal, 390 Bone infections, temporal See Temporal bone infections Brain abscess in adults differential diagnosis, 148–150 etiology, 142 findings, 145 pathophysiology, 143 pyogenic, 146, 149 frontal lobe, 146 Brain atrophy, 262 Brain death, 129–130, 137–139 ancillary test, 130, 131 determination, 129–130 differential diagnosis, 136 etiology, 130 findings, 133 imaging follow-up, 136 imaging modality, 130–131 Brain edema, 130 Brain infarction, 31 Brain parenchyma, 96 C CA See Child abuse (CA) CAA See Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) Calcified emboli, 33 Calvarial lesion, lytic, 252 Canadian cervical spine rule (CCS), 456 Capillary telangiectasias, 86 Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, 188, 190 Carcinoma, sinonasal squamous cell, 290 Carcinomatosis, meningeal, 26 Cardiac disease, 46, 51 Cardioembolism, 30 Cartilage-forming tumors, 389 Cavernoma, 75, 86, 89, 90 spinal cord, 398, 403, 409, 411 Cavernous carotid fistulas (CCFs), 104, 108 Cavernous malformations, 433 Cavernous sinus thrombosis (CST), 98 CC See Corpus callosum (CC) CCFs See Cavernous carotid fistulas (CCFs) CCJ See Craniocervical junction (CCJ) CCS See Canadian cervical spine rule (CCS) Cell carcinoma, sinonasal squamous, 290 Cellulitis postseptal orbital, 279–283 preseptal orbital, 275–278 Central cord syndrome, 382 Central nervous system (CNS) infections, 142 Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma, 256 Cerebral air embolism, 232, 234 Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), 68–69, 71–72, 74, 75 Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL), 207 Cerebral catheter angiography, brain death, 131 Cerebral contusion, 243 Cerebral edema, 3, 243 classification, differential diagnosis, 9–10 findings, 5–9 imaging follow-up, imaging modality, 4–5 Cerebral herniation, 13–14 bilateral, 14 classification, 14 differential diagnosis, 19 Index etiology, 14 findings, 15–18 imaging follow-up, 18 imaging modality, 14–15 Cerebral ischemia, 362 Cerebral scintigraphy, brain death, 132 Cerebral vasculitis, 46 Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT), 93–95 differential diagnosis, 100 etiology, 95 findings, 96–98 imaging follow-up, 98 imaging modality, 95–96 Cerebritis differential diagnosis, 148 findings, 145 pathophysiology, 143 Cerebrohepatorenal syndrome, 176 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 13 drainage of, flow artifact, 513 Cervical cages, 517 Cervical spine, 456, 478 Cervicocephalic arterial dissections, 46, 50 Chance fractures, 459, 481 Child abuse (CA), 184, 239–240 differential diagnosis, 244–245 etiology, 240 findings, 241–244 imaging follow-up, 244 imaging modality, 240–241 radiographic characteristics associated with, 245 Cholesteatoma, 298, 311 Chronic granulomatous, 285, 286 Chronic invasive fungal sinusitis, 285, 286 Chronic liver disease, 192 Chronic subdural hemorrhage, 242 CJD See Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) CMV ventriculitis, 144 Coagulopathy, 225 Coalescent mastoiditis, 295 Coloboma, 339 Color Doppler ultrasound, 242 Compression fracture See Nontraumatic vertebral collapse Computed tomography (CT) ADEM, 167 HII, 56 IHS, 22–23 RCH, 82 SLI, 488 spinal cord mass, 441 spinal fractures, 456–457 spinal ligamentous injuries in adults, 467 vertebral fractures, 479 Computed tomography angiography (CTA) brain death, 131 brain vascular malformations, 87 incorrectly clipped/coiled aneurysms, 122 ischemic stroke, 31, 33 525 Congenital anomalies, 482 Congenital fusions of spine, 478 Congenital tonsillar herniation, 19 Contrecoup lesions, 212 Contusion, 212–214 cerebral, 243 cortical, 212 Convexity subarachnoid hemorrhage, 115 Cord atrophy, 511 Cord concussion, 503 Cord edema, 511 Coronal reformations, 467 Corpectomy, 516 Corpus callosum (CC), 10 Cortical contusion, 212 Cortical laminar necrosis, 40 Cortical vein thrombosis, 98 C2 pedicle fractures, 457 C1 posterior arch fractures, 457 Cranial pachymeningitis, idiopathic hypertrophic, 26 Craniocervical junction (CCJ), 466, 467 Craniovertebral junction injuries, 486 Creatine deficiency syndrome, 176, 183 Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), 189, 194 Cricoid cartilage, 358 Cricotracheal junction, 359 CSF See Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CT See Computed tomography CTA See Computed tomography angiography (CTA) CVT See Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT) Cystic lesion, arachnoid, 390–391 Cytotoxic cerebral edema, 4–7 D DAI See Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) DAVFs See Dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs) Deep venous occlusion, 189, 195, 197 Degenerative disease, 383 Dehiscent lamina papyracea, 340 Delayed shunt-related pneumocephalus, 232–233 Demyelinating disease, 419–420 Denis three-column theory, 460 Dens fracture, 473, 479 Depressed fractures, 248, 250 Descending transalar herniation, 17 Descending transtentorial herniation (DTH), 15–16 Destructive spondyloarthropathy, 452 Developmental venous anomaly (DVA), 85 Dialysis spondyloarthropathy, 452 Diastatic fractures, 248, 250 Diffuse axonal injury (DAI), 74, 212, 214, 243 Diffuse temporal lobe lesions, 208 Digital subtraction angiography (DSA), 87 incorrectly clipped/coiled aneurysms, 122–123 Dilated perimedullary vessels, 511 Discitis, 450, 521 Disk herniation, 386 Distal ischemia, 362 DSA See Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) DTH See Descending transtentorial herniation (DTH) Index 526 Dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs), 95, 103–104, 111–112, 433 Cognard classification of, 104 differential diagnosis, 110 etiology, 104–105 findings, 105–109 imaging follow-up, 109–110 imaging modality, 105 posterior fossa, 106 Dural sinus thrombosis, 26, 298 Duret hemorrhages, 16 Dynamic MRA, 105 Dynamic stabilization devices, 516 Dyscrasia, bleeding, 244 Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors, 207 Dysplasia, fibromuscular, 353 E EAC See External auditory canal (EAC) EAD See Extracranial arterial dissections (EAD) Early venous filling, 511 Edema See also specific types of edema allergic eyelid, 276 inflammatory, 280 preseptal, 276 EDH See Epidural hematoma (EDH) Electroencephalography, brain death, 131, 133 Emboli, septic pulmonary, 327, 329 Embolism, cerebral air, 232, 234 Emerging ancillary test, 133 EMO See External malignant otitis (EMO) Emphysematous epiglottitis, 333 Empyema in adults differential diagnosis, 148 etiology, 142 findings, 143–144 pathophysiology, 142–143 spinal subdural, 402–403 subdural, 297 Encephalitis flavivirus, 194 herpes simplex, 201, 203 limbic, 203 viral, 189, 194 Encephalopathy bilirubin, 184 glycine, 176 hyperammonemic, 192 hypoxic ischemic, 184 mitochondrial, 174, 176, 180 spongiform, 195 toxic, 188, 190 Wernicke, 188, 190–191 Endovascular thrombectomy, 29 Energy production disorders, 174–175, 180 Enlarged perivascular spaces, 197 Ependymitis granularis, 10 Ependymoma, 397, 428–430, 440, 441 tanycytic, 428 Epidural abscess, 296, 450, 452 Epidural hematoma (EDH), 228 acute, 221 differential diagnosis, 222–223 etiology, 220 findings, 221–222 imaging follow-up, 222 imaging modality, 220 posterior fossa, 219, 222, 223 Epidural hemorrhage, 242 Epidural spinal hematomas (ESHs), 395–396, 405 Epiglottitis, 331–332 bacterial, 333 differential diagnosis, 334 emphysematous, 333 etiology, 332 findings, 332 imaging follow-up, 332 imaging modality, 332 ESHs See Epidural spinal hematomas (ESHs) Esophageal injury, 352 Eustachian tube obstruction, 299 Excitotoxic brain injury, Extensive ligamentous damage, 472 Extensive soft tissue injury, 473 External auditory canal (EAC), 307 External malignant otitis (EMO), 307–308 differential diagnosis, 310–311 etiology, 308 findings, 308–310 imaging follow-up, 310 imaging modality, 308 Extracranial arterial dissections (EAD), 361–362 differential diagnosis, 366 etiology, 362–364 findings, 365–366 imaging follow-up, 366 imaging modality, 364–365 Extradural–extramedullary tumors, 384–385, 388–391 Extradural tumors, 382 Extraosseous soft tissue mass, 375 Eyelid edema, allergic, 276 F Facet dislocations, 458–460 Facet screws, 516 Fast contrast-enhanced MRA, 510 Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD), 353, 366, 367 Fistula, perilymph, 347 Flavivirus encephalitis, 194 Flexion radiographs, 516 FMD See Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) Focal cerebral edema, Focal lesion, 10 Focal temporal lobe mass, 206 Foix–Alajouanine syndrome, 510 Index Fracture See also specific types of fracture inferior blowout, 337 medial blowout, 338 naso-orbital-ethmoidal complex, 338, 340 orbital blowout, 336 zygomaticomaxillary complex, 337, 339, 340 Frontal lobe pyogenic brain abscess, 146 Fungal infection, of sinuses, 285 Fungal sinusitis allergic, 288 invasive (see (Invasive fungal sinusitis)) Fusion assessment, 518 Fusion surgeries, 515 G GA-1 See Glutaric aciduria type I (GA-1) Ganglioglioma, 206, 441, 443 GCS See Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) Germinal matrix hemorrhage (GMH), 56, 57 Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), 130 GLD See Globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD) Glial tumors, 203 Glioblastoma, spinal cord, 433 Glioma, bilateral thalamic, 189, 195, 198 Global cerebral edema, 4, Globe rupture, 339–340 Globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD), 176 Globus pallidi calcifications, 198 Glottic fracture, 358 Glucocorticoids, Glutaric aciduria type I (GA-1), 174, 178–180 Glycine encephalopathy, 176 GMH See Germinal matrix hemorrhage (GMH) Gradenigo syndrome, 301 Gradient-recalled echo (GRE), 82, 385 Granulomatosis, sinonasal Wegener, 290 Granulomatous, chronic, 285, 286 GRE See Gradient-recalled echo (GRE) Grisel syndrome, 321 Growing skull fracture, 248, 251, 252 H Hangman fracture, 457, 481 Harbourview criteria, 456 Hardware misplacement of spine, 515–516 differential diagnosis, 521 etiology, 516 findings, 517–520 imaging follow-up, 520 imaging modality, 516–517 HC See Hydrocephalus (HC) Headache, orthostatic, 25 Hemangioblastoma, 428, 429, 441, 443 Hematoma acute subdural, 15, 16 epidural spinal, 395–396 intradural, 401 527 intraparenchymal, 71 retrobulbar, 337 of soft tissues, 336 spinal epidural, 399, 408, 409 spinal subdural, 410 subdural, 222, 399 vertex epidural, 221 Hematomyelia, 397, 401, 402, 407 subacute, 398 Hemiplegia, ipsilateral, 14 Hemorrhage, 502–503 See also Spinal hemorrhage chronic subdural, 242 epidural, 242 hypertensive, 68, 70–71 iatrogenic spinal, 396 intraparenchymal (see (Intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH))) intraspinal, 395 lobar, 70 pseudo-subarachnoid, retinal, 243–244 secondary, 69, 72 spinal subarachnoid, 400 spontaneous spinal, 396–397 subarachnoid (see (Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH))) subdural, 241 traumatic spinal, 396 Hemorrhagic infarction (HI2), 39 Hemorrhagic necrosis, subacute, 420 Hemorrhagic subacute lesions, 214 Hepatocerebral degeneration, 191 Herniation See also specific types of herniation disk, 386 idiopathic spinal cord, 391 Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE), 201, 203 HGGs See High-grade gliomas (HGGs) High-grade gliomas (HGGs), 203 HII See Hypoxic–ischemic injury (HII) Hippocampal malrotation, 207 Hippocampal sclerosis, 206 Hirayama disease, 391–392 Holocord ependymoma, 442 Horner syndrome, 362 HSE See Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) Hydrocephalus (HC), 16, 255–256 causes, 259 differential diagnosis, 262 etiology, 256 imaging follow-up, 261 imaging modality, 256–259 imaging signs, 260–261 obstructive, 256, 258 ventricular system changes, 259–260 Hygroma, 24 subdural, 228, 242 Hyoid bone, 357 Hyperacute ischemia, 32, 33 Hyperammonemia, 188, 191 528 Hyperammonemic encephalopathy, 192 Hypercellularity, 440 Hyperdense vessel sign, 37 Hyperextension, 487 Hyperextension–dislocation injuries, 468 Hyperflexion, 487 Hyperglycemia, nonketotic, 188, 191–192 Hyperglycinemia, nonketotic, 183–184 Hypertension, systemic arterial, 68 Hypertensive hemorrhage, 68, 70 Hypoglycemia, 62, 188, 192, 193 Hypoplasia, vertebral artery, 368 Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, 184 Hypoxic–ischemic injury (HII), 189, 195, 240, 243 differential diagnosis, 62–63 etiology, 55–56 imaging follow-up, 62 imaging modality, 56 older children mild-to-moderate injury, 60–62 severe injury, 60 postnatal infants and young children mild-to-moderate injury, 59–60 severe injury, 58–59 preterm neonates mild-to-moderate injury, 56–57 severe injury, 56 term neonates mild-to-moderate injury, 57–58 severe injury, 57 I Iatrogenic spinal hemorrhage, 396 ICP See Intracranial pressure (ICP) Idiopathic hypertrophic cranial pachymeningitis, 26 Idiopathic orbital inflammatory disease, 283 Idiopathic spinal cord herniation, 391 IEMs See Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) IHS See Intracranial hypotension syndrome (IHS) Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs), 173–174, 244 MRS use in, 177–178 Incorrectly clipped/coiled aneurysms, 121, 123, 126 differential diagnosis, 126 etiology, 122 findings, 123 imaging follow-up, 123 imaging modality, 122–123 Infarction, Infectious encephalitis, 63 Inferior blowout fracture, 337 Inflammatory cascade theory, 167 Inflammatory disease, idiopathic orbital, 283 Inflammatory edema, 280 Inflammatory preseptal edema, 276 Interbody spacers, 517 Internal jugular vein (IJV) septic thrombophlebitis of, 327 thrombosis, 325 Index Interspinous ligament, 466, 486–487 Interspinous spacers, 517–518 Interstitial cerebral edema, 4, Intimal hyperplasia, and stenosis, 125 Intoxication disorders, 174, 177–179 Intracerebral pneumatocele, 234 Intracranial aneurysm, Raymond-Roy classification of, 124 Intracranial dural arteriovenous shunt, 107 Intracranial hypotension, 19 Intracranial hypotension syndrome (IHS), 21–22 differential diagnosis, 26 etiology, 22 findings, 23–26 imaging follow-up, 26 imaging modality, 22–23 protocol to study, 23 Intracranial large vessel imaging, ischemic stroke, 33–35 Intracranial pressure (ICP), 4, 14 Intracranial vascular territories, 30 Intradural arachnoid cyst, 392 Intradural–extramedullary tumors, 383–384, 388 Intradural hematoma, 401 Intramedullary hemorrhage associated with AVMs, 411 with spinal cord cavernoma, 411 Intramedullary spinal cord tumors, 427, 439 Intraparenchymal hematoma, 71 Intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH) aneurysmal, 77 CAA, 68–69, 71–72, 74, 75 causes, 68 differential diagnosis, 74–77 etiology, 68 findings, 69–70 hypertensive hemorrhage, 68, 70–71 imaging follow-up, 73–74 imaging modality, 69 intensity of signal on MRI of, 72 nontraumatic, 77 secondary hemorrhage, 69, 72, 76 Intraspinal hemorrhage, 395 Intravenous thrombolytic therapy, 29 Invasive fungal sinusitis acute, 285 chronic, 285 differential diagnosis, 288–290 etiology, 286 findings, 286 imaging follow-up, 286–288 imaging modality, 286 IPH See Intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH) Ipsilateral hemiplegia, 14 Ischemia, 14 cerebral, 362 distal, 362 hyperacute, 32, 33 retinal, 362 Ischemic injury, 75 Index Ischemic stroke, 202, 204 in adults, 29–41 brain imaging, 32–33 differential diagnosis, 40–41 etiology, 30–31 imaging follow-up, 38–40 imaging modality, 31–32 intracranial large vessel imaging, 33–35 perfusion imaging, 35–38 in children, 45 differential diagnosis, 51–52 etiology, 46 findings, 47–51 imaging modality, 46–47 non-contrast computed tomography, 31–34 J Jefferson fracture, 457, 481 K Kayser–Fleischer rings, 197 Kearns–Sayre syndrome, 181 Kernohan’s notch phenomenon, 14 Krabbe disease, 176, 182, 183 L Lactic acidosis, primary, 174 Lamina papyracea, dehiscent, 340 Large-artery atherosclerosis, 30 Laryngeal fracture, 355–356 Laryngeal injuries, 351–352 Laryngitis, radiation, 353 Laryngotracheal injuries, blunt, 356 LE See Limbic encephalitis (LE) Leigh syndrome, 182 Lemierre syndrome (LS), 325–326 differential diagnosis, 327, 329 etiology, 326 findings, 326–327 imaging follow-up, 327 imaging modality, 326 Leptomeningeal vascularity score, 37 Lesions, 214 arachnoid cystic, 390–391 contrecoup, 212 hemorrhagic subacute, 212 lytic calvarial, 252 metastatic, 384 ring-enhancing, 151–153 spinal, 383 vascular, 397 Leukodystrophies, 170 LGGs See Low-grade gliomas (LGGs) Ligamentum flavum, 466, 486–487 Limbic disorder, seizure-related, 202, 204–205 Limbic encephalitis (LE), 202, 203 529 Linear skull fracture, 249 Lobar hemorrhage, 70 Lower motor neuron syndrome, 420 Low-grade gliomas (LGGs), 203, 204 LS See Lemierre syndrome (LS) LSD See Lysosomal storage disease (LSD) Ludwig’s angina, 313–314 best imaging modality, 314 differential diagnosis, 316 etiology, 314 findings, 315 imaging follow-up, 315 radiology report, 317 Lumbar apophyseal ring avulsions, 478 Lumbar compression fractures, 480 Lumbar spine, 478–479 Lung carcinoma, vertebral metastases from, 391 Lymph node, retropharyngeal suppurative, 322 Lymphoma, non-Hodgkin, 290 Lysosomal storage disease (LSD), 176 Lytic calvarial lesions, 252 M Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) brain death, 131 brain vascular malformations, 87 ischemic stroke, 31, 33 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ADEM, 167 brain death, 131 brain vascular malformations, 87 hardware misplacement, 516 HII, 56, 57 IHS, 22–23 RCH, 82 SDAVF, 510 SLI, 487–488 spinal ligamentous injuries, 467 spondylodiscitis, 448 traumatic spinal cord injuries, 494 vertebral fractures, 479, 481 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), in IEMs, 177–178 Malignant compression fractures, 378 Malignant fracture, benign vs., 461–462 Manganese accumulation, 188, 191 neurotoxicity, 188 Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), 174, 178, 179 Mastoiditis, 294 acute, 295 coalescent, 295 MD See Menkes disease (MD) Medial blowout fracture, 338 Medullary compression, 495, 498 Medullary contusion, 495 Medullary edema, 495 Medullary hemorrhage, 495 Index 530 Medullary transection, 495–496, 499 Melanosis, neurocutaneous, 207 Meningeal carcinomatosis, 26 Meningioma, 384, 388 sylvian fissure, 16 Meningitis, 26, 117, 244, 297–298 in adults differential diagnosis, 147–148 etiology, 142 findings, 143, 144 pathophysiology, 142–143 tuberculous, 261 Menkes disease (MD), 176, 182, 183 Mesial temporal sclerosis, 206 Metabolic brain disorders, 173–174, 185 differential diagnosis, 184 disorders of biosynthesis, 176, 182, 183 energy production disorders, 174–175, 180 etiology, 174 imaging follow-up, 184 imaging modality, 177 intoxication disorders, 174, 177–179 neurotransmitter defects, 176, 183–184 Metabolic disease, in newborns/ young infants, 175 Metallic hardware, 515 Metastases, 26, 207, 428, 429 Metastatic disease, 371 Metastatic lesions, 384, 390 Methanol intoxication, 188, 190 Methylmalonic acidemia, 174, 178 Methylmalonic aciduria, 174 Microhemorrhage, 216 Mitochondrial disorders, 62, 63 Mitochondrial encephalopathies, 174, 176, 180 Molecular mimicry theory, 167 Monro–Kellie hypothesis, 21 Mount Fuji sign, 233, 235 Moyamoya disease/syndrome, 46, 47, 50 MRA See Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) MRI See Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) MSUD See Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) Multiple sclerosis (MS), 170–171 vs ADEM, 171 Myelinolysis, osmotic, 188, 192 Myelitis, 419 transverse, 434 Myelography, 397 Myelopathy, 510 Myotonic dystrophy type 1, 207 N Naso-orbital-ethmoidal complex fracture, 338, 340 National Emergency X-Radiography Utilization Study (NEXUS), 456 Necrosis cortical laminar, 40 radiation, 270 subacute hemorrhagic, 420 Neoplasia, 77, 202, 203 Neoplasm, 189, 195 primary, 384, 388–391 spinal cord, 428 vasogenic edema, Nerve sheath tumors, 384, 388 Neurocutaneous melanosis, 207 Neurodegenerative disorders, 207 Neuroepithelial tumor, dysembryoplastic, 207 Neuromyelitis optica, 434, 513 Neuropathic spine, 452, 454 Neurosyphilis, 203, 204 Neurotransmitter defect, metabolic brain disorders, 176 Newborns, metabolic disease in, 175 NEXUS See National Emergency X-Radiography Utilization Study (NEXUS) NKH See Nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH) N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, Non-abusive head trauma, 244 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 290 Nonketotic hyperglycemia, 188, 191–192 Nonketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH), 176, 183–184 Nonneoplasic spinal cord lesions, 444 Nonprogressive juvenile spinal muscular atrophy See Hirayama disease Nontraumatic EDH, 220 Nontraumatic IPH, 77 Nontraumatic vertebral collapse, 371–372, 477 differential diagnosis, 377–379 findings, 372–376 imaging follow-up, 376–377 imaging modality, 372 Nuchal ligament, 467 injury, 474 Nuclear medicine, 517 O Obstructive hydrocephalus, 256, 258 Occipital osteodiastasis, 248 Occlusion, deep venous, 189, 195, 197 Odontoid fractures, 457–458 OPLL See Ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) Optica, neuromyelitis, 434 Optimal screw placement, 517 Orbital blowout fracture, 336, 340 Orbital cellulitis postseptal, 279–283 preseptal, 275–278 Orbital decompression surgery, 340 Orbital inflammatory disease, idiopathic, 283 Orbital skin trauma, 277 Orbital trauma differential diagnosis, 339 etiology, 335 findings, 336–338 imaging follow-up, 338–339 imaging modality, 335–336 Index Orthostatic headache, 25 Osler–Rendu–Weber syndrome, 85 Osmotic myelinolysis, 188, 192 Ossification of posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL), 382, 383, 387 Osteomyelitis, 521 Osteoporosis, 371 Osteoporotic compression fracture, 378 Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project (OCSP), 31 P Pachymeningitis, idiopathic hypertrophic cranial, 26 Paget disease, 377 Papyracea, dehiscent lamina, 340 Paralysis, vocal cord, 353 Paraspinal soft tissue involvement, 450 Parenchymal hemorrhage (PH1), 39 Pathological compression fractures, 372 Pathological fractures, 478–479 Pathological suture widening, 252 PCA See Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) Pediatric skull fractures, 247–248 differential diagnosis, 252 etiology, 248 findings, 249–251 imaging follow-up, 252 imaging modality, 248–249 Pediatric spinal ligamentous injury, 485–486 CVJ, 486 differential diagnosis, 490 etiology, 486 findings, 488 imaging follow-up, 490 imaging modality, 487–488 subaxial ligamentous injuries, 486–487 Pediatric vertebral fractures, 477–478 cervical spine, 478 differential diagnosis, 482 etiology, 478 findings, 481 imaging follow-up, 482 imaging modality, 479, 481 thoracic and lumbar spine, 478–479 Pedicle screws, 515–516 Penetrating neck trauma differential diagnosis, 353 etiology, 349–350 findings, 350–352 imaging follow-up, 352 imaging modality, 350 Penetrating orbital/cranial injuries, 268 Perilymph fistula, 347 Perimesencephalic non-aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, 115, 116 Petrositis, apical, 301 Petrous apex, 301, 302 Petrous apicitis differential diagnosis, 304 531 etiology, 301–302 findings, 302, 304 imaging follow-up, 304 imaging modality, 302 Phthisis bulbi, 339 Pilocytic astrocytoma, 442 “Ping pong” fracture, 248, 250, 251 Pituitary gland, 25 PLC See Posterior ligamentous complex (PLC) Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytomas, 207 PLL See Posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL) Pneumatocele, intracerebral, 234 Pneumocephalus, 231–232 delayed shunt-related, 232–233 differential diagnosis, 235 etiology, 232–233 imaging follow-up, 235 imaging modality, 233 post-traumatic, 233 spontaneous otogenic intracerebral, 232 tension, 233, 234 Posterior cerebral artery (PCA), 202 Posterior fossa EDH, 219, 222, 223 Posterior ligamentous complex (PLC), 466, 471 Posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL), 466, 486 Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES), Posterior spinal arteries (PSAs), 414 Postgadolinium T1WI, 450 Postseptal abscess, 280–281 Postseptal cellulitis, 279 Postseptal orbital cellulitis, 279–280 differential diagnosis, 280–283 etiology, 280 findings, 280 imaging modality, 280 Posttraumatic disk herniation, 496 Post-traumatic pneumocephalus, 233 PRES See Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) Preseptal cellulitis, 275, 283 Preseptal edema, 276 Preseptal orbital cellulitis, 275–278 differential diagnosis, 276 etiology, 276 findings, 276 imaging follow-up, 276 imaging modality, 276 Preseptal tumor, 276 Primary lactic acidosis, 174, 180 Primary neoplasms, 384, 388–391 Propionic acidemia, 174, 178 PSAs See Posterior spinal arteries (PSAs) Pseudarthrosis, 518 Pseudo-subarachnoid hemorrhage, 5, 117 Pseudosubluxation of cervical spine, 482 Pyogenic brain abscess, 146, 149 Pyogenic spondylitis, 453 Pyogenic spondylodiscitis, 452 Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency, 181 532 R Radiation laryngitis, 353 Radiation necrosis, 270 Radiographs cervical spine trauma on, 459–460 SLI, 488 spinal cord mass, 440 spondylodiscitis, 448–449 vertebral fractures, 479 Raymond–Roy classification, of intracranial aneurysm, 124 RCH See Remote cerebellar hemorrhage (RCH) Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA), thrombolysis with, 29 Recurrent tumor, 269 Remote cerebellar hemorrhage (RCH), 81–84 differential diagnosis, 82, 84 etiology, 82 findings, 82 imaging follow-up, 82 imaging modality, 82, 83 Retained foreign bodies (RFBs), 265–266 differential diagnosis, 269–271 etiology, 266–267 findings, 267–269 imaging follow-up, 269 imaging modality, 267 Retinal hemorrhage, 243–244 Retinal ischemia, 362 Retrobulbar hematoma, 337 Retropharyngeal abscess, 319–323, 328 differential diagnosis, 322 etiology, 320 findings, 320 imaging follow-up, 321 imaging modality, 320 Retropharyngeal suppurative lymph node, 322 RFBs See Retained foreign bodies (RFBs) Rhinosinusitis, 288, 290 Rhombencephalosynapsis, 258 Ring-enhancing lesion, differential diagnosis, 148, 151–153 rtPA See Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) Ruptured globe injury, 336 S Saccular aneurysm, 115 Sacral sparing, 493 Sagittal CT, 505 Sagittal fluid-sensitive images, 456 Sagittal T2WI, 505 SAH See Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) SCCa See Squamous cell carcinoma (SCCa) SCD See Sickle cell disease (SCD) SCI See Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) Index SCIWNA See Spinal cord injury without neuroimaging abnormality (SCIWNA) SCIWORA See Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality (SCIWORA) Sclerosis hippocampal, 206 mesial temporal, 206 SDAVF See Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula (SDAVF) SDH See Subdural hematoma (SDH) Secondary hemorrhage, 69, 72, 76 Secondary ossification centers, 482 Seizure-related limbic disorders, 202, 204–205 Septic pulmonary emboli, 327, 329 Septic thrombophlebitis, 328 of IJV, 327 SFH See Subfalcine herniation (SFH) Sickle cell disease (SCD), 46, 47 Sigmoid sinus dural arteriovenous shunt, 108 Sinonasal squamous cell carcinoma, 290 Sinonasal Wegener granulomatosis, 290 Sinuses, fungal infection of, 285 Sinusitis acute invasive fungal, 285 allergic fungal, 288 chronic invasive fungal, 285 Sinus thrombosis, 97, 110 cavernous, 98 Sinus venous thrombosis, 84 Skin trauma, orbital, 277 Skull fracture, 244, 247–248 basilar, 248, 251 growing, 248, 251, 252 linear, 249 pediatric (see (Pediatric skull fractures)) uncomplicated, 248 SLI See Spinal ligamentous injury (SLI) Small-artery occlusion (lacunae), 30 Soft tissues damage, 496, 499 hematomas of, 336 Somatosensory evoked potentials (EPs), brain death, 133, 135 SPAM See Subacute progressive ascending myelopathy (SPAM) Spectacular shrinking deficit, 189, 195, 196 Spetzler–Martin scale, for AVMs, 87–89 Spinal arachnoid webs, 393 Spinal catheter angiography, 510 Spinal column injuries, 456, 465 Spinal cord abscess, 434 arterial supply anatomy, 415 cavernoma, 398, 403, 409 intramedullary hemorrhage with, 411 contusion, 494 edema, 497, 502–503 glioblastoma, 433 Index hemorrhage, 496 herniation, 392 idiopathic, 391 infarction, 421, 513 subacute, 419 metastases, 436 neoplasms, 428 vascularization, 414 Spinal cord compression, 381–382 causes, 382 differential diagnosis, 391–393 etiology, 382 findings, 386 imaging follow-up, 391 imaging modality, 385–386 Spinal cord injury without neuroimaging abnormality (SCIWNA), 503 Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality (SCIWORA), 501–502 differential diagnosis, 506 etiology, 502 findings, 502–504 imaging follow-up, 504, 506 imaging modality, 502 Spinal cord ischemia (SCI), 413–414, 422 clinical presentation, 414 differential diagnosis, 418–421 etiology, 415 findings, 416–418 imaging follow-up, 418 imaging modality, 415–416 primary mechanism, 494 secondary mechanism, 494 unilateral, 423 Spinal cord tumors in adults, 427–428 differential diagnosis, 433–434 findings, 429–430 imaging follow-up, 430 imaging modality, 428–429 in children, 439–440 differential diagnosis, 444 etiology, 440 findings, 441, 444 imaging follow-up, 444 imaging modality, 440–441 Spinal deformity, 454 Spinal digital subtraction angiography (spinal DSA), 510–511 Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula (SDAVF), 509–510 differential diagnosis, 513 etiology, 510 findings, 511–512 imaging follow-up, 512–513 imaging modality, 510–511 Spinal epidural abscess, 402 Spinal epidural hematoma, 399, 409, 410 spontaneous, 408 533 Spinal fracture, 455–461 benign vs malignant fracture, 461 classification of vertebral fractures, 460–461 differential diagnosis, 461 etiology, 456 facet dislocations, 458–460 findings, 457 imaging modality, 456–457 Spinal hematoma, 521 Spinal hemorrhage in adults differential diagnosis, 402–403 etiology, 396–397 findings, 397–401 imaging follow-up, 401–402 imaging modality, 397 in children, 405–406 differential diagnosis, 408–409 etiology, 406–407 findings, 407–408 imaging follow-up, 408 imaging modality, 407 iatrogenic, 396 spontaneous, 396–397 traumatic, 396 Spinal injury, 350–351, 486 Spinal lesions, 383 Spinal ligamentous injury (SLI), 485–491 in adults, 465–475 differential diagnosis, 471, 473 etiology, 466–467 findings, 468–469 imaging follow-up, 469 imaging modality, 467–468 radiographs, 468 Spinal meningeal cyst, 385 Spinal paragangliomas, 428 Spinal primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs), 440, 444 Spinal subarachnoid hemorrhage, 400 Spinal subdural empyema, 402–403 Spinal subdural hematoma, 400, 410 Spinal transient ischemic attacks, 414 Spinal tumors, 382–384, 388 Spinal watershed infarcts, 414–415 Spine stability, 465 Spine trauma imaging approach, 461, 462 Spinous process fractures, 459 Spondylitis, tuberculous, 377, 379 Spondylodiscitis, 447–448 differential diagnosis, 452–454 etiology, 448 findings, 449–450 imaging follow-up, 450, 452 imaging modality, 448–449 spondylodiscitis, 447–448 Spondylolysis, 478 Spondylosis, 382, 383, 387 Index 534 Spongiform encephalopathy, 195 Spontaneous otogenic intracerebral pneumocephalus, 232 Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma, 408 Spontaneous spinal hemorrhage, 396–397 Squamous cell carcinoma (SCCa), 310–311 SSA See Sulcocomissural artery (SSA) Standard spine MRI protocol, 468 Staphyloma, 339 Status epilepticus, 10, 63 Stenosis, aqueductal, 258, 260 Stroke acute, 41 acute lacunar, 36 bithalamic, 189, 195 ischemic (see (Ischemic stroke)) Subacute hematomyelia, 398 Subacute hemorrhagic necrosis, 420 Subacute progressive ascending myelopathy (SPAM), 494, 496 Subacute SDH, 227, 229 Subacute spinal cord infarction, 419 Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), 113, 114, 117–118, 222–223, 228–229, 243, 396, 399, 405–407 aneurysmal, 113, 115 convexity, 115 differential diagnosis, 117 etiology, 113, 115 findings, 116 imaging follow-up, 117 imaging modality, 115–116 perimesencephalic non-aneurysmal, 115, 116 pseudo, 117 Subaxial cervical fractures, 480 Subaxial cervical spine injury classification system, 460–461 Subaxial hyperflexion, 468 Subaxial injuries, 478 Subaxial ligamentous injuries, 486–487 Subdental synchondrosis, 482 Subdural empyema, 297 Subdural hematoma (SDH), 15, 16, 222, 225–227, 396, 399, 405, 407 acute, 227 chronic, 226, 227 differential diagnosis, 228–229 etiology, 226 imaging follow-up, 227–228 imaging modality, 226 neuroradiological diagnosis of, 399 Subdural hemorrhage, 241 chronic, 242 Subdural hygroma, 228, 242 Subfalcine herniation (SFH), 14, 15 Subglottic fracture, 358 Subperiosteal abscess, 281, 295, 296 Sulcocomissural artery (SSA), 414 Superficial venous thrombosis, 94 Supraglottic fracture, 357 Supraspinous ligament, 466 Susceptibility weighted-imaging (SWI), 494 Sutures, 252 Sylvian fissure meningioma, 16 Systemic arterial hypertension, 68 T Tanycytic ependymoma, 428 TBI See Traumatic brain injury (TBI) Teardrop fracture, 458 Tectorial membrane, 467 Temporal bone fractures, 343–345 comminuted, 346 differential diagnosis, 347 etiology, 345 findings, 346–347 imaging follow-up, 347 imaging modality, 345–346 longitudinal, 344 transverse, 344 Temporal bone infections, 293–294 differential diagnosis, 298–299 etiology, 294 findings, 295–298 imaging follow-up, 298 imaging modality, 294–295 Temporal sclerosis, mesial, 206 Tension pneumocephalus, 233, 234 Terminal brainstem herniation, 130 TGA See Transient global amnesia (TGA) Thalami, 187 Thalamic glioma, bilateral, 189, 195, 198 Thoracic spine, 478–479 Thoracolumbar injury classification and severity (TLICS) score, 460, 461 3D time-of-flight (3D TOF) MR angiography (MRA), 105 Thrombolysis, with rtPA, 29 Thrombosis bridging vein, 241 cavernous sinus, 98 cerebral venous (see (Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT))) cortical vein, 98 dural sinus, 26, 298 internal jugular vein, 325 sinus, 97 sinus venous, 84 superficial venous, 94 venous, Thyroid cartilage, 357–358 Time-resolved imaging of contrast kinetics (TRICKS), 105 TLICS score See Thoracolumbar injury classification and severity (TLICS) score Tonsillar abscess, 328 Tonsillar herniation, 18 Toxic encephalopathy, 188, 190 Index 535 Tracheolaryngeal injuries, 351–352 Transalar herniation, 16–17 Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography, brain death, 131 Transcranial herniation, 18 Transient global amnesia (TGA), 202, 205 Transient lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum, 10 Transverse ligament of the atlas, 467 Transverse myelitis, 434 Transverse occipital ligament, 467 Trauma, 232, 266–267, 388 non-abusive head, 244 orbital, 335–340 orbital skin, 277 Traumatic brain injury (TBI), 211–212, 215–216, 225 differential diagnosis, 215 etiology, 212 imaging follow-up, 214 imaging modality, 212–213 Traumatic EDH, 220 Traumatic fractures, 478 Traumatic spinal cord injury, 382, 493–494 differential diagnosis, 496–497 etiology, 494 findings, 494–496 imaging follow-up, 496 imaging modality, 494 pathophysiology, 494 Traumatic spinal hemorrhage, 396 Traumatic subdural hygroma, 242 Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) classification system, 30 Truncation artifact, 497 TS See Tuberculous spondylitis (TS) Tuberculous meningitis, 144, 261 Tuberculous spondylitis (TS), 377, 379, 452 Tuberculous spondylodiscitis, 452, 453 Tumor See also specific types of tumor hemorrhage, 397 vasogenic edema in, Tunica intima, 361 V Vasa vasorum, 361 Vascular disorders, 189, 195 Vascular grooves, 252 Vascular injury, 350, 459 Vascularization, spinal cord, 414 Vascular lesions, 397 Vasculitis, 46, 50 Vasogenic cerebral edema, 4, 6–8 Venous congestion, 511 Venous thrombosis, 6, 75 cerebral (see (Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT))) superficial, 94 Ventriculitis, in adults differential diagnosis, 148 findings, 143 pathophysiology, 143 Ventriculostomy, Ventriculus terminalis, 444 Vertebral artery hypoplasia, 368 Vertebral body replacement (corpectomy), 516 Vertebral fractures, 477–483 classification of, 460–461 Vertebral metastases, 391 Vertebral osteomyelitis, 449 Vertex epidural hematoma, 221 Viral encephalitis, 189, 194 Virchow–Robin spaces, 197 Vocal cord paralysis, 353 Von Hippel–Lindau disease, 435 U Uncal herniation, 15–16 Uncomplicated skull fractures, 248 Unilateral descending transtentorial herniation, 15, 16 Unilateral facet dislocation, 458–459 Unilateral spinal cord ischemia, 423 Urea cycle defects, 174, 177, 178 Urine disease, maple syrup, 178 X Xanthoastrocytoma, pleomorphic, 207 W Wedged compression vertebral fracture, 481 Wegener granulomatosis, sinonasal, 290 Wernicke encephalopathy, 188, 190, 191 Whiplash shaken-baby syndrome, 240 White cerebellum sign, Wilson’s disease, 197 Wyburn–Mason syndrome, 85 Z Zellweger syndrome, 176, 182 Zygomaticomaxillary complex fracture, 337, 339, 340 .. .Critical Findings in Neuroradiology Renato Hoffmann Nunes Ana Lorena Abello • Mauricio Castillo Editors Critical Findings in Neuroradiology Editors Renato Hoffmann Nunes Division of Neuroradiology. .. critical findings. ” For example, engineers of the National Bridge Inspection Standards follow a checklist of critical findings to find and prevent structural damage of a bridge A critical finding... differential diagnoses of the main critical findings in neuroradiology For this purpose we have selected those conditions considered as critical findings in our institutions, and although we understand