understanding drugs and behavior

Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Understanding Drugs and Behaviour Andrew Parrott Department of Psychology, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea, UK Alun Morinan School of Health & Bioscience, University of East London, London, UK Mark Moss Division of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK Andrew Scholey Division of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK www.Ebook777.com Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (þ44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wileyeurope.com or www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (þ44) 1243 770620 This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Understanding drugs and behaviour / Andrew Parrott [et al.] p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-470-85059-0 (cloth : alk paper) – ISBN 0-471-98640-2 (pbk : alk paper) Psychopharmacology Drugs of abuse Drugs I Parrott, Andrew RM315.U45 2004 615 78 – dc22 2004000221 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-470-85059-0 (hbk) ISBN 0-471-98640-2 (pbk) Project management by Originator, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk (typeset in 10/12pt Times and Stone Sans) Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production For Felicity, Rebecca and Laura For Mary, Ciara´n and Gareth For Holly Mae For Lola Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Contents About the authors Preface Part I Drugs and Their Actions Psychoactive drugs: introduction and overview The brain, neurons and neurotransmission Principles of drug action 25 Part 10 II Non-medical Use of Psychoactive Drugs CNS stimulants: amphetamine, cocaine and caffeine Nicotine and cigarette smoking LSD and Ecstasy/MDMA Cannabis Heroin and opiates CNS depressants: alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines Alcoholism and drug dependence Part 11 12 13 14 III Clinical and Medicinal Use of Drugs Antipsychotics for schizophrenia Antidepressants and mood stabilisers Nootropics for Alzheimer’s disease Cognitive enhancers ix xi 39 41 55 71 85 103 119 133 151 153 171 187 203 Part IV Final Overview 219 15 Current knowledge and future possibilities 221 Glossary Key psychopharmacology and addiction journals Internet sources of information about psychoactive drugs References Index www.Ebook777.com 235 251 253 257 291 About the authors Andy Parrott has published over 300 journal articles and conference papers, covering a wide range of psychoactive drugs The first publications from his PhD at the University of Leeds were concerned with antipsychotic medications Then, as a postdoctoral researcher with the Human Psychopharmacology Research Unit at Leeds University, he investigated the effects of second-generation antidepressants and benzodiazepines on cognitive performance and car-driving skills Moving to the Institute of Naval Medicine in Hampshire, he was tasked with determining the practical utility of anti-seasickness medications, such as transdermal scopolamine, in land and sea trials Further trials investigated the cognitive side effects of nerve agent prophylactics At the University of East London he established the Recreational Drugs Research Group, which investigated a number of disparate topics: caffeine in shift workers, anabolic steroids in weightlifters, amphetamine and LSD in party goers and nootropics as potential ‘‘smart drugs’’ At Humboldt State University in California, he assessed the everyday functioning of excessive cannabis users However, his two main research areas are nicotine and MDMA/Ecstasy In an extensive research programme he has shown how nicotine dependency is psychologically damaging and causes increased psychological distress The Recreational Drugs Research Group which he founded at the University of East London is, however, most well known for its work with recreational MDMA/Ecstasy users Their cognitive research papers have been awarded the British Association for Psychopharmacology Organon prize on two occasions Professor Parrott’s work is featured regularly in the media He sits on the editorial boards of leading psychopharmacology journals, and he has organised a number of international symposia Recently, he moved to the University of Wales at Swansea Here, he is continuing with a number of collaborative studies, including a large UK/US prospective study investigating the effects of recreational drug use during pregnancy Alun Morinan graduated in Biochemistry from the University of Wales at Aberystwyth and went on to complete an MSc in Pharmacology at the University of London and a PhD in Neuropharmacology at the National University of Ireland in Galway After postdoctoral research in Pharmacology at Galway and Biochemistry at the Institute of Psychiatry, he was appointed Lecturer x About the authors in Pharmacology at North East Surrey College of Technology before moving to his current post of Principal Lecturer at the University of East London His publications have been mainly in the fields of experimental psychopharmacology and neurochemistry covering topics such as alcohol dependence, anxiety, schizophrenia and enzymology Mark Moss studied applied chemistry and spent 10 years in industry before returning to university to study Psychology He completed his PhD in 1999 and was involved in the establishment of the Human Cognitive Neuroscience Unit at Northumbria University His research portfolio has focused primarily on aspects of cognitive functioning in healthy young volunteers, with journal articles and conference presentations relating to both enhancement through natural interventions and drug-induced impairments Mark is currently programme leader for the Division of Psychology at Northumbria University Andrew Scholey is a Reader in Psychology at the Division of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne He has published hundreds of journal articles and conference papers, covering the cognitive effects of many recreational and medicinal drugs His PhD and postdoctoral fellowship at the Brain and Behaviour Research Group, Open University, examined the neurochemical substrates of memory formation He moved to Northumbria University in 1993, where his research has concentrated on the acute and chronic impairing and enhancing effects of various drugs including benzodiazepines, alcohol, caffeine, glucose, oxygen (with Mark Moss) and herbal extracts In 1999 Andrew established the Human Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, of which he is the director The work of this unit concentrates on the potential for nonmainstream treatments to enhance cognitive performance These have ranged from metabolic interventions (notably glucose and oxygen) to low doses of alcohol and even to drinking water (in thirsty individuals) and to chewing gum Andrew is also the co-director of the Medicinal Plant Research Centre His present focus of research aims to disentangle the neurocognitive effects of herbal extracts, to attempt to identify relationships between their behavioural effects and their neurochemical properties and to identify safe treatments that may be effective in the treatment of conditions where cognition becomes fragile, including dementia He is currently involved in trials examining the effects of herbal extracts in Alzheimer’s disease Andrew is also committed to the public dissemination of science which has led to numerous appearances in the print, radio and television media Preface Drugs are a crucial part of modern society Many are used for recreational purposes, with alcohol, nicotine and caffeine all being legal However, others are illegal, and they include cannabis, Ecstasy, cocaine and heroin In the past 50 years a number of medicinal compounds have been developed for schizophrenia, depression and other clinical disorders They have dramatically improved the wellbeing of many people diagnosed with these disorders But what exactly are the effects of these different types of drug? How precisely they alter behaviour? How is it that such small chemicals can have such dramatic effects on mood and cognition, sensation and awareness, health and well-being? Why are only some drugs highly addictive? Our core aim is to provide detailed answers for all these questions We hope this book will not only be of interest to students of psychology, behavioural sciences, health sciences and nursing but also to undergraduates of physiology and pharmacology who wish to find out more about the behavioural aspects of drug use Our aim throughout is to present the material in a reader-friendly fashion We have taught undergraduates in many different disciplines and have therefore become skilled at explaining this material to students without any formal scientific background We will describe how psychoactive drugs can alter brain chemistry and, hence, modify behaviour We offer an accessible route through basic aspects of brain organisation and functioning Normally, these areas are difficult for many undergraduate students However, by approaching them through the mechanisms of drug action, we hope to stimulate an active interest in this area We have planned every chapter to be self-contained Each commences with a general overview, before the core material is presented in depth; this is followed by a list of questions that should prove useful for both students and their lecturers Finally, there are several key articles, followed by a list of further references Many of the chapters in this book have been tested out on our students Not only did they report that the chapters were all excellent (in feedback sessions that were obviously not blind!) they also informed us that they particularly liked this reference format They found it useful when writing essays, preparing projects and, most importantly, when ‘‘cramming’’ for exams xii Preface In terms of its overall structure, we have focused on the main types of drug used in society Thus, alcohol and nicotine have chapters largely dedicated to them Similarly, there is a whole chapter on cannabis, while another is shared by LSD and Ecstasy/ MDMA We also cover opiates, such as heroin, and CNS stimulants, such as amphetamine and cocaine Turning to drugs for clinical disorders, one chapter is dedicated to antipsychotic medications for schizophrenia, while another covers antidepressant drugs We also look at more novel areas, such as drugs for Alzheimer’s disease, as well as nootropics and herbal preparations to improve cognitive functioning In every chapter we have focused not only on drug effects but also on how these interact with environmental factors We have also noted how drugs often need to be combined with psychological therapy to achieve the optimal clinical outcome One of the benefits of working as a team of four co-authors is that between us we have a great deal of knowledge about all aspects of drugs and behaviour Thus, every chapter is informed by a high level of research expertise Indeed, in several fields the authors are leading international research authorities We believe that drugs are not only very important for society but also very fascinating in their own right Certainly, they have intrigued us for many years, and we hope to pass on some of this interest and fascination to our readers Andy Parrott Alun Morinan Mark Moss Andy Scholey Universities of Swansea, East London and Northumbria Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com PART I Drugs and Their Actions Psychoactive drugs: introduction and overview The brain, neurons and neurotransmission Principles of drug action 25 www.Ebook777.com 306 Index hypotension 161, 178, 209 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal axis (HPA) 13, 175, 215 hypothalamus, concepts 13, 78, 91, 162, 175, 190–2 hypothermic effects, cannabis 90–1 hypoxia 205, 208 IH see inhalation routes Illes, P 110 IM see intramuscular administration imipramine 4, 30–2, 38, 174–8, 180 impotence see sexual performance India cannabis 86 historical background 4, 86, 105 opiates 105 indolealkylamines 73 indomethacin 200 inflammation 20 information-processing issues brain 12–14, 203–16 cognitive enhancers 5, 16, 62–3, 203–22, 232 reaction time links 12 inhalation routes (IH) cannabis 5, 28, 87–8, 227–8 concept 5, 28–9, 44–5, 47, 55, 60–70 opiates 104–5, 106–10 inhibitory neurotransmitters 22–3, 33–5, 121, 222–3 see also GABA initial breakdown, schizophrenia 155–7 injections 25, 27–8, 30, 37–8, 44, 47, 105, 106–11, 116, 120, 149, 153, 223–4, 228 ‘‘insanity’’ models, Victorian era 160, 231 insomnia 173, 180 insulin 27 inter-cigarette intervals 61 International Olympics Committee (IOC) 48–9 Internet, information sources 255–7 interneurons, concepts 9, 10–11, 109–10 intramuscular administration (IM) 27, 112, 167 intraocular pressure (IOP) 100 intraperitoneal administration (IP) 27 intrathecal administration (IT) 27 intravenous administration (IV) 27–8, 106–13, 116, 120, 149, 223–4, 228 introverts 49–50 IOC see International Olympics Committee ions, concepts 15–23, 33, 61–2, 109–10, 121–4, 127–8, 137, 182–3, 200, 222–3 IOP see intraocular pressure IP see intraperitoneal administration iproniazid 174, 176–7 Islam 86 isoenzymes, concepts 31 isoniazid 176 IT see intrathecal administration IV see intravenous administration Ivy, A.C 43 James I, King of England 56 Japan amphetamines 43 cigarettes 60 jimson weed 83 Johnson, J.G 64 Julien 75 Jung, Carl Gustav 154 ‘‘junk’’ see heroin Kane, J.M 165, 166 Kennedy, D 205, 214–16 Kennedy, John F 87 Kentridge, R 129 ketamine 71, 82–3, 155, 163–4 khat leaves 50–1 kidneys, elimination processes 32 knee-jerk reflexes 11–12 Koelega, H.S 125–6 Kolb, B 12 Korsakoff ’s syndrome, alcoholism 140 Kraepelin, Emil 154, 188 Kuhn, C 176 L-acetylcarnitine 208–9 L-amphetamine, potency 21 L-dopa 33, 161, 179 Laborit, H 164 Laing, R.D 154 lamotrigine 171, 183–4 Lane, R 180 Index language skills 13 lapse problems 148–9, 230 laudanum 105–6 lavender 212 learning 13, 190–2, 205–16, 223, 228 Leary, Timothy 73 Lee, T 162 legal classifications 87, 97, 99, 229 see also crime cannabis 87, 97, 99 lemon balm 203, 216 Lewy bodies 187–8, 201 LGICR see ligand-gated ion channel receptors Librium 128 Licata, A 45 lidocaine 17 life expectancies 188, 201 ‘‘life opportunities’’ 145 ligand-gated ion channel receptors (LGICR) 18–19, 21, 121–2 lignocaine 17 limbic system concepts 10, 13, 91, 110, 115, 137, 162–3, 166, 212 structure 13, 91, 162–3 lipid diffusion 29 lipids 19–20, 29 lithium 32, 171, 174, 182–3, 231 background 182–3, 231 side effects 182–3 liver alcoholic hepatitis 139 alcoholics 31, 120, 136, 139–40 cannabis 94 cirrhosis 120, 139–40 fatty liver 139–40 metabolism processes 31–2, 88–90, 94, 109, 123, 139–40, 180–1 nootropics 194–5 oral administration routes 29, 139–40 local anaesthetics 17, 48 locomotor effects, anandamide 90 locus coeruleus 73–4, 110 lofepramine 177–8 lofexine 34 lorazepam 128–9 low and alcohol-free products 230 low-density lipoproteins 199 low-tar cigarettes 58–9 Lo¨wi, Otto 19 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) 4, 6, 44, 48, 71–6, 82, 155, 160–1, 224 administration routes 28, 71–6 adverse reactions 74–6, 155, 160 background 4, 6, 71–6, 82, 155, 160–1, 224 bad trips 74–5, 82, 224 main properties 4, 6, 71–6, 224 negative effects 71–6, 82, 155, 160–1, 224 pharmacological effects 73–5 psychological effects 73–5, 155, 160–1, 224 psychotic disorders 75–6, 155, 160–1 tolerance issues 35 trip duration 72–3 Lyketsos, C.G 95–6 lysergic acid diethylamide see LSD MacAndrew, C 127 McKenzie, E 43 McKinley, William 42 macromolecules 33 ‘‘magic mushrooms’’ 72–3, 82–3 magnesium levels, Alzheimer’s disease 196 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 97–8, 110, 157–8, 190, 204 magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) 158, 204 Maisto, S.A 75 male adolescents, alcohol 137–8 mandrake 83 mania concepts 171–84, 209, 231 psychological therapies 184 symptoms 171–3 manic depression, concepts 171–3, 182–4, 231 manual work, cannabis 96–7 MAO see monoamine oxidase Marder, S.R 166 marijuana 5, 86–102 see also cannabis Marlatt, G.A 69, 230 MAST see Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test Matthews, G.G 12 307 308 Index ‘‘maturing out’’ 147 May, P.R.A 168 MDA 76, 81, 82–3 MDE 76, 82 MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) 4–5, 28, 36–8, 43, 44, 46, 50, 71, 76–84, 147, 155, 224–6, 230 see also amphetamines administration routes 28, 76–7 background 5, 15, 50, 71, 76–84, 143, 147, 155, 224–6, 230 clubbing activities 37, 43, 71, 76–8 deaths 77–8 dependence issues 36, 44, 143, 147, 224–6 fluid levels 77–8 memory problems 78–81 metabolism processes 31 naming variations 76 negative effects 15, 36, 44, 71, 77–82, 147, 155, 224–6 neuronal losses 15 neurotoxicity 78–80, 81 pharmacological effects 77–8, 224–6 positive effects 76–7, 82, 224–6 psychological effects 77–8, 147, 155, 224–6 purity measures 81 research difficulties 80–1 sexual performance 77, 79–80 statistics 5, 76–7 trends 5, 76–7 mechanoreceptors, concepts 10, 13 medial septal area, Alzheimer’s disease 190–2 median forebrain bundle 45 medicinal effects cannabis 85–7, 99–102 drug uses 4, 85–7, 99–102, 153, 230–1 opiates 103–5, 111–12, 225 medulla oblongata, concepts 10, 14, 99, 111 Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) 203, 216 memantine 196 memory 13, 14–15, 78–83, 189–201, 204–16 alcohol 120–1, 124–7, 134–5, 140–1 Alzheimer’s disease 189–201 benzodiazepines 129–30 blood glucose levels 204–11, 215, 232 cannabis effects 81, 86, 92–5, 225 cognitive enhancers 204–16, 232 limbic system 13, 212 MDMA effects 78–81 meninges, concepts 12–13 menopause 200 mental efforts, cognitive enhancers 211 mental hospitals, closures meperidine 108 mescaline 3–4, 72, 73, 75–6, 82–3 mesocortical dopaminergic tract 162 mesolimbic dopaminergic tract 162–3, 166 meta-analysis 37 metabolism processes 25, 26, 30–2, 61, 88–90, 94, 121–4, 136, 139–40, 180–1, 204, 210–11 brain 204, 210–11 concepts 30–2, 88, 180–1, 204, 210–11 responses 31–2, 222 metabotropic receptors see class receptors methadone 106–9, 115–16, 148 methamphetamine 45, 47 methylenedioxymethamphetamine see MDMA methylphenidate 49, 112 mianserin 34, 177, 180 Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (MAST) 136 midazolam 129 midbrain concepts 12–13, 137, 162, 228 dopamine system 137, 162, 228 migraine, cannabis 101 Mindus, P 208 Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) 195 mirtazepine 34, 177 mitochondria, concepts 14–15, 178–9 Mix, J.A 214 MMSE see Mini-Mental State Examination moclobemide 34, 179 moderate drinking see also alcohol concept 134–6 monoamine oxidase inhibitors, depression 171, 174–9 monoamine oxidase (MAO) 20, 31, 33–4, 161, 171, 174–9 monoamines 19–20, 33–4, 45, 71, 161, 171, 174–84 Index see also dopamine; noradrenaline; serotonin depression 174–5 monosynaptic reflexes, concepts 11–12 monozygotic twins depression 173 schizophrenia 159 mood normalisation levels, nicotine 64, 144 mood-stabilising drugs 182–4 moods 4, 6, 13, 41–53, 62–3, 79–80, 147, 171–84, 212 antidepressants 171–84 drug uses 4, 6, 41–53, 62–3, 91–3, 147, 171–84 limbic system 13, 91, 115, 162–3, 166, 212 moral considerations, addictions 146–7 morbid jealousy, concepts 139 Moreau 91–2 morphine 4, 6, 33–4, 42, 103–17, 143–4, 146, 228 see also opiates discovery 105, 107 dosage issues 228 elimination processes 32, 108 heroin contrasts 107–8, 228 main properties 4, 6, 33–4, 103–17, 143–4, 146 Moss, M.C 212 motivational enhancement therapy, alcoholism 141–2 motor efferents, concepts 9–12 MRI see magnetic resonance imaging MRS see magnetic resonance spectroscopy multi-component approaches, treatments 141–2, 147–8, 199–201, 221–2, 231–2 multi-factor models, Alzheimer’’s disease 193–4 multiple sclerosis 17, 85, 99–100 muscarine 22–3, 178, 192, 196, 216 muscle-relaxant effects, cannabis 100 muscles 10–11, 25, 27–8, 30, 100, 153, 166–7 administration routes 25, 27–8, 166–7 depot injections 25, 27, 30, 153, 166–7 mushrooms 3–4 myelin, concepts 17 NA see noradrenaline nAChR see nicotinic acetylcholine receptors naloxone 34, 100, 115–16 naltrexone 115, 142, 148 narcolepsy 49 narcotic analgesics see also opiates concepts 103–4 nasal administration (NS) 28 Native Americans 3–4 nausea 92–3, 100, 111–14, 135–6, 180, 183, 195, 209 NBM see nucleus basalis of Meynert Neave, N 130 ‘‘needle freaks’’ 37–8, 228 negative feedback loops 34–5, 175 neocortex 163–4, 169 neostigmine 26–7 neostriatum see corpus striatum nervous system see also central ; peripheral alcoholism 140–1 concepts 9–24, 140–1 structure 9–12, 222–3 neural plaques, Alzheimer’s disease 187, 194, 196–9 neural tube defects 184 neurobiological changes, Alzheimer’s disease 189–90 neurochemical issues antidepressants 176–81 concepts 45–53, 61, 73, 121–4, 137, 143, 160–4, 174–81 depression 174–5 schizophrenia 160–4 neurocognitive impairment, schizophrenia 156–7 neurodegenerative possibilities, schizophrenia 158–9 neurofibrillary tangles, Alzheimer’s disease 187, 194, 196–201 neurogenesis, concepts 14–15 neuroglia 159 neuroimaging data 78, 97–8, 110, 141, 153, 157–9, 163–4, 168, 190, 204 Alzheimer’s disease 190 background 153, 157–9, 163–4, 168, 204 brain metabolism 204 cannabis 97 309 310 Index neuroimaging data (cont.) schizophrenia 153, 157–9, 163–4, 168 types 157–9, 204 neuroleptic malignant syndrome 166 neuroleptics 161–3, 165–9 atypical neuroleptics 167–9 schizophrenia 161–3, 165–9 neuromodulators 20, 90, 110 neuronal adaptation, dependence 143 neurons 6–7, 9–12, 14–24, 33–4, 45, 89–91, 157–8, 187–201, 222–3 see also neurotransmitters; synapses action potential 15–24, 45, 109–10, 183 Alzheimer’’s disease 187–201 concepts 6–7, 9–12, 14–24, 33–4, 45, 89–91, 157–8, 187–201, 222–3 description 14, 15 ions 15–23, 33, 61–2, 109–10, 121–4, 127–8, 137, 182–3, 200, 222–3 loss statistics 15 replacement issues 14–15, 200 resting membrane potential 16–18 statistics 14 stimulation processes 16–18 structure 14–15 tolerance issues types 9–11, 14–15 neuropeptides, concepts 6, 19–21, 109–10, 164, 181 neuroreceptors see receptors neuroscience 12–15, 19–20 neurosteroids 121–2, 130 neurotensin 164 neurotoxic drugs 15, 78–81 neurotransmitters 3–4, 6–7, 9, 11, 16–23, 25, 33–5, 62, 89–91, 109–10, 121–4, 222–3 see also acetylcholine; dopamine; GABA; glutamate; histamine; neuropeptides; noradrenaline; serotonin biosynthesis 33 chemical families 19–20 concepts 3–4, 6–7, 9, 11, 16–23, 25, 33–5, 62, 90, 109–10, 121–2, 222–3 distribution 20 drug effects 6–7, 9, 25, 33–5, 90 experimental discovery 19 pharmacodynamics 25, 26, 32–5, 61 receptors 10–11, 17–23, 25, 30, 32–8, 46, 61–2, 73–4, 82–3, 89–91, 109–10, 121–4, 137, 160–9, 174–7, 222–3 release processes 17–18 synapses 9, 11–12, 14–23, 33–4, 45, 191–2, 222–3 toxic gases 23 types 6–7, 19–23, 33–5, 62, 121, 122 neurotrophic factors, reductions 175 New Zealand, tobacco 56, 60, 65 Nicholls, J.G 12 nicotine 4–5, 6–8, 22, 27–8, 51, 55–70, 144, 147–8, 223–4, 229–30, 256 see also cigarettes; tobacco abstinence effects 63–4, 65–9 administration routes 27–8, 55 alcohol effects 68–9 background 4–5, 8, 55–70, 144, 147–8, 223–4, 229–30 behavioural issues 60–1, 224 children 55–6, 57–9, 64–5, 67–9, 144, 230 CNS stimulants 51 cognitive enhancers 62–3 contradictory effects 62 deaths 8, 36, 55, 57–60, 224 dependence 7–8, 36, 55–69, 144, 147, 223–4 first-time usage 6–7, 67 health consequences 7–8, 36, 46–8, 55–70, 223–4 heavy/light use contrasts 66–7 historical background 4–5, 56 mood normalisation levels 64, 144 negative effects 7–8, 46–8, 55–70, 223–4, 229–30 patches 27, 68, 148 pharmacological effects 61–2 psychological effects 62–5, 67, 69, 147, 223–4 relapse problems 68–9 statistics 4–5, 8, 55–70 stress 55, 59, 62–4, 224 tar links 55, 58–9, 98, 224–5 treatments 55, 59, 67–9, 115, 148 trends 5, 8, 55–70, 223–4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) 21–2, 55, 122, 137, 192, 216 nigrostriatal tract 20, 162, 166 Index nimodipine 209–10 Nissen, M.J 207 nitrazepam 128 nitric oxide (NO) 23, 28, 111, 119 NMDA receptor 22, 122, 153, 163–4, 169, 182–3, 196 NO see nitric oxide nociceptors, concepts 10, 13 node of Ranvier, concepts 15, 17 Noe¨l, X 141 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 200–1 nootropics 4–5, 187–204, 207–10, 232, 257 see also Alzheimer’s disease; Aricept; tacrine background 4–5, 187–204, 207–10, 232, 257 cognitive enhancers 207–10, 232 concepts 207 developments list 4, 210 main properties 4, 5, 187–201, 207–10 side effects 194–6 noradrenaline (norepinephrine), concepts 6, 19–23, 33–4, 41–53, 62, 73–4, 77, 91, 110, 111, 122, 160, 171, 174–8, 181 norpethidine 115 nortriptyline 177–8 novel approaches, cognitive enhancers 207, 211–16 novocaine 48–9 NS see nasal administration NSAIDs see non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs nucleus, concepts 14–15, 91, 190–2 nucleus accumbens 91, 110, 137, 145–6, 162, 209 nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM), Alzheimer’s disease 190–2 obsessive–compulsive disorder 129, 182 occipital lobe 13, 191–2 Odysseus (Homer) oestrogen, Alzheimer’s disease 200 olfactory nerve 212 oligodendrocytes 17 Olin, J 208 omega-3 213, 232 ondansetron 142 opiates 4, 6, 23, 28–9, 90, 93, 103–17, 143–6, 225, 256 see also codeine; heroin; morphine administration routes 28–9, 37–8, 60, 103–5, 106–7, 108–13, 116, 228 analgesic effects 103–17, 143, 225 anxiety 110–12 babies 113–14 background 5, 7–8, 34, 36–8, 103–17, 143–6, 225, 256 chemical structures 107–8 children 106–7, 113–14 chronic usage 112–13 cognitive effects 111–15, 225 collapsed veins 113 constipation 111–12, 114 crime 107, 113–14, 146 cross-tolerance 36 deaths 107–9, 113, 115–16, 149, 225 dependence 7–8, 34, 36, 104–17, 143–6, 225 dosage issues 228 endogenous compounds 109–10, 114–15 first-time usage 111 half-lives 108–9 health consequences 111–16 historical background 3–4, 103–8 list main properties 4, 6, 103–17 medicinal effects 103–5, 111–12, 225 metabolism processes 107–9 ‘‘needle freaks’’ 37–8, 228 negative effects 7–8, 34, 36, 103–17, 225 overdoses 105–6, 115–16, 149 physiological effects 111–15 positive effects 103–5, 111–12, 225 psychological effects 37–8, 111, 225, 228 recreational uses 105–17 relapse problems 148–9 sexual performance 113 social decline 112–14 sources 103–7 statistics 5, 106–7, 115–16, 148–9 subjective effects 110–11 synthetic products 108, 115–16 tolerance 36, 108–11, 114–16, 143–4, 225 toxins 115–16 311 312 Index opiates (cont.) treatments 69, 108, 115, 147–8, 210 withdrawal symptoms 114–15, 144, 146, 225 opioid receptors, alcoholism 137 opium 3–4, 28–9, 103–6, 228 see also heroin historical background 3–4, 103–6 oral administration routes 27–9, 44–5, 108–12, 120–1, 139–40 Ornstein, T.J 111 Osler, William 103 Osmond 160 osteoporosis, alcohol 140 Ouimette, P.C 141 overdoses 14, 29, 47, 105–6, 115–16, 149 CNS depressants 14, 149 relapse problems 149 overview 221–33 oxazepam 128 oxidative damage 199 oxiracetam 208 oxygen, brain needs 204–11, 232 oxyhaemoglobin 158 pain, drug uses 4, 6, 33–4, 85, 90, 92–3, 100, 103–17, 143, 146 paired helical filaments (PHFs) 196–7 Panax (ginseng) 203, 215–16 pancreatitis, alcohol 139–40 panic attacks 65, 92–3, 129, 182 see also anxiety PANS see parasympathetic autonomic nervous system paranoia 74, 92–3, 96–8, 154–70 background 154–70 cannabis 92–3, 96–8, 227–8 LSD effects 74 schizophrenia 154–70 paraphernalia, drugs 37–8, 228 parasympathetic autonomic nervous system (PANS) concepts 10–12, 61 physiological effects guide 11 parenteral routes, administration 27–8 parietal lobe 13, 191–2, 197 Parkinsonism side effects 166, 183 Parkinson’s disease 20, 33–4, 157, 161–2, 179, 257 paroxetine 177, 180–2 Parrott, A.C 64–5, 79–81, 95–6, 129, 144, 147 passive smoking 59–60 PCP see phencyclidine peer pressures, cigarettes 67 penicillin 31 peppermint 212 perikaryon 15 peripheral effectors 10–13 see also muscles peripheral nervous system (PNS) see also motor efferents; sensory afferents alcoholism 140–1 concepts 9–11, 17, 33, 61–2, 100, 140–1, 204 energy needs 204, 232 structure 9–11, 204 peripheral neuritis, alcohol 140 personality changes, addictions 146–7 PET see positron emission tomography pethidine 115 Peto, R 57–8, 60 Pettit, D.A.D 99 Peyote cactus 3–4, 72, 82 pharmaceutical phase, concepts 26–7 pharmacodynamics concepts 25, 26, 32–5, 61 tolerance 35 pharmacogenomics, concepts 35–6 pharmacokinetics ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination processes) 25–32, 88–90, 94, 108–9, 121–4, 136, 139–40, 180–1 bypassed phases 26 concepts 25–32, 61–2 tolerance 35 pharmacotherapy 230–1 phencyclidine (PCP) 71, 82–3, 163 phenmetrazine 44, 50 phenobarbitone 31–2, 35 phenothiazine see also chlorpromazine concepts 165–9 Index phenotype issues, schizophrenia 159 PHFs see paired helical filaments phosphatidylserine 209–10 phospholipids 209–10 photoreceptors, concepts 10 phototherapy 181 physical dependence 36, 143–4 physical exercise children 49–50 cognitive enhancers 203, 212–13, 232 physostigmine 191–2 phytomedicines 213–16 pia mater 12 picrotoxin 121–2 pipe smokers 58 see also nicotine piracetam 203, 208–10 pituitary gland 13, 20, 175, 215 placebo responses antidepressants 176 concepts 25, 36–8, 43, 62–3, 80–1, 99, 164, 176, 208, 222, 224–5 schizophrenia 164–5 placental barrier, concepts 29–30, 113–14, 140 plasma half-lives 32, 88–90, 108–9, 180 pleasure drug uses 4–7, 33–4, 37–8, 41–53, 69–83, 92–3, 101, 110–11, 143–6 reward pathways 144–6, 228 PNS see peripheral nervous system polydrug users 46, 92, 95, 120, 224–5 polypeptides 109 polysynaptic reflexes, concepts 11–12 polyunsaturated fatty acids 169–70 pons 14 Pope, H.G 95 Pope Leo XIII 42, 229 positive feedback loops, action potential 17, 45, 109–10, 183 positive reinforcement model, dependence 143, 145–6 positron emission tomography (PET) 78, 110, 141, 158, 204 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 129, 182 postsynaptic neuronal membrane 17–18, 33–4, 45, 90, 122, 161, 163, 169, 174–7, 222–3 posture 14 potassium ions 15–23, 109–10 potency concepts 21, 88, 96–7, 227–8 pramiracetam 208–10 prefrontal cortex, reward pathways 145–6 presynaptic neuronal membrane 15–23, 33–4, 45, 90, 161, 169, 174–7, 183, 222–3 primary somatosensory cortex, concepts 13 problem drinking see also alcohol concepts 135–42, 227 problem-solving skills 13 prodrugs 30–1 prolactin 162 promethazine 164 ‘‘proof ’’ 120 proteins 18, 21, 22–3, 187, 196–9 Prozac see fluoxetine psilocybin 72, 73, 75, 82–3 psychedelic drugs see also LSD concepts 72–6 psychiatry theories, schizophrenia 154–7 psychoactive drugs 3–8, 221–33 see also dependence; individual drug groups; neurotransmitters; tolerance; withdrawal symptoms actions 3–39, 222–3 ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination processes) 25–32, 88–90, 94, 108–9, 121–4, 136, 139–40, 180–1 administration 25, 26–30, 37–8, 41, 44–7, 55, 60–1, 88, 92, 100–1, 106–7, 108–13, 116, 120, 139–40, 166–7, 228 classes 3–8, 222 clinical uses 230–1 cognitive enhancers 203–16, 232 concepts 3–39, 41–154, 221–33 cost–benefit ratios 8, 221, 222–7 dosage issues 14, 29, 47, 96–7, 105–6, 115–16, 149, 166–7, 227–8 first-time usage 6–7, 67, 111, 122–3, 144–5 future prospects 169–70, 181–4, 199–201, 208, 231–3 groups list 4, historical background 3–5, 41–3, 222, 230–1 313 314 Index psychoactive drugs (cont.) Internet information sources 255–7 legal classifications 87, 97, 99, 229 list 4, 71, 82, 165–9, 176–7, 210, 222 negative effects 3, 7–8, 15, 29–30, 36, 41–2, 44–8, 55–70, 71–6, 77–82, 85–102, 103–17, 119–21, 133–49, 223–32 paraphernalia 37–8, 228 placebo responses 25, 36–8, 43, 62–3, 80–1, 99, 164, 176, 208, 224–5 positive effects 3, 7–8, 41, 44–5, 48–50, 76–7, 82, 85–7, 91–2, 99–102, 103–5, 111–12, 134, 223–6, 229–31 properties list 4, side effects 4, 7–8, 13, 33–4, 37–8, 111–12, 166–8, 171, 177–84, 194–6 psychological dependence 36–7, 143–4, 221, 223, 230 psychological effects alcohol 120–1, 123–7, 133–49, 225–7 Alzheimer’s disease 189–201 amphetamines 45–6, 147, 155, 160–1, 223–4, 226 cocaine 45–6, 147, 155, 223–4, 226 concepts 36–7, 143–4, 181–2, 184, 221, 223–6, 230–2 LSD 73–5, 155, 160–1, 224 MDMA 77–8, 147, 155, 224–6 nicotine 62–5, 67, 69, 223–4 opiates 37–8, 111, 225, 228 personality changes 146–7 psychological therapies 141–2, 147–8, 181–2, 184, 199–201, 221–2, 223, 230–2 cognitive behavioural therapy 141, 148, 181, 184, 231–2 concepts 141–2, 147–8, 181–2, 184, 199–201, 221–2, 223, 230–2 depression 181–2 mania 184 multi-component approaches 141–2, 147–8, 199–201, 221–2, 231–2 social skills training 5, 147–8, 153–7, 168–9, 231–2 psychomotor dysfunction 34, 94, 119, 123–4, 134–5, 154–7, 173 depression 173 schizophrenia 154–7 psychopharmacological prospects, Alzheimer’s disease 199–201, 232 psychosis see also schizophrenia cocaine 42 manic depression 171–3, 182–4, 231 Parkinson’’s disease 161–2 psychostimulants 163–4 psychotherapeutic drugs, cost–benefit ratios 8, 221, 222–7 psychotherapy 8, 73, 147–8, 168–9, 221, 222–7 psychotic disorders alcohol 139 LSD 75–6, 155, 160–1 psychotomimetic drugs 160 see also LSD psychotropics 31, 33, 159 PTSD see post-traumatic stress disorder puffer fish 17 purines, concepts 19–20 Purkinje 14 Purves, D 12 putamen 13, 163, 166 quetiapine 169 Ramon y Cajal 14 raphe nuclei 73–4, 78, 169 rapid visual information processing (RVIP) 62–3 Rauwolfia reaction times, information-processing links 12, 212–13 reality orientation, Alzheimer’s disease 192–3 reasoning skills 13 reboxetine 34, 177, 181 receptors bound drugs 30, 33–4, 180–1 class receptors 21–3, 222–3 class receptors 22–3, 222–3 concepts 10–11, 17–23, 25, 30, 32–8, 46, 61–2, 73–4, 82–3, 89–91, 109–10, 121–4, 137, 160–9, 174–7, 222–3 depression 174–84 multiple receptors 21–2, 222–3 nomenclature 22 pharmacodynamics 25, 26, 32–5, 61 Index schizophrenia 160–9 superfamilies 21–2 tolerance issues 35–8, 46 toxic gases 23 recreational drugs 4–5, 7–8, 28, 55–102, 145, 223–6 see also cannabis; CNS ; LSD; MDMA; nicotine administration routes 5, 27–8, 55, 60, 71–7, 88, 92, 100–1 dissociative effects 82–3 legal classifications 87, 97, 99, 229 list 4, 71, 82 main properties 4, 7–8, 145, 223–6 placebo responses 37–8, 62–3, 80–1, 99, 224–5 research difficulties 80–1 schizophrenia 74–6, 85, 92–3, 96–8, 155–7, 160–1 statistics 4–5 trends 4–5, 8, 223–6 refractory unipolar depression 182 Reidel, W.J 208 relapse problems 48, 68–9, 141–2, 148–9, 230 concepts 148–9 overdoses 149 relaxation, drug uses 4, 92–3, 119, 212, 226–7, 229 religious uses, cannabis 86–7 renal excretion 32 repolarisation processes, neurons 16, 17 reserpine 4, 33, 161, 174 depression 174 schizophrenia 161, 174 side effects respiratory depression 112 responses metabolism processes 31–2, 222 placebo responses 25, 36–8, 43, 62–3, 80–1, 99, 164, 176, 208, 224–5 rest, parasympathetic autonomic nervous system 11 resting membrane potential (RMP), neurons 16–18 reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase type A (RIMA) 177 reward pathways, concepts 144–6, 228 ribosomes, concepts 14–15 Rigney, U 214 RIMA see reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase type A risperidone 153, 165–9 rivastigmine 35, 187, 195–6, 201 RMP see resting membrane potential Rodgers, J 81, 95 Rogers, S.L 195 Rose, S.P.R 12, 161 rosemary 212 routine processes, interneurons 10–11 Russell, M.A.H 67 RVIP see rapid visual information processing SAD see seasonal affective disorder sadness, drug uses 4, sage 203, 216, 232 St John’s wort 179, 181, 213 salbutamol 48 Salvia lavandulaefolia (sage) 203, 216 Salvia officinalis (sage) 203, 216 sandalwood 212 Sandler, M 176 Sandoz 72 SANS see sympathetic autonomic nervous system SATO see speed–accuracy trade-off SC see subcutaneous administration Schifano, F 81 Schildkraut, J.J 174 schizophrenia 4–7, 15, 27, 30, 33, 41–4, 75–6, 85, 97–8, 153–73, 231, 256 alcohol 139 antipsychotics 4–7, 153–73, 231 background 4–5, 153–70, 231, 256 cannabis 85, 97–8, 155 case studies 155–7 causes 153–5, 159–64 chlorpromazine 5, 153, 160–1, 164–9, 230–1 classifications 155–7 clinical symptoms 155–7 conceptual issues 154 deaths 157 diagnosis dangers 155 dopamine 153, 158–70 dosage reductions 166–7 315 316 Index schizophrenia (cont.) environmental factors 154, 159–60 fatty acids 169–70 future developments 169–70 genetic predispositions 154, 159–60 glutamate–dopamine imbalance theory 163–4, 169 historical background 5, 153–4, 231 initial breakdown 155–7 negative aspects 153, 155–70 neurochemical models 160–4 neurodegenerative possibilities 158–9 neuroimaging data 153, 157–9, 163–4, 168 neuroleptics 161–3, 165–9 placebo responses 164–5 positive aspects 153, 155–70 recreational drugs 74–6, 85, 92–3, 96–8, 155–7, 160–1 seasonal variations 159 social environment 159–60 ‘‘soft’’ neurological signs 157–8 statistics 153, 157, 159 stress 154, 156–7 subtypes 154–7 suicides 157 symptoms 153–7, 231 Schmidt, F.L 68 Schmiedeberg 122 Scholey, A.B 205 Schooler, N.R 169 Schwann cells 17 scopolamine 27, 82–3, 191–2, 207 scorpions 17 SDA antagonists see serotonin/dopamine receptor antagonists Seashore, R.H 43 seasonal affective disorder (SAD), concepts 172, 181 second messenger molecules, concepts 22–3, 35, 182–3 secondary depression, concepts 172 secondary effects, Alzheimer’s disease 189 sedative–hypnotic drugs 14, 30–1, 36, 119 Seeman, P 162–3, 168 seizures cannabis 101 CNS depressants 121, 144 selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNARIs) 177, 181 selective reminiscences, Alzheimer’s disease 193 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) 4, 31–2, 34, 38, 45, 77, 142, 171, 177, 179–81 see also fluoxetine background 171, 177, 179–81 half-lives 180 precautions 180–1 side effects 180 selegiline 34, 179, 199 selenium 199 self-titration concepts 88 Sell, L.A 110 senile dementia see also dementia background 187–8, 196, 205, 208 statistics 187 sensation-seeking factors, concepts 145 sensemilla strain, cannabis 227–8 sensorimotor manipulations 66–7 sensory afferents, concepts 9–12, 14, 17 serotonin 6, 19–23, 31–4, 45, 62, 71–84, 93, 110, 122, 153–70, 209, 224–5 antipsychotics 153–70 depression 171–84 schizophrenia 153–70 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 4, 31–2, 34, 38, 45, 77, 142, 171, 177, 179–81 serotonin/dopamine receptor antagonists (SDA antagonists) 167–8 serotonin/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) 177, 181 sertraline 142, 177, 180 see also selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Sertu¨rner, Frederich 105 sex addicts 144–6, 228 sex hormones, anxiety 130 Sexton, B.F 96 sexual performance alcohol 120, 140 cigarettes 57 CNS stimulants 47 MDMA 77, 79–80 Index opiates 113 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 179 shakiness, withdrawal symptoms 135 shamanism 3–4, 66 Shiffman, S 66 Shulgin, A 76 side effects 4, 7–8, 13, 33–4, 37–8, 111–12, 166–8, 171, 177–84, 194–6 concepts 4, 7–8, 33–4, 37–8 cost–benefit ratios 8, 221, 222–7 psychomotor problems 34, 94, 119, 123–4, 134–5 SIDS see sudden infant death syndrome single positron emission computerised tomography (SPECT) 141, 158, 190 ‘‘skag’’ see heroin skin administration routes 27–8 tobacco 57 SL see sublingual administration sleepiness see drowsiness slimming aids 50 ‘‘smack’’ see heroin small intestine 27–9 ‘‘smart drugs’’ 203, 207–10 see also nootropics smoke inhalation administration routes 5, 28–9, 44–5, 55, 60–1, 88 cigarettes 55–70, 223–4 opiates 104–5, 106–10 Smythies 160 SNARIs see selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors SNRIs see serotonin/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors Snyder 75 social acceptability, alcohol 134–5, 226, 230 social costs addictions 134, 138–40, 146–7, 225–30 alcohol 134, 138–40, 225–30 Alzheimer’s disease 187–8 social decline, opiates 112–14 social environment alcohol 134–5, 138–40, 141–2, 225–30 effects 37–8, 144–5, 146–7, 230 schizophrenia 159–60 smoking 68–9 social inhibitions social skills training 5, 147–8, 153–7, 168–9, 231–2 sodium ions 15–23, 33, 122, 127–8 ‘‘soft’’ neurological signs, schizophrenia 157–8 Solomon, P.R 214 Solowij, N 95 soma, concepts 14–15, 23, 169 somatic motor efferents see voluntary South America 4, 42, 56, 66, 107, 213 Sparrow, W.A 213 SPECT see single positron emission computerised tomography speed see amphetamines speed–accuracy trade-off (SATO) 125–6 spiced apples 212 spinal cord 9–12, 14, 17, 27, 100 colouration 17 concepts 9–12, 14 Spirduso, W.W 212–13 ‘‘split brain’’ 13 sports 48–50, 144 SSRIs see selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors stomach alcohol 139–40 oral administration routes 27–9, 44–5, 108–12, 120–1, 139–40 STP see DOM stress 8, 55, 59, 62–4, 71, 75–6, 98, 154, 156–7, 224, 231–2 diathesis stress model 8, 71, 75–6, 98, 154, 224 nicotine 55, 59, 62–4, 224 schizophrenia 154, 156–7 striatonigral system 91 strokes 58, 120, 140, 198 strychnine 44, 50–1 subcutaneous administration (SC) 27–8, 112 subjective effects cannabis 92–3 heroin 110–11 sublingual administration (SL) 27–8 substance P 181–2 substantia nigra 13, 20, 91, 162, 166 317 318 Index sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 47, 59–60 suicides alcohol 138 barbiturates 127–8 depression 173, 174, 178 schizophrenia 157 Sulser, F 175 suprachiasmatic nucleus 78 sweating, withdrawal symptoms 135 sympathetic autonomic nervous system (SANS) concepts 10–12, 46–7, 61 physiological effects guide 11 sympathomimetic amines, antidepressants 179 synaesthesia 74 synapses, concepts 9, 11–12, 14–23, 33–4, 45, 191–2, 222–3 synaptic bouton 15–23, 33–4, 45, 90 synaptic cleft 17–21, 34, 45, 77–8, 161, 176–7 synthetic cannabinoids 101–2 synthetic opiates 108, 115–16 systemic routes, administration 27–30 tachycardia see heart rates tachyphylaxis, concepts 144 tacrine 4, 32, 187, 194–5, 199 TADs see tricyclic antidepressants tangles, Alzheimer’s disease 187, 194, 196–201 tar 55, 57–60, 98, 224–5 tardive dyskinesia 166 taxation alcohol 105 tobacco 105 tea 4, 7, 51–3 see also caffeine telencephalon, concepts 13 temazepam 32 temporal lobe 13, 191–2, 197 teratogenic effects 29–30 terpenoids 214–15 tetracyclic antidepressants 177 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) 85–102, 194–5, 225, 227–8 tetrodotoxin 17 thalamus, concepts 13–14, 146, 191 thalidomide 30 THC see tetrahydrocannabinol theophylline 52 thermoreceptors, concepts 10, 13 thiamine, alcoholism 140 thioridazine 164–5 thioxanthenes 165–9 thoughts, interneurons 10–11 threshold potential, neurons 16–18 Thudicum, J.L.W 160 thyroid-stimulating hormone 20 Tiplady, B 125 tobacco 4–8, 27–8, 55–70, 223–4, 229–30, 256 see also cigarettes; nicotine amputations 57–9 background 4–5, 8, 55–70, 223–4, 229–30 behavioural issues 60–1, 224 cancers 55, 58–60, 69 cannabis 98, 225 chewing methods 27–8, 58 children 55–6, 57–9, 64–5, 67–9, 144, 224, 230 circulatory problems 55, 57–60, 224 deaths 8, 36, 55, 57–60, 224 females 5, 56 first-time usage 6–7, 67 health consequences 7–8, 36, 46–8, 55–70, 223–4 historical background 4–5, 56 passive smoking 59–60 sexual performance 57 statistics 4–5, 8, 55–70 tar links 55, 57–60, 98, 224–5 taxation 105 treatments 55, 59, 67–9, 148 trends 5, 8, 55–70, 223–4 tolerance 3, 7–8, 25, 35–8, 46–53, 85, 93–4, 108–10, 114–16, 119, 124, 135–6, 223–7 see also individual drugs causes 35–6, 143–4 concepts 3, 7–8, 35–8, 46–53, 135–6, 143–4, 223–7 cross-tolerance 35–6, 46 definition 35, 143 general principles 143–4, 227 mechanism 7, 143–4 toxic gases 23 Index toxic psychosis 97 toxins 17, 23, 97, 115–16 transdermal nicotine patches 27, 68, 148 transporters 20–1, 34 tranylcypromine 179–80 Travill, R.A 78 treatments 48, 55, 59, 67–9, 108, 115, 133, 141–2, 146, 147–9, 199–201, 210, 221–2, 229–32 see also individual drugs cognitive behavioural therapy 141, 148, 181, 184, 231–2 coping skills 149 counselling benefits 141–2, 147–8 detoxification 34, 134, 148, 210 lapse problems 148–9, 230 medications 27, 68, 141–2, 148, 210, 231–2 multi-component approaches 141–2, 147–8, 199–201, 221–2, 231–2 options 141–2, 147–8, 221–2, 230 psychological therapies 141–2, 147–8, 181–2, 184, 199–201, 221–2, 223, 230–2 relapse problems 48, 68–9, 141–2, 148–9, 230 social skills training 5, 147–8, 153–7, 168–9, 231–2 statistics 147–8 success rates 141–2, 147–8, 230–2 ‘‘urge-surfing’’ 230 tricyclic antidepressants (TADs) 176–8, 182, 183 tryptamine 160 tryptophan 175 tuberculosis 148, 176 tuberohypophysical pathway 162 ‘‘twilight sleep’’, scopolamine 82–3 tyramine 179 UK alcohol 120–1, 125–6, 134, 139–40 Alzheimer’s disease 188–9, 194–5 amphetamines 43, 49–50 cannabis 87, 96–7 herbal products 213 MDMA 76–7, 230 opiates 105–7, 115–16 tobacco 5, 8, 55–70 ulcers 139–40, 209 unimodal concepts 10 unipolar disorders see also depression concepts 171–3, 182–4 ‘‘urge-surfing’’ 230 urine retention, antidepressants 178 urine tests, alcoholism 136 USA alcohol trends 5, 126 amphetamines 43 cannabis 87, 92 cocaine trends 42 herbal products 213 MDMA 76–7 opiates 106–7, 115–16 tobacco 5, 56–70 Valium 128 valproate 171, 183–4 vascular dementia 187–8, 200–1 veins administration routes 27–8, 106–13 collapsed veins 113 Veng, L.M 209–10 venlafaxine 177, 181 ventral pallidum 91 ventral striatum 110 ventral tegmental area (VTA) 110, 137, 145–6 Vetulani, J 175 Victoria, Queen 87, 96–7 Viking culture 3–4 vinpocetine 203, 209–10 violence alcohol 120–1, 125, 138–9 amphetamines 45–6 cocaine 45–6 Viswesvaran, C 68 vitamins A 199 alcoholism 140 Alzheimer’s disease 187, 199, 200–1 B 140, 209–10 C 199 D 159 319 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 320 Index vitamins (cont.) E 199, 201 schizophrenia 159 VOCCs see voltage-operated calcium channels vodka 123–4 voices, schizophrenia 153–70 voltage-operated calcium channels (VOCCs), neurons 17–18 voluntary motor efferents, concepts 10–12 voluntary movements, concepts 13–14 VTA see ventral tegmental area Walsh, D.C 141 Warburton, D.M 62–3 warfarin 30–1, 180–1 Warot, D 214 Washington, George 86 Wernicke’s encephalopathy, alcoholism 140 Wesnes, K 62–3, 191 Whishaw, I.Q 12 Wilkinson, L 212 Winblad, B 195 withdrawal symptoms see also individual drugs concepts 36, 41, 51–3, 55, 63–5, 92–5, 101, 114–15, 119–21, 135–6, 138–9, 143–6, 180, 223–6, 230 cravings 36, 55, 63–4, 115, 135–6, 224, 228–9, 230 definition 144 general principles 143–4 levels 144 schizophrenia 156–7 transience 230 types 36, 41, 53, 55, 63–5, 135–6, 143–4, 230 ‘‘urge-surfing’’ 230 Wolpert, L 172 Wright, B.J 213 xanthine derivatives 52 xanthine oxidase 31 xanthinol nicotinate 209–10 Yerkes–Dodson inverted U shape 206 ‘‘yuppie’’ drugs 42 Zevin 61 zimelidine 180 Zubin 164 www.Ebook777.com ... edn) Freeman, New York Palfai T and Jankewicz H (1996) Drugs and Human Behavior Wm C Brown, Madison, WI Parrott AC (1998) Social drugs: Effects upon health In: M Pitts and K Phillips (eds), The Psychology... Part I Drugs and Their Actions Psychoactive drugs: introduction and overview The brain, neurons and neurotransmission Principles of drug... on the acute and chronic impairing and enhancing effects of various drugs including benzodiazepines, alcohol, caffeine, glucose, oxygen (with Mark Moss) and herbal extracts In 1999 Andrew established