THE CONCEPT OF THE BUDDHA This book presents an analysis of one of the fundamental Mahayana Buddhist teachings, namely the three bodies of the Buddha (the trikAya theory), which is considered the foundation of Mahayana philosophy The author traces the development of the concept of the Buddha from the historical human teacher in early Buddhism to the philosophical concept of three bodies, particularly the saNbhogakAya, which is the Buddha endowed with supernatural attributes and qualities The author’s translations from early and middle Mahayana sEtras and XAstras make newly accessible a wealth of material This work is an outstanding research text for students and scholars of Mahayana Buddhism and anyone interested in Buddhist philosophy Guang Xing obtained his Ph.D from the School of Oriental and African Studies, the University of London, in 2003 He is a research assistant professor at the Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong His research interests are Chinese and Mahayana Buddhist studies, particularly the origin of Mahayana i ROUTLEDGECURZON CRITICAL STUDIES IN BUDDHISM General Editors: Charles S Prebish and Damien Keown RoutledgeCurzon Critical Studies in Buddhism is a comprehensive study of the Buddhist tradition The series explores this complex and extensive tradition from a variety of perspectives, using a range of different methodologies The series is diverse in its focus, including historical studies, textual translations and commentaries, sociological investigations, bibliographic studies, and considerations of religious practice as an expression of Buddhism’s integral religiosity It also presents materials on modern intellectual historical studies, including the role of Buddhist thought and scholarship in a contemporary, critical context and in the light of current social issues The series is expansive and imaginative in scope, spanning more than two and a half millennia of Buddhist history It is receptive to all research works that inform and advance our knowledge and understanding of the Buddhist tradition THE REFLEXIVE NATURE OF AWARENESS Paul Williams TEACHING BUDDHISM IN THE WEST Edited by V S Hori, R P Hayes and J M Shields ALTRUISM AND REALITY Paul Williams EMPTY VISION David L McMahan BUDDHISM AND HUMAN RIGHTS Edited by Damien Keown, Charles Prebish and Wayne Husted SELF, REALITY AND REASON IN TIBETAN PHILOSOPHY Thupten Jinpa WOMEN IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE BUDDHA Kathryn R Blackstone IN DEFENSE OF DHARMA Tessa J Bartholomeusz BUDDHIST PHENOMENOLOGY Dan Lusthaus THE RESONANCE OF EMPTINESS Gay Watson RELIGIOUS MOTIVATION AND THE ORIGINS OF BUDDHISM Torkel Brekke AMERICAN BUDDHISM Edited by Duncan Ryuken Williams and Christopher Queen IMAGING WISDOM Jacob N Kinnard DEVELOPMENTS IN AUSTRALIAN BUDDHISM Michelle Spuler PAIN AND ITS ENDING Carol S Anderson ZEN WAR STORIES Brian Victoria EMPTINESS APPRAISED David F Burton THE BUDDHIST UNCONSCIOUS William S Waldron THE SOUND OF LIBERATING TRUTH Edited by Sallie B King and Paul O Ingram INDIAN BUDDHIST THEORIES OF PERSONS James Duerlinger BUDDHIST THEOLOGY Edited by Roger R Jackson and John J Makransky ACTION DHARMA Edited by Christopher Queen, Charles Prebish and Damien Keown THE GLORIOUS DEEDS OF PURNA Joel Tatelman TIBETAN AND ZEN BUDDHISM IN BRITAIN David N Kay EARLY BUDDHISM – A NEW APPROACH Sue Hamilton THE CONCEPT OF THE BUDDHA Guang Xing CONTEMPORARY BUDDHIST ETHICS Edited by Damien Keown INNOVATIVE BUDDHIST WOMEN Edited by Karma Lekshe Tsomo ii THE CONCEPT OF THE BUDDHA Its evolution from early Buddhism to the trikAya theory Guang Xing iii First published 2005 by RoutledgeCurzon Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by RoutledgeCurzon 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” RoutledgeCurzon is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2005 Guang Xing All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-41310-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-67153-8 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0–415–33344–X (Print Edition) iv This book is dedicated to all the teachers who have helped and guided me, and to Po Lin Monastery, which has generously supported me in my studies v vi CONTENTS x xi xiii Acknowledgements Abbreviations Glossary Introduction The purpose of the research The method of the research The concept of the Buddha in early Buddhism The human Buddha The superhuman Buddha 13 The concept of the Buddha in the early Indian Buddhist Schools (I) The Sarv¡stiv¡da 19 The two-body theory 19 The repakaya 23 The dharmakaya 35 Other attributes of the Buddha 44 The time needed to become a Buddha 45 Universal virtues common to all Buddhas and differences between them 48 Taking refuge in the Buddha 49 The differences between Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas and xravakas 50 The concept of the Buddha in the early Indian Buddhist schools (II) The Mah¡s¡§ghika and other schools The MahAsANghikas 53 Other early Buddhist schools 66 vii 53 CONTENTS The origin and development of the dharmak1ya 69 The origin of the dharmakaya 69 The MahAyAna development of the dharmakaya concept 75 The identification of the Tathagata with tathatA 75 The dharmakAya as the cosmic body 80 The development of the dharmakAya in the Avatansaka 82 The dharmakAya bodhisattvas 86 The dharmakAya as tathAgatagarbha 87 The dharmakAya as mahAparinirvAOa 88 The dharmakAya as non-duality 94 The dharmakAya as the transformation of support 96 The origin and development of the Sa4bhogak1ya 101 Introduction 101 The debate between the SarvAstivAda and MahAsANghika schools on the physical body of the Buddha 104 The Buddha’s bad karma 106 The problem of the Buddha’s short life-span 119 The concept of the Buddha in the MPPW 124 A solution to the complex problem of the physical body of the Buddha 129 The development of the sanbhogakaya 133 The origin and development of the nirm15ak1ya 136 The origin of the nirmaoakaya 136 The development of the nirmaoakaya 139 The attributes of the Buddha and other Buddhas in early and middle Mah¡y¡na s2tras The light of the Buddha 147 The retinue of the Buddha 154 The twenty-one qualities of the Buddha 156 The ten Buddhas and ten Buddha bodies 159 A model for the trikaya theory 163 Other Buddhas and their lands 165 The classification of Buddha lands 171 AmitAbha and AkQobhya as nirmaoakayas 174 viii 147 CONTENTS Conclusion: The five basic stages in the development of the concept of the Buddha 179 Appendix: Chronology of Chinese translation of Mahayana sEtras and XAstras 182 Notes Select bibliography Index 187 233 247 ix SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY *LokAnuvartana-sEtra ( !"#$), T17, no 807, tr Lokakqema, 179 *MadhyamAgama ( !), T1, no 26, tr Gautama Savghadeva, 397–398 *Madhyametyukta-sEtra ( !), T4, no 196, tr Dharmaphala together with Kang Menxiang, 207 *MahAlaVkAra-sEtra-XAstra ( !"), T4, no 201, attrib Axvaghoqa, tr Kumarajcva, 405 MahAparinirvAOa-sEtra ( !"), T12, no 374, tr Dharmakqena, 423 MahAparinirvAOa-sEtra ( !"#$), T12, no 376, tr Faxian, 400–420 *MahAprajñApAramitA-XAstra ( !), T25, no 1509, attrib Nagarjuna, tr Kumarajcva, 402–405 French translation: Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse de NAgArjuna, tr E Lamotte, vols I–V, Louvain: Bureaux Du Museon, 1944 *MahAprajñApAramitA-sEtra ( !"#$%), T5, T6, T7, no 220, tr Xuanzang, 659 *MahAsatyanirgranthaputra-vyAkaraOa-sEtra ( !"#$%&), T9, no 272, tr Bodhiruci, 519 *MahAvaipulya-tathAgatagarbha-sEtra ( !"#$), T16, no 666, tr Buddhabhadra, 317–420; T16, no 667, tr Amoghavajra, Tang dynasty 618–907 *MahAyAnAbhidharmasaNyuktasaVgCti-XAstra ( !"#$%&), T31, no 1606, by Sthiramati, tr Xuanzang, 646 *MahAyAnadaXadharmaka-sEtra ( !" #$%&), T11, no 310.9, tr Buddhaxanti, 386–534 and ( !"#$) T11, no 314, tr Savghapala, 502– 557 *MahAyAnadharmadhAtvaviXeQatA-XAstra ( !"#$%), T31, no 1626, by Sthiramati, tr Devaprajña, 691 *MahAyAnamahAkaruOApuOKarCka-sEtra ( !"#$), T3, no 158 The name of the translator is lost and it is registered in the list of sEtras translated under the Qin dynasty 350–431 MahAyAnasaNgraha of Asavga Chinese translations: ( !), T31, no 1592, tr Buddhaxanti(?), 531; ( !), T31, no 1593, tr Paramartha, 563; ( ! ), T31, no 1594, tr Xuanzang, 648–649 *MahAyAnasaNgrahabhAXya of Vasubandhu Chinese translations: ( !"), T31, no 1595, tr Paramartha, 563; ( !"!), T31, no 1596, tr Dharmagupta and Xingju, 590–616; ( !"), T31, no 1597, tr Xuanzang, 647–649 *MahAyAnasaNgrahabhAXya ( !"), T31, no 1598, by Asvabhava, tr Xuanzang, 647–649 MahAyAnasEtrAlaNkAra ( !"#), T31, no 1604, attrib Asavga, tr Prabhakaraoamitra, 630–633 *MahAyAnAvatAraka-XAstra ( !), T32, no 1634, by Sthiramati, tr Daotai, 397–439 *Maitreya-paripPcchA-sEtra ( !"#$%&) T12, no 349, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–361 *Maitreya-vyAkaraOa-sEtra Chinese translations: ( !"#$ %) T14, no 454, tr Kumarajcva, 384–417; ( !"#$ %) T14, no 455, tr Yijing, 701; ( !"#) T14, no 457 The name of the translator is lost and it is registered in the list of sEtras translated under the Eastern Jin Dynasty 317–420 *MañjuXrCbuddhakQetraguOavyEha-sEtra ( !"#$%&), T11, no 318, tr Dharmarakqa, 290; ( !"#$%&'()*+,), T11, no 319, tr Amoghavajra, 771; ( !"#$), T11, no 310.15, tr wckqananda, 695–704 237 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY *MañjuXrCparinirvAOa-sEtra ( !"#$%&'), T14, no 463, tr Nie Daozhen, 280–312 *MañjuXrCparipPcchA-sEtra ( !"#), T16, no 661, tr Divakara, 683 *MEkakumAra-sEtra ( !"#$), T13, no 401, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316 *MElajAta-hPdayabhEmi-dhyAna-sEtra ( !"#$%), T3, no 159, tr Prajña and others, 785–810 *MElasarvAstivAdavinaya ( !"#$%&'), T23, no 1442, tr Yijing, 695– 713 *NAgasena BhikQu SEtra ( !"), T32, nos 1670a and 1670b The translators of both versions are lost, so they are registered under the Jin dynasty (317–420) *PañcadharmacaryA-sEtra ( !"#$), T28, no 1557, tr An Shigao, 148–170 *PañcaXatasthavirAvadAna-sEtra ( !"#$%&'), T4, no 199, tr Dharmarakqa, 303 *Pañcavastuka-XAstra ( !"#$), T28, no 1556, tr Facheng, Tang dynasty 618–907 *PañcavastukavibhAQA-XAstra ( !"#), T28, no 1555, attrib Dharmatrata, tr Xuanzang, 663 *PañcaviNXatisAhasrikA PrajñApAramitA-sEtra Chinese translation: ( !"), T8, no 221, tr Mokqala, 291; ( ), T8, no 222, tr Dharmarakqa, 286; ( ! !), T8, no 223, tr Kumarajcva, 403–404 *PrakaraOapAda-XAstra ( !"#$), T26, no 1541, attrib Vasumitra, tr Guoabhadra, Bodhiyaxas, 435–443 *Pratyutpanna-buddhasammuhkAvasthitA-samAdhi-sEtra ( !"), T13, no 418, tr Lokakqema, Eastern Han dynasty 25–220 *PErOamukhAvadAna-XAtaka ( !"), T4, no 200, tr Zhi Qian, 223–253 Pusaxingwushiyuansheng-jing ( !"#$%) [‘SEtra spoken by the Buddha on (the characteristic marks on) his person as (the result of ) fifty causes of the practice of bodhisattva’], T17, no 812, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316 *RatnagotravibhAga-MahAyAnottaratantra-XAstra and VyAkhyA ( !"#$), T31, no 1611, author unknown, tr Ratnamati, 508 Rulaixingxian-jing ( !" ‘SEtra Spoken by the Buddha on the Manifestation of the Tathagata), T10, no 291, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316 *SaddharmapuOKarCka-sEtra Chinese translations: ( !), T9, no 263, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316; ( !"), T9, no 262, tr Kumarajcva, 384–417; and ( !"#$), T9, no 264, tr Jñanagupta and Dharmagupta, 601 *Samadatta-mahArAja-sEtra ( !"#), T3, no 191, tr Faxian, 982–1001 *SamantaprabhAsa-sEtra ( ), T3, no 186, tr Dharmarakqa, 308 A translation of the Lalitavistara *SamayabhedavyEhacakra by Vasumitra Chinese translations: ( !"), T49, no 2031, tr Xuanzang, 662; ( !), T49, no 2032, tr Paramartha; ( !), T49, no 2033, tr Paramartha, 557–569 *SaNghabhedavastu of the MElasarvAstivAda-vinaya ( !"#$%&'), T24, no 1450, tr Yijing, 710 *SaNyuktAbhidharmahPdaya-XAstra ( !"#), T28, no 1552, by Dharmatrata, tr Savghavarman, Baoyun, 434 *SaNyuktAgama ( !) There are two translations: T2, no 99, tr Guoabhadra, 435–553; and ( !"#), T2, no 100 The name of the translator is lost and the date of the translation is between 350–431 238 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY *Sandhinirmocana-sEtra There are two translations: ( !"), T16, no 675, tr Bodhiruci, 386–534; ( !), T16, no 676, tr Xuanzang, 645 * S a r v a - b u d d h a - m a hA - r a h a s y a - u pA y a - k a u X Al y a - j ñ A n o t t a r a - b o d h i s a t t v a paripPcchA-parivarta-nAma-mahAyAna-sEtra There are three Chinese translations: ( !" #$%&) T11, no 310.38, tr Nandi; ( !"#$%&), T12, no 345, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316; and ( !"#$!%&), T12, no 346, tr Danapala, 980–1000 *Sarvadharmaratnottara(-artha)-saVgCti-XAstra ( !"#$%), T32, no 1638, attrib Bodhisattva Sumuni(?) ( !"), tr Danapala, 980–1000 *Satyasiddhi-XAstra ( ), T32, no 1646, by Harivarman, tr Kumarajcva, 417–418 Shimoheyan-lun ( !" ‘An Exposition of the Mahayana’), T32, no 1668, attrib Nagarjuna, tr Vadimata? ( !), 384–417 Shizhuduanjie-jing ( !"), T10, no 966, tr Zhu Fonian, 384–417 *WrCmAlAdevCsiNhanAda-sEtra ( !"#$%&'&()), T12, no 353, tr Guoabhadra, 420–479 WrCmAlAdevC ( !"), T11, no 310.48, tr Bodhiruci, Tang dynasty, 618–907 *Sucintidevaputra-sEtra ( !"), T15, no 588, tr Dharmarakqa, 266 SukhAvatCvyEha-sEtra Larger Version ( !"#$# %& '()*+,), T12, no 362, tr Zhi Qian, 220–280; ( !"#$), T12, no 364, collected by Wang Rixiu, 1160–1162; Smaller Version ( !"#), T12, no 366, tr Kumarajcva, 402 *Sumati-sEtra ( !"#), T2, no 129, tr Zhu Luyan, of the Wu dynasty, 222–280 *WEraNgamasamAdhi-sEtra ( !"#$%), T15, no 642, tr Kumarajcva, 402–412 *SEryajiLmCkaraOaprabhAsamAdhi-sEtra ( !"#$), T15, no 638, tr Nian Chenyuan, 265–316 *SuvarOaprabhAsa-sEtra ( !), T16, no 663, tr Dharmakqena, 397–439 SuvarOaprabhAsottamarAja-sEtra ( !"#$), T16, no 665, tr Yijing, 695–713 *TathAgatamahAkAruOikanirdeQa-sEtra ( ), T13, no 398, tr Dharmarakqa, 265–316 *TathAgatapratibimbapratiQRhAnuXaNsA-sEtra ( !"#$%&), T16, no 694, tr Devaprajña, 691 *VaipulyamahAvyEha-sEtra ( !"#), T3, no 187, tr Divakara, 683 This is another translation of the Lalitavistara *VijñAptimAtratAsiddhi-XAstra ( !), T31, no 1585, by Dharmapala and nine others, tr Xuanzang, 659 English translation: Ch’eng wei-shih lun, tr Wei Tat, Hong Kong: Ch’eng wei-shih lun Publication Committee, 1973 French Translation: VijñaptimAtratAsiddhi: la Siddhi de Hiuan-Tsang, vols I & II, tr Louis de La Vallée Poussin, Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Guenther, 1929 *VimalakCrtinirdeXa-sEtra Chinese translations: ( !"#), T14, no 474, tr Zhi Qian, 220–280; ( !"#), T14, no 475, tr Kumarajcva, 406; ( ! ), T14, no 476, tr Xuanzang Xingqixingjing ( !"#=NidAnacaryA-sEtra?), T4, no 197, tr Kang Menxiang, 194–199 239 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Yizu-jing ( !" ‘SEtra on the Sufficiency of Truth’), T4, no 198, tr Zhi Qian, 222–280 *YogAcArabhEmi-XAstra ( !"), T30, no 1579, attrib Maitreya, tr Xuanzang, 654 II Secondary sources Akanuma C (1921) ‘The Buddha’, The Eastern Buddhist, vol 1, pp 47–60 —— (1922) ‘The Triple Body of the Buddha’, The Eastern Buddhist, vol 2, pp 1–29 —— (1958) The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Fgamas and PAli NikAyas, Tokyo: Hajinkaku-Shobo An Yang-Gyu (1998) ‘Buddhology in the MahAparinibbAna Suttanta and Its Commentary, with an Annotated Translation of Buddhaghosa’s Commentary’, unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Oxford Bareau, A (1969) ‘The Superhuman Personality of the Buddha and Its Symbolism in the MahAparinirvAOasEtra of the Dharmaguptaka’, in J M Kitagawa and C H Long, eds, Myths and Symbols: Studies in Honor of Mircea Eliade, pp 9–22 —— (1980) ‘The Place of the Buddha Gautama in the Buddhist Religion During the Region of Axoka’, in S Balasooriya, ed., Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula, London: Fraser, pp 1–9 Beal, S (tr.) 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(1884) The Life of the Buddha and the Early History of His Order, London: Trübner Rowell, T (1934) ‘The Background and Early Use of the Buddhakqetra Concept’, The Eastern Buddhist, vol VI, no 3, pp 199–246 Introduction and Chapter I —— (1935) ‘The Background and Early Use of the Buddhakqetra Concept’, The Eastern Buddhist, vol VI, no 4, pp 379–431 Chapters II and III —— (1937) ‘The Background and Early Use of the Buddhakqetra Concept’, The Eastern Buddhist, vol VII, no 2, pp 131–76 Chapter IV and Appendixes Schopen, G (1991) ‘Monks and the Relic Cult in the MahAparinibbAna Sutta: An Old Misunderstanding in Regard to Monastic Buddhism’, in G Schopen and K Shinohara, eds, From Benaras to Beijing: Essays on Buddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Jan Yun-Hua, London: Mosaic Press, pp 187–201 —— (ed.) (1997) Bones, Stones and Buddhist Monks, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press Shih Hengching (1996) ‘Dabanniepanjing de Foxinglun’ !"#$% (‘The Theory of the Buddhadhatu in the MahAparinirvAOasEtra’), Journal of the Center for Buddhist Studies, vol I, pp 31–88 Shih Shanyin (1999) ‘Dacheng Zuangyianjinglun Zhi Yianju’ !"# (‘A Study on the MahAyAnasEtrAlaNkAra’), Chu-Hwa Buddhist Journal, vol III, pp 19–41 Shimoda, M (1997) A Study of the MahAparinirvAOasEtra with a Focus on the Methodology of the Study of MahAyAna SEtras, Tokyo: Shunje-sha Skorupski, T., ed (1990) Buddhist Forum, vol I, London: SOAS —— ed (1997) Buddhist Forum, vol V, London: SOAS Snellgrove, D L (1973a) ‘wakyamuni’s Final Nirvaoa’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol 36, pp 399–411 —— (1973b) ‘In Search of the Historical Buddha’, South Asian Review, 7, pp 151–7 Soothhill, W E., Hodous, L and Shik Sheng-kang, eds (1989) A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, Taiwan: Fokuang Buddhist Publication Suzuki, D T (1907) Outlines of MahAyAna Buddhism, London: Luzac —— (1930) Studies in the LaVkAvatAra SEtra, London: George Routledge —— (tr.) (1932) The LaVkAvatAra SEtra, A MahAyAna Text, London: George Routledge Takakusu, J (tr.) (1904) ‘The Life of Vasubandhu by Paramartha ( 499–569)’, T’oung Pao Archive, Series II, vol V, pp 269–296, 620 —— (1904–1905) ‘On the Abhidharma Literature of the Sarvastivadins’, Journal of the Pali Text Society, pp 67–146 —— (1905) ‘A Study of Paramartha’s Life of Vasubandhu and the Date of Vasubandhu’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp 33–53 Takasaki, J (1960) ‘Structure of the AnuttarAXrayasEtra (Wu-shang-I-ching)’, Indogaku BukkyDgaku KenkyE, vol VIII, no 2, pp 748–41 —— (1966) ‘Dharmata, Dharmadhatu, Dharmakaya and Buddhadhatu’, Indogaku BukkyDgaku KenkyE, vol XIV, no 2, pp 903–19 —— (1974) Formation of the TathAgatagarbha Theory: A Study on the Historical Background of the TathAgatagarbha Theory of MahAyAna Buddhism Based upon the Scriptures Preceding the RatnagotravibhAga, Tokyo: Shunjusha Takeuchi, S (1983) ‘Buddhakan no hensen’, in A Hirakawa, ed., DaijD BukkyD, vol I, Tokyo: Shunjusha, pp 166–70 245 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Tamaki, K (1982) ‘Prajñaparamita and wenyata in the AQRasAhasrikA’, Indogaku BukkyDgaku KenkyE, vol XXXI, no 1, pp 93–8 Tang Yongtong [1938] (1997) Han Wei Liajin Nanbeichao Fojiao Shi !"#$ (‘History of Buddhism During the Han, Wei, North and South Dynasties’), Beijing: Beijing University Press Thurman, R A F (tr.) (1976) VimalakCrtinirdeXa-sEtra, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press Walters, J (1990) ‘The Buddha’s Bad Karma: A Problem in the History of Theravada Buddhism’, Numen, vol XXXVII, fasc 1, pp 70–95 Warder, A K (1956) ‘On the Relationship Between Early Buddhism and Other Contemporary Systems’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 18, pp 43–63 —— (ed.) (1985) New Paths in Buddhist Research, Durham, North Carolina: Acorn Press —— [1970] (1997) Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Warren, H C (1909) Buddhism in Translation, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Watson, B (tr.) (1993) The Lotus Sutra, New York: Columbia University Press Willemen, C., Dessein, B and Cox, C (1998) SarvAstivAda Buddhist Scholasticism, Leiden, New York and Cologue: Brill Williams, M., ed [1899] (1986) A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, Tokyo: Meicho Fukyu Kai Williams, P (1989) MahAyAna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, London: Routledge Winternitz, M (1988) History of Indian Literature, vol II English translation by S Sarma Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Woodward, F L (tr.) (1995) The Book of the Gradual Sayings, vols I, II & V, Oxford: PTS, reprinted Yao, Z, ed (1996) Yibu zonglun lun ( !" SamayabhedavyEhacakra), Taiwan: Foguang Publication Yinshun (1968) Shuoyiqieyoubu De Lunshu Yu Lunshi Zi Yanju !"# !" #$%& (‘A Study on the Treatises and Masters of the Sarvastivada’), Taipei: Zhengwen Publication —— (1988) Hua Yu Ji , vol III, Taipei: Zhengwen Publication —— (1990) ‘Dazhidulun Zi Zhuozhe Jiqi Fanyi’ !"#$%&'( (‘The Authorship and the Translation of the MahAprajñApAramitAXAstra’), Dongfang Zongjiao Yanjiu (‘Journal of Oriental Religions’), vol 2, Taipei: The Dongfang Zhongjiao Yejun Publication, pp 9–70 —— (1991) Yuanshi Fojian Shengdian Zhi Jicheng !"#$%& (‘The Compilation of the Primitive Buddhist Canon’), Taipei: Zhengwen Publication —— [1921] (1992) Rulaizang Zhi Yianju !"# (‘A Study on the Tathagatagarbha’), Taipei: Zhengwen Publication —— [1981] (1994) Chuqi Dacheng Fojian Zhi Qiyuan Yu Zhankai !"#$% ! (‘The Origin and Development of Early Mahayana Buddhism’), Taipei: Zhengwen Publication Yoshioka, R (1963) ‘The SukhAvatCvyEha SEtra and Lokottaravada’, Indogaku BukkyDgaku KenkyE, vol XI, no 1, pp 136–7 Zurcher, E [1959] (1972) The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China, vols, Leiden: E J Brill 246 INDEX INDEX abode 102, 141, 157–8, 163–4, 170, 172 Abhidharma 2, 4, 21–2 abhijñA 15–16, 136, 138 modes of higher knowledge 7, 16–17, 179 accomplishments 148, 153 Abhirati 167–9, 174, 178 Fgama 5–7, 14, 17, 19, 25, 32, 34–7, 44, 53, 57, 59, 62–3, 68–9, 72–6, 101, 107, 132, 148, 179–80 Akaniqrha 102, 150 Akqobhya 166–70, 174, 178 Amitabha 2, 102, 120, 142, 148, 152, 166–70, 174–8 Anavatapta 109–10 Avgulimala 17, 167 arhat 14, 16, 17, 67, 77, 170, 178 asceticism 142–4, 175 Asavga 3, 130–1, 143, 144, 155–7, 159, 163, 181 austerities 8, 41, 46, 108, 112, 127, 164 Avadana 4, 25, 33, 48, 110 Avalokitexvara 38, 152, 174, 177 barley 106 bodhi 27, 40–1, 46, 49, 52, 66–8, 83, 88, 103, 116, 126, 128, 141, 144, 154, 156, 159, 163–6, 171, 180 bodhisattva(s) 2, 21–4, 27–8, 32, 38, 45–8, 54, 56–7, 62, 66, 68, 76–9, 82, 84, 86–8, 94–103, 115–16, 119, 120–2, 124, 125–6, 128, 130–4, 138–40, 148–9, 150, 152–6, 158–9, 161–2, 165–74, 177–9 body assumed body 146; body of enjoyment 99, 101, 132–4, 146; body of mind 162; body of the vow 161–2; body of power 161–2; Buddha body 61, 80, 94, 125, 151, 161–2; cosmic body 80–2, 75, 180; defiled body 89, 122; diamond body 89; eternal body 89, 117, 121, 144, 151; magically produced body 146; marvellous body 128; reward body 133 Buddha (coloured-) skin of 26, 34 148; concept of 67, 118; historical 1, 54, 59, 68, 101–2, 107, 118–19, 127, 132–3, 135, 138, 142–3, 179–80; physical body of 101, 104–5, 123, 129, 132, 135; physical strength of 35, 60, 114; qualities of 4, 19, 26, 36, 52–3, 59, 101, 105–6, 132, 147–8, 156, 159, 176, 181; several bodies of 22; superhuman aspects of, 18, 68; supernatural power of 15–16, 120, 125, 136, 138–40; transcendental 2, 53–60, 68, 76, 81, 84, 99, 104–6, 108, 111, 132, 144, 157, 173 buddhadhAtu 75, 80, 87–8, 94–5, 98, 100, 123–4, 181 Buddha fields 165 Buddhahood 2, 45–8, 50, 77–80, 88–9, 92–3, 95–9, 102–3, 119, 124, 131–3, 159, 164–9, 177–9, 181 Buddhakaya 80, 140, 152 BuddhakQetras 86, 171–2 Buddha-lands 58, 60, 62, 65–6, 138 bhEmi(s) 43, 86, 96–7, 119, 153–5, 158–9, 161, 165, 171, 174, 177; see also stages 247 INDEX classification 72 compassion 24, 37, 40, 43–4, 61, 67, 122, 146, 157, 174 great 18–19, 35–6, 40–1, 43–4, 52, 135, 144, 146, 163–5, 176; ordinary 40, 43 conflict 131–2 consciousness 11, 23, 76, 79, 91, 97–9, 104, 134, 160, 173 contemporary Buddhas 62–6, 68, 167–8 cosmos 80, 82–3, 100, 139–40, 158, 160–2, 173, 176 debate 5, 19, 60; debated 101, 104; debates 106, 116, 118, 123, 132, 143–4, 148, 156, 168, 181 defilements 14, 47, 80, 87–8, 90, 97–9, 104, 152, 167, 181 adventitious defilements 98–9 Devadatta 9–11, 35, 106–8, 111–12, 117, 138 Dharma Doors 153, 170 Dharmaguptakas 33, 67, 110 dharmadhAtu 82–3, 98, 130, 139, 158, 160–2, 170, 175–6 dharmakAya 1–3, 12, 19–22, 35–6, 44, 48–50, 52–4, 61, 68–9, 71–5, 80–90, 92–100, 103, 105–6, 121–8, 133–5, 140–2, 152–4, 157–8, 160–5, 172–3, 177, 179–81; concept of 36, 53, 68, 75, 124, 127–8, 133; dhammakAya 22, 71, 74; dharmakAya bodhisattvas 26, 87, 125, 128 Dharma rain 140 Dharma realm 97, 140, 152, 162, 165 Dharmarakqa 4, 25, 33, 81–3, 100, 214, 216–19, 224, 156, 159, 225–6, 230 dharmatA 16, 79–81, 86–7, 94, 125, 127, 130, 153, 162, 172–3 discipline 48, 74, 128, 153, 161 display 17, 33, 57, 60–1, 77, 80, 113, 116–19, 121–2, 138, 142, 145, 148, 176–7, 180 dreams 45, 61, 68, 105 eighteen exclusive dharmas 36–8, 125, 127 eighty minor marks 19, 23, 25, 28, 32–3, 37, 40, 52, 74, 145 emotions 8, 11–13, 104 emptiness 127 delight-in 112; see also XEnyatA empty bowl 10 enjoyment 27, 51, 91, 99, 101–2, 129, 132–4, 143, 146, 162–5, 171, 173–4 enlightenment 8, 10, 15–16, 35, 46, 48–50, 56, 58, 61, 68–9, 73, 77–9, 83–5, 93, 102–3, 107, 115–17, 133–4, 140–2, 147, 149, 151, 155–6, 158–62, 164, 169, 172–3, 175–8, 181 eternal 68, 72–4, 77, 82–3, 89–94, 103, 117, 121–4, 131–2, 134, 138, 144, 151, 153, 161, 172, 174–5, 177, 180; eternity 73, 89–91, 122–4, 164, 181 extinction 16, 91–2 form-body 79–80, 134; see rEpakAya four kinds of intrepidity 78, 125, 127 generosity 48, 161 great man 13–15, 43, 48, 74, 87, 103, 140, 148, 168, 179 great happiness 41, 90 Hcnayana 6, 13, 36, 38, 67, 88, 89, 109, 115, 122–3, 130–2 human identity 7, 18, 52, 54, 179 iddhi 136–7; Pddhi 16, 136–7; see also supernatural power immeasurable 27, 35–6, 46, 48, 55, 58, 77, 82, 84–5, 88, 95–7, 101, 103, 113–14, 117–19, 120–2, 126, 128, 134, 140, 148–53, 155, 163, 169, 171, 176, 178 irreversible 141, 143, 169, 178 Jambudvcpa 24, 43, 141, 143, 170 karma(s) 12–14, 21, 27, 35, 56, 61, 84, 91, 98, 106–12, 115–18, 125, 128, 133, 139, 142, 145, 149, 151, 160, 164–5, 169, 173, 175; bad karma 12–13, 21, 98, 106–10, 111–13, 116–18, 125, 133, 169; virtuous karma 27 kalpas 21, 35, 41, 46–8, 50, 61, 88, 91, 103, 119, 121, 126, 128, 134, 141, 166–7, 169, 170, 176; asaNkhyeyakalpas 27–8, 36, 248 INDEX Mara 149 merit(s) 21–8, 41, 43, 46–8, 50–1, 67, 78, 82, 87, 90, 95–6, 101–3, 113–15, 117, 119, 121–2, 124, 128–9, 132–4, 139–40, 142, 149–50, 152, 158, 160–3, 177; meritorious 28, 67, 102–3, 160 mind-made body 96, 136–8, 146; see also manomayakAya miracles 7, 10, 13, 15–17, 54–6, 58, 134, 179 Melasarvastivada 4–5, 34, 65, 107–11 46–8, 61, 120, 134, 141, 175; mahAsaNkhyeyakalpas 46, 48 kAya 2, 36, 71, 125, 133, 163, 173, 175 see also body kleXas 10, 24, 28, 41, 43, 45, 49, 51, 59, 67, 80, 86–8, 90–3, 97–9, 104–5, 128, 157, 173, 181 Kumarajcva 3–5, 22, 38, 76, 80–1, 170 liberation 18, 40, 46, 51, 67, 74, 83, 89–90, 93, 96, 100, 105, 126, 151–2, 157–8, 176, 181; see also vimokQa life-span 17, 176 light 15–16, 25–6, 32, 34–5, 37, 55, 60, 62, 82–5, 98, 100, 102, 115, 117, 119, 122, 125, 128, 133, 140, 142, 147–55, 161, 166–8, 170, 172, 176, 181; bodily light 147–8, 153, 168; light of wisdom 85, 140, 142, 147–8, 152–3 Lokakqema 4, 5, 129, 167, 171, 230 Lokottaravada 53, 104–5, 110, 113 Madhyamika 3–4 Mahamaya 1, 22, 141, 170 Mahasanghika(s) 2, 5, 14, 18–20, 33, 35, 45, 49, 53, 56–62, 64–8, 72, 75, 99, 101, 103–5, 109–11, 113–18, 124, 127–8, 132, 135, 138–9, 141, 146, 165, 168, 180 mahApuruQa 27, 40, 43, 50 Mahayana 2–5, 32–4, 37–9, 47, 53–4, 56, 62, 66, 68, 71, 73–5, 77, 79–83, 86, 89, 92, 96, 99–101, 106, 115, 117, 118–19, 121–4, 128–34, 139, 141–3, 147–8, 150–3, 156, 159, 164–5, 167–8, 171, 179–80, 181 Mahayanist(s) 1, 5, 14, 26, 33–5, 39, 46, 62, 72, 75–8, 88–90, 92–3, 99, 101, 103, 115–16, 119, 122–3, 131–2, 139, 143, 145–6, 149, 151, 165, 168, 179–80; early and middle 3, 101, 132, 135, 147, 159, 179 Mahcxasaka(s) 33, 67, 110 Maitreya 63, 122, 130 manifestation(s) 50, 54, 59–60, 68, 83, 106, 113, 117, 135, 139, 149, 158, 160–1, 177 Mañjuxrc 38, 84, 113, 115, 154 manomayakAya 22, 96, 136, 146; see also mind-made body Nagarjuna 4, 19, 111, 131, 152 nirmAOakAya(s) 1, 53, 60–1, 65, 68, 87, 96–7, 124–6, 133, 136, 138–46, 152, 155–8, 162–4, 168–9, 171–2, 174–5, 177–8 nirvAOa 17, 52, 76, 78, 84, 89–5, 121–4, 133, 140, 147, 157, 159, 160–2, 166, 168–9, 171, 174, 177, 179, 181; concept of 89, 92–3, 123; mahAparinirvAOa 89–93, 123–4, 180–1; parinirvAOa 48, 64, 70, 119, 120, 133, 139, 142, 144, 147, 164, 166, 172, 174–5, 177–8 niQyanda-buddha 102 omniscient 45, 53–4, 58, 60–1, 75, 138, 180 one-fathom halo 19, 23, 25, 34, 52, 60, 148 ontologically 82–4, 181 pAramitAs 27, 46, 48, 66, 96, 103, 119, 128, 134, 142, 151, 161, 165 parasaNbhogakAya 134, 146, 162, 173–4 perfections 88, 94, 142, 161, 165, 176; six perfections 94 physical body 13, 21–3, 27, 35, 45, 50, 54, 59–60, 72, 80, 94, 101, 104–6, 123, 129, 132, 148, 162; see also rEpakAya prapañca 96 pratyekabuddhas 39, 41, 43, 45, 50–2, 85, 89–90, 96, 115, 141–2, 145–6, 155, 157, 161, 163, 165, 171–2, 181 problematic incidents 106, 110–11, 117–18 prophesy 158 249 INDEX Pure Land 102, 121, 134, 158, 166–7, 171–2, 174 quiescence 89–90, 93, 103, 124, 139, 141, 181 refuge 49–50, 59, 63, 69–70, 105, 180 retinue family retinue 126–7; great retinue 126, 135, 155; bodhisattva retinue 126, 133, 154–6, 170 retrogression 51 rEpakAya 1, 19–24, 26, 35, 44, 49, 52, 54, 59, 61, 67, 74, 79–82, 86, 89, 101, 104–6, 117, 124–7, 130, 132, 138–9, 153, 172, 176, 180; concept of 127; see also physical body saNbhogakAya 1–2, 53, 85, 96–7, 99, 101–3, 119, 128–30, 132–5, 141, 146, 154–9, 162–4, 168, 170, 172, 174–5, 177–8 Sarvastivada 3–5, 13, 19–24, 26, 28, 33–40, 46–7, 50, 52, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 104, 106, 108–11, 113, 116, 118, 124, 126, 128–32, 135 Sarvastivadin(s) 2, 5, 17–24, 26–8, 32–6, 38–40, 43–54, 59–61, 63–4, 75, 101, 103–6, 108–11, 117–18, 123, 127, 131–2, 135, 138, 143, 148, 180 wakyamuni 27–8, 47, 53, 60, 62–4, 73, 78, 101, 110, 119–22, 124, 126–7, 132, 138, 141–6, 148–51, 154, 156, 167–8, 170–1, 174–9, 181 salvific 4, 75, 82–3, 96, 99–100, 151–2, 156, 181 Sautrantika 67 skilful means 33, 37, 53, 68, 84–6, 89, 91, 111, 115–17, 120, 125, 128, 133, 141–2, 152, 162; see also upAyakauXalya XrAmaOas 107, 112, 138 XrAvakas 21, 39, 40–1, 43, 45, 47, 50–2, 85, 89–90, 96, 115, 142, 145–6, 155, 157, 161, 163, 165, 171, 177–8, 181 Sthaviravada 104, 109, 110 SukhAvatC 166–9, 171, 174, 176–8 XEnyatA 40, 61, 73, 76, 82, 174 XEnya 61, 78, 127 supernatural power(s) 15–17, 120, 125, 136–8, 145, 148–50, 152 supernatural qualities 101, 103, 179 svAbhAvakAya 97–8, 173, 175 svasaNbhogakAya 134, 173, 177 Tantrayana Tathagata(s) 20–1, 24, 32, 40, 41, 49–50, 52, 54–6, 58–60, 62–3, 64, 66–8, 123–4, 134, 139–40, 142–3, 145, 146, 149–50, 153, 155, 157, 161, 163, 165–6, 170, 175–6, 181 tathAgatagarbha 3–4, 8, 75, 80, 130–1, 152, 161–2, 164–5, 180–1 tathatA 72–3, 75–82, 84, 87–8, 93–4, 98–100, 124, 127, 130, 152–3, 160, 162–3, 165, 172–3, 180–1; concept of 76–7, 81 ten powers 17, 19, 36–7, 39, 44, 48, 78, 125, 127 Theravada 5–6, 28, 32–4, 38, 54, 56, 64, 66–7, 72, 74, 106, 108–9, 111, 118 Theravadin(s) 28, 33–4, 38, 71, 131–2, 138 three bodies 2, 96–7, 124, 147, 156, 162–5, 177 three-body theory 2, 154; see also trikAya thirty-two marks 13–14, 25–7, 34, 125, 127, 139, 148, 179; thirty-two major marks 19, 23, 26–8, 32–4, 37, 40, 48, 52, 58, 103 transformation body 60, 68, 89, 125, 127, 133, 174; see also nirmAOakAya(s) trichiliocosm 143 trikAya 1–2, 96, 101–2, 118, 124–5, 128–33, 145, 147, 155–6, 162–5, 172, 175, 179, 181; see also three body theory Tuqita 15, 23, 54–5, 73, 86, 115, 128, 141, 143–4, 147, 150, 161, 164, 167–71, 175 two-body theory 19–23, 52, 61, 117–18, 124–5, 128, 135 unskilful deeds 107–9, 118 upAyakauXalya 21, 33, 84, 111, 113, 115–17, 125, 128, 152 250 INDEX Vairocana 33, 141, 150, 155–6, 167, 169–73 Vajrayana 107 Vasubandhu 3, 40–1, 93, 129–32, 138, 144–5, 149, 154, 156, 164, 174, 177–8, 181 Vibhajyavada 67 vimokQa 93, 142; see also liberation vimukti 36, 67, 74, 95–6 vow(s) 2, 46–7, 50, 82, 102, 144–5, 160–2, 166–7, 170, 173, 176, 178 white hair 149–50 Xuanzang 4, 20, 119, 130 Yogacara 2–4, 96–7, 99, 142–65, 173, 181 251 ... Introduction The purpose of the research The method of the research The concept of the Buddha in early Buddhism The human Buddha The superhuman Buddha 13 The concept of the Buddha in the early Indian... development of the nirmaoakaya 139 The attributes of the Buddha and other Buddhas in early and middle Mah¡y¡na s2tras The light of the Buddha 147 The retinue of the Buddha 154 The twenty-one qualities of. .. between the SarvAstivAda and MahAsANghika schools on the physical body of the Buddha 104 The Buddha s bad karma 106 The problem of the Buddha s short life-span 119 The concept of the Buddha in the