Educational administration and leadership in francophone africa5 dynamics to change education

20 Chapter Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa: Dynamics to Change Education Boniface Toulassi Regent University, USA ABSTRACT Educational administration and leadership (EAL) is the thermometer and the offspring of the national political leadership Thus, a realistic national political awareness and conscience becomes the navigational tool towards a rigorous and relevant leadership development for the professionalization of school leaders and teachers, the specification and the quality of the students in a qualitative and relevant education system which incarnates an absolute congruence between educational results and citizens who fit the needs of the globalized village, their time, and countries La voie par excellence for any strategic, transformational EAL passes through an educational revolution with initiatives and reforms that spearhead the de-politicization, the decolonization, the digitalization, and the internationalization of education in Francophone countries through innovational education in a tripartite partnership: government, business leaders, and the civil society Leadership development should become an executive goal and project not an entertainment INTRODUCTION Building on Educational Renaissance in Francophone Africa (Toulassi, 2013), this chapter points out that the cardinal and navigational points needed to rebirth EAL in Francophone Africa are the five dynamics for change education such as the de-politicization and decolonization of the institution for its democratization, digitalization, and its internationalization with a genuine promotion of female education, all in a tripartite partnership binding the government, business leaders, and the civil society Essentially, if what is taught in schools today, determines how the future generations will behave, then EAL becomes DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch002 Copyright © 2017, IGI Global Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa the pillar of the overall development of a country, to keep up with globalization and to successfully lead processes of change (Hallinger, 2003; Kayikỗi & Ercan, 2013) Thus, school leaders and managers need educational preparedness “for an interconnected and globally focused workforce and for global civic responsibility” (Agnew, 2013, p 184) The pathology of higher education in Africa, reveals a system rarely innovative and barely functioning, given the executive negligence, lack of reforms and funding that characterize the institution which holds the pedigree of national development Thus the prescription highlights the necessity to “prepare students and school leaders for leadership roles in schools, and thus, offer a key arena for transformation and development of future schools’ leadership” (Yemini & Giladi, 2015, p 424) to prevent higher education in Africa to remain largely peripheral internationally (Alemu, 2014, p 1) African Higher Education faces challenges from both external and internal factors such as, from the outside, the asymmetric partnership with the center and non-contextualized policy influence, and from the inside, poor political resolve and incapable capacity and lack of a working system, given that teachers are left behind within the agenda of internationalization of higher education (Burkart & Thompson, 2014, p.1) In that perspective, the best medicine to cure the educational administration and leadership deficiency and time-lag is to meet basic prerequisites - resuscitating the vocation of education, its innovation, digitalization, internationalization, more funding for education, the promotion of key local regional languages – and provide school leaders with relevant EAL know-how through the practice of democratic constructed leadership, a systematic and officially supported gender-balanced leadership development which comes through the breaking the Apollo culture which promotes traditionalism and autocratic leadership decisions ZOOMING THE CURRENT EDUCATIONAL SITUATION IN FRANCOPHONE This section paints the issues, controversies, and problems facing the Francophone educational administration and leadership Educational Issues, Controversies, Problems The sub-Saharan Africa regional ministerial conference on education post-2015, gleaning data from 22 countries indicated some of the greatest continuing challenges identified to achieving Education for All (EFA) goals in Africa namely low enrollment rate of girls compared to boys in school, severe lack of youth skills necessary for employment, and high drop-out rates (42% of African school children leave school early) UNESCO listed the rapid increase in the number of students, brain drain, low course quality, difficulties in governance structures, financial constraints, a growing demand for higher education to contribute more consistently to national development as the difficult challenges facing the higher education Also, to incorporate views of others, the researcher sent a questionnaire to 30 professionals seeking master’s degree in Administration and Management in an African country Only one student responded Though this qualitative research recorded a very low response rate (3.37%), the response highlights how deep and widen the gap between education and professional life in one hand is and how crucially disappointing educational systems are in another The name of the respondent is initialized for political reasons 21  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa I: Define educational administration in your words R: It is simply the management of a didactic material, teacher assignment and planning of different exams This is to say that this administration has no tool in place for the follow-up and the orientation of the individual students, no strategic and organic educational cell to find solutions to the thorny questions evoked by the inadequacy between job and training I: Define educational leadership in your terms R: It is the managerial structuration of the educational system; a process which starts from the definition of a vision to the out-put, students trained and built-up to respond to labor issues and problems, organizations, and communities This calls for training of trainers, relevant classrooms, and didactics I: How would you describe your educational environment? R: I am in an evening Master Program in a private institution where the education is supposed to be research and presentations But I would say the school environment is very approximate I: If you were to make suggestions to your Minister of Education, what would you suggest? R: The primary school is too long and I don’t see the necessity for the 4th grade (can be removed) Rather use it for other purposes like studying English and practical; allowing students to choose literature, mathematics, or science as core classes from 8th grade Electives are to be kept but with lesser time From high school, practical should be a daily activity in laboratory and workshops A follow-up and orientation team should be established to monitor the progress of each student in each school through a relevant software and program I: Given how slow internet is in your country, how would you introduce electronics (Ipad, tablet, computer) in education? R: Yes, it is true that internet is an issue However, the internet-speed is sufficient enough for school works The most important is to have the material accessible and affordable Developing EAL seems to become the antidote to the systemic alarming realities Innocent alluded to The corrective steps should start with a paradigm shift, a review of education as vocation and embracing change education (Fullan, Cuttress, & Kilcher, 2005) Education Is Vocation Is it not true that teaching begins with what the teacher knows? No wonder Aristotle coined teaching as the highest form of understanding This aristotelian understanding contradicts the contemporary view of teaching just as a routine, tacked on, something almost anyone can do; must be amended As Boyer (1990) underlined, teaching means that “the teacher is well informed and intellectually engaged because teaching is also a dynamic endeavor involving all the analogies, metaphors, and images that build bridges between the teacher’s understanding and the student’s learning” (p 23) Tarman (2012) showed that traditionally, student teaching has been seen as the bridge between theory and practice which enables prospective teachers to transfer the necessary knowledge and skills gained at the university level into actual teaching practice (Bell & Robinson, 2004; Britzman, 1986) In clear, teaching both educates and entices future scholars Teacher educators typically see prospective teachers’ initial teaching experience as a time for them to examine nontraditional ways of teaching, to apply pedagogical content knowledge learned on campus (Onslow, Beynon, & Geddis, 1992), to take risks (Chandler, Robinson, & Noyes, 1994), and to focus on the “why” of teaching rather than the “how” (Pape, 1992) 22  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Pajares (1992) argued that the initial and evolving beliefs and perceptions prospective teachers hold about teaching as a profession, play an important role during this transition process which is to go back to the why of education, its mission or vocation For spiritually-informed teachers and educators, to train character based-students, the connection with the divine deems necessary Surpassingly, it is believed that many who join teaching has the passion to transform society If so, a conscious and logic examination would be to answer is if our regular pays have not taken the bid over the vocation of education? Ezer, Güat, and Sagee (2011) raised more questions regarding the beliefs of prospective teachers about teaching as a profession as they enter teacher education programs, how those beliefs and perceptions are impacted by the field experiences they have in their program of study, and how prospective teachers frame the concept of teaching as they enter or exit their programs of study Arguably, Tarman (2012) said: Regardless of what beliefs prospective teachers hold, one may wonder about the extent to which prospective teachers’ initial beliefs are subject to change by the experiences they gain in teacher education programs, especially those related to subsequent field experiences gained during teaching practice (p 1964) Whether beliefs change over time or not, Collier (1999) and Cakmákci (2009) explained that the difference between entering beliefs and existing beliefs may be also due to the fact that prospective teachers may not consider teaching “[as a] complex process that begins and ends with students” (Enerson, 1997, p 12), whereas field experiences give teachers the opportunity to think about and experience different parts of classroom teaching With the help of field experiences, teachers have a better awareness of the complex dynamics of the classroom Actually, reviewing researches on prospective teacher’ beliefs, Pajares (1992) and Richardson (1996) emphasized the importance of beliefs held by prospective teachers before entering a teacher education program, highlighting four important issues regarding prospective teachers’ beliefs such as beliefs about teaching are well established by the time a student reaches college, changes in beliefs during adulthood are quite uncommon, and when changes in beliefs take place, they occur as a result to a “conversion” from being a student to being a teacher Finally, these prior beliefs about teaching come from personal experience, schooling and instruction, and formal knowledge (Pajares, 1992, p.14) How to get back what is lost? Theodore Roosevelt knew how tremendously beneficial education is to a nation when he argued that to educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society with the morality referred to being foundationally that of the Bible Though nobody would normally question the validity of the impact of religious values and choices on positive and good citizen behaviors, a very prominent leader diagnosed the problem from a totally different angle: education In the same stand, Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth president of the USA, foresaw that what is taught in schools determines how future generations will behave With this claim, there is no better way to establish and prove the deterministic outcome of education on social behavior and the connection between education and social morality and worth? Was Sonia (2012) right to affirm that a man without education is no more than animal? Is it not true that state and human development depend, primarily, on the quality of education? Robinson (2001) answered: Going to school is about more than just gaining an academic education As the major public institution in the lives of children and young people, schools also have a responsibility to contribute to their development into well-adjusted, independent and successful adults who can contribute positively to both the economy and to society In light of this broader role, the social aspect of schooling is just as important as the academic one (Robinson, 2001, pp 17-18) 23  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Recognizing that education is more than just getting a diploma for jobs only but a calling, then, education programs begin with who they prospective teachers are and what beliefs they bring to their training These questions are vital to the educational end-result which is “to form a balanced human being in a harmonious and plenary way” (Robinson, 2001, p 18) In other words, the basic requirement for education is not the intellectual baggage nor academic prowess only, but the morality they left the school with, the formed character needed for nation building and societal transformation The above questions centralize the discussion on the ‘why’ of education? For Griswoid (2013), there are three elements, which, woven together, can create green jobs that will serve society in significant ways They are workforce development, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education; and community education for sustainability Griswoid’s list lacks the foundational cement that holds them together: morality about which Biesta (2011) argued that: Instead of understanding education as having to with the production or promotion of a particular kind of subjectivity, we should think of education as being interested in how new beginnings and new beginners come into the world Our educational interest into human subjectivity should then have a template, without a pre-defined idea about what it means to be and exist as a human being; if not education and teaching in America might be only trying to overcome a humanistic determination of human subjectivity (p 313) The expression ‘coming into the world’ draws inspiration from Arendt’s (1977a), ideas on action, for whom, to act means to take initiative, to begin something new Having characterized human being as an initium, a “beginning and a beginner” (p 170) Arendt (1977b) argued that to begin something new takes responsibility, defined in terms of political presence, not in legal nor moral terms Political presence requires “both acting and belonging that is as consisting of actions actualizing a given and there, therefore apolitical fellowship” (p 39) The latter calls for citizenship education, which, comes through educating for citizenship, citizenship education, teaching citizenship, education of citizenship, citizenship instruction (among others) and their word stems (to account for tenses and variations) The bottom line for Hytten (2009) would be a rethinking of democracy which can help respond more productively to the challenges of globalization even if Dewey maintained that “democracy is much more than a political system; instead it is a personal way of life, a mode of associated living, and a moral ideal” (p 395) To develop citizenship education and the prerequisites of educational administration and leadership, education needs innovation Educational Innovation as Innovational Education Educational innovation fits the need that education in Africa is traditionally and nationally oriented it is traditional in that there is heaviness on changing (O’Connor & Zeichner, 2011); it is national because the national culture and leadership transfers its DNA to EAL who transports it to the system and the students Beyond a shadow of a doubt, what to change is not the school leaders only, but rather the national and individual culture For the latter to change, it has to be exposed to another culture, adapt it, and apply it Then, since school administrators are required to lead the staff and students, interacting with local and national governmental supervisors is necessary to manage public relations, finance, academic performance, cultural and strategic planning, and relations with the external community within the increasing global world (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Waklstrom, 2004) So the change would 24  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa come from many sources, not just the “usual suspects” – superintendents and principals Since the roles of school managers and leaders can be politicized, there should be a widespread interest in improving leadership as a key to the successful implementation of large -scale reforms A leadership that only has its greatest impact in classroom instruction is not a productive response to both external policy initiatives and local needs and priorities, and to how those practices seep into the fabric of the education system, improving its overall quality and substantially adding value to the students’ learning Therefore, educational innovation tailgates on minimizing nationalism (nation) over cosmopolitanism (world), and transnational or transcultural categories and values, thereby legitimizing discourses and practices that transcend the nation (Yemini, Nissan & Shavit, 2014) Strategically, innovational education would consist of moving from theoretical approaches to practical and deductive approaches This is breaking the lack of self-confidence, fear of criticism and failure tendencies to conformity with others and lack of mental focus, lack of awareness from benefits of collaborative administration and overcoming activities to collective activity, lack of providence skills and lack of readiness to encounter with future situations Linking theory and practice calls for linking quality to quantity by sending prestigious students to prestigious universities in the field This cleanses the system and policies from familism, which is the allegiance toward family or fulfill family roles to a greater extent than other ethnic groups, which emphasizes the family over the individual showing respect for elders, and honoring the family name (Schwartz, 2007, p 102) More Funding for Education Africa loses an estimated 20,000 skilled personnel a year to developed countries, (Chabasseur, 2010) indicated that in very calamitous conditions, many teachers and professors prefer to go to USA, Morocco and England or Anglophone Africa for better pay and job Students follow the same dance since immigration to France is becoming more and more complicated (Chabasseur, 2010) In a nutshell, French Africa experiences a lot of brain drainage Funding educational materials and curricula in local languages deem critical with the aim that the educational de-politicization also invites educational leaders and actors to reconsider educational expenses than their political expenses and ambitions Lange (2007) recalled that Francophone educational system lives on foreign finances which supports Bianchini’s (2004) diagnosis that, school is a forgotten institution by political African leaders and analysts Promoting Local Languages Since early eighties, Ki-Zerbo (1979) suggested the decolonization of education and endogens educative modes that will valorize African cultures in order to really break from colonial schema through the promotion and the teaching of local languages This proposal does not undermine the colonial language which, was useful to bridge all the multiple languages, dialects that are there in the region Being colonial, the education system depreciated orality and verbalization Precolonial education was exclusively and essentially oral, with orality being Ong’s (2002) “technologizing of the word,” whereby the sounded word means power and action with memoires as the database or the archives of the whole knowledge and wisdom of a people group Espousing Saussure’s (1959) linguistics, writing should be “a kind of complement to oral speech, not as a transformer of verbalization” especially that writing “has simultaneously ‘usefulness, shortcomings and dangers” (p 23-4) The domestication of oral modes of thought and 25  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa expression by written modes has limited the dissemination of education Education should become oral not orality becomes educated To that end, educational transfer from one context to another “not only occurs for different reasons, but also plays out differently” (Steiner-Khamsi, 2004, p 202) This undertaking supports the premise that globalized education does not automatically imply or require uniformity among all motivations regarding and implementation of internationalization (Anderson-Levitt, 2003) Ki-Zerbo also recommended an equilibrium of school population between areas, cities, and villages But still, Chabasseur (2010) observed that 60% of students are in urban areas whereas in rural areas about 100 students learn from only teacher With French being used in schools whereas the students speak local languages at home, other crucial problems are low teacher quality, inadequate facilities, unsteady cooperation with industry, ineffective learning and poor performance management, private institution are jeopardizing the educational arena of African countries Vocational learning termed by UNESCO as a technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is a means whereby governments and international institutions are paying increasing attention to, and known to be one of the eight priority areas in the African Union’s second decade of education (2006-2015), is enhancing the ability of the learner as a member of the public in conducing reciprocal relationship among the social environments, the ability of learners to develop themselves in line with the advancement of science, technology, and the arts; preparing learners to enter the work field and to develop a professional attitude allows personal excellence in the nation which determines superiority of a nation in today’s era of globalization (Saliruddin, Syamsul, & Husain, 2014, p 32) The promotion of local languages goes with the de-politicization of education De-Politicization of Education Duru-Bellat and Zanten (1992) observed that the sociology of educational stake in Francophone Africa is not only a place where individual actors meet but also “a political space because the educational institution is invested by external and internal groups mainly the central State in a very strategic optic that is with projects aiming to transform its functionality (p 9) This pre-colonial factuality made Francophone education an incarnation of political wings so that, in the contemporary so-called independent states, schools and teachers simply represent the means to social and political ends Bianchini (2004) purported that it was in colonial times, school crises are also known to be structural crises which, are determined by heavy factors (demographic, economic, cultural…and demonstrations) The structural crises are followed by crisis in the teaching systems, then evenemental crisis, etc To this end, Mazzocchetti (2006), argued that “When you observed how students fight, it is political It is because they don’t like the political system that they demand certain things and want a change” (p 84) The magazine Courrier International (2012) explained that when the number of student strikes is higher than 50% of normal hours of class, the school year is invalidated: no exams, no diplomas Some countries have two to three années blanches (Lange, 2007) and années blanches (White years) simply, means, that students have not been able to go to school or class for a whole academic year (at least consecutive months) because of political crises, social demonstrations or security concerns; revealing the intrinsic relationship that primarily exists between state and education Making education a political instrument is a historic process as proven by Bianchini This is another vital reason that explains the necessity to decolonize the Francophone education Another reason is how contrary the French anthropology is to Anglo-Saxon anthropology (Copans, 2001), with this thematic of acculturation remained absent in the classic French anthropology To cure this well-known and diagnosed disease, the 26  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa philosophy of education is to explain and teach education as vocation and leadership as calling in order to break away with Balandier’s (1982) colonial situation and its double culture, and a double historical reality which prevails Vaccinating teachers against the colonial double-culture virus would immunize the system against double standardization, which is one education for strong and rich people, and another for poor and disfavored people), and help embark on transformational policies, curricula, and management Decolonizing education is also justified by the strategic and genius colonial intention to sap moral ingenuity and creativity For fact, the academic colonialism or the academic imperialism (Alemu, 2014), was proven incapable to help transcend any historically geographical demarcations instead of ethnic clashes and wars through morality and character-based politics Clignet (1967) affirmed, “if the attitudes of students from different ethnics are still distinct, one can notice that such a diversity characterize other social environments (a part from the school) as well” (p 378) Decolonizing Francophone education does not only bring educational development but necessary for a real cultural revival of Black Africa and her economic development (Brochier, 1965) Strategically, decolonizing education is working intensively and afrikologically toward the abrogation of the colonial language Moumouni (1964) argued that “after a deep analysis of the traditional educational system, then the colonial educational system, there are some gaps in the current educational policies still largely inspired by the former colonizer” (p 339) Bridging Educational Ideals with Professional Ordeals Education is very dense and very filling Citizens are being taught the whole world The teaching is rigorous and evaluations are not a joke Though this makes us well cultivated and knowers of almost everything, it poses a high problem of specialty needed to be a master of a specific job (H.K.E Innocent, age 41) Innocent’s viewpoints credit UNESCO’s equation on the ‘quality of education’ especially that Chabasseur (2010) observed that in francophone countries, the schooling system remains irrelevant to the current realities of the world and to the evolution of African communities in almost all African countries Came as to save the situation the technical, professional or vocational training, supposed to be the spare wheel of the system lacks more nutrients than the existing official schools Pigozzi (2006) saw the need for a new approach to understand the private education because “its traditional meaning is no longer adequate for the merging educational needs of the new millennium…the kind of education that is being offered in many school systems is no longer pertinent to the societies in which we live” (p 39) Time has come to rethink the concept more comprehensively, particularly in regard to the understanding of the need to focus on ‘learning’ in the twenty-first century Time is now to place and understand education in terms of a larger context that reflects learning in relation to the learner as an individual, a family and community member, a citizen and as part of a world society (Pigozzi, 2006, p 42) This wake-up call echoed the truth that today, all students are required to achieve the level which enables them to study on a higher level and be prepared for lifelong learning The real aim of school should be “to build the world, which cannot consist in a mechanical reproduction of the established conditions but rather in consistent reconstruction so that as many individuals as possible could enjoy access to education and have a chance to live with dignity” (Fullan & Crevola, 2006, p 86) In that light, Francophone Africa has to answer the burning question “What is school for?” Educational leaders know squarely well that “schools respond both to change in society and are themselves agents of change The way in which schools educate children influences the role that those children will 27  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa play in the world of tomorrow” (Robinson, 2011, p 18) In a nutshell, education is both a product of, and reflection of the society Whilst education may have facilitated social mobility, it has not increased social fluidity This is because the influence of class in society is not completely mediated by education (Robinson, 2011) Thus, a crucial but problematic way forward is the digitalization of the education Digitalizing Education For a teacher to come, every evening, from 60 kms away by motorbike to my visiting lectureship in Lomé, Togo, West Africa (November 2015) at the Advanced School of Administration and Management (ESAG-NDE), from 6m-9pm local time, speaks volumes to the urgency of the integration of information technology into education which is Web-Based Education (WBE) With the application of web technology, learning activities can be easily conducted by learners anytime and anywhere that felt secure by the learners The limited space, distance and time is no longer a complicated problem to solve In a sense, though Vargas (1992) confidently affirmed that one of the new forces of science and technology is information and communication technologies and their networks which have profoundly revolutionized the modes of interaction in research, education and business, the access to these technologies requires investment in telecommunication systems which are currently beyond the reach of a vast number of poor countries, thereby posing the risk of further enhancing growing education and information gap between them and the rest of the world, It is known that all that glitters are not gold Likewise, the digitalization of education poses the problem of instructional differences reported in three areas: the instructor-student interaction (the extent to which learning is observed or measured in real time); second, the learner interaction (the extent to which ideas and information are exchanged between and among students); and third the attendance (the extent to which students are motivated and accept responsibility for learning) (Kowalski, Dolph, & Young, 2006, pp 29-30) Saliruddin, Syamsul, and Husain (2014) argued that e-learning must have many characteristics such as, just in time means available to students when they need the Internet to accomplish their tasks and exercises The web-based learning “brings learning to the learner rather than to students learning” (p 35) In a sense, the digitalization of francophone education should account for Kowalski et al (2006) four motives for choosing online courses: convenience, cost savings, flexibility, and instructional preference Factually, La Rocque and Latham (2003) claimed that adopting e-learning in Africa will increase education access and quality, as well as lower education cost Internationalization of Education Dale and Roberston (2003) noted that “[f]ormal education is the most commonly found institution and most commonly shared experience of all in the contemporary world” (p.7) The internationalization of the African education is not anything new but a useful reminder, that, Africa is one of the continent whose higher education has been connected to the Western system through the colonial bond established since the 18th century (Alamu, 2014) In sort, higher education institutions in Africa “were therefore internationalized from an earlier period” (p 3) but called a primitive “academic colonialism” and “academic imperialism” (Hans & Jooste, 2014) Thus, internationalization of African education must not only start with its decolonization and depoliticization but also the de-traditionalization of the meaning of the term Thus, the initiative is positioned here at two levels: those who affect the level of the learner and those that affect the level of the education system To be effective, this work negated the first three 28  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa conceptualization of internationalization namely the traditional description as interdisciplinary programs, the second view as the interaction of domestic students with students and faculty of/from other nations, the third conceptualization as the technical assistance which US institutions offer to other countries to land on the fourth which calls to reform higher education to prepare people to function in an increasingly international and culturally diverse environment This is the infusion of international and cross-cultural information throughout the curriculum (Mamrick, 1999) under the stronger and broader influences of phenomenon of globalization Essentially, the internationalization of education may incur a process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension in the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009) It also includes a wider range of academic related activities such as student and staff mobility, internationalization and harmonization of curricula, quality assurance, and inter-institutional cooperation in teaching-learning, research and community services (Vught, n.d.) In sum, the internationalization of education in Francophone Africa will be to move from localized to internationalization education if, internationalism as an educational phenomenon still represents desirable situation in the light of technological and cultural developments (Dimmock & Walker, 2000) With these prerequisites, school leaders need EAL development and implementation SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Educational Administration and Leadership Know-How Kowalski et al (2006) argued that educational administration and leadership have to have a plinth namely beliefs, goals, ideas, national and globalized cultures These items can be grouped into educational environment, a key determinant of the effectiveness of a learning program A good environment nurtures motivated students, polishes their talents and bring out their best Educational environment (EE) is connected to educational climate (EC), which is an amalgation of the physical, emotional, and intellectual environment that has the most impact, and consisted of the supervision rendered to the students, the learning opportunities available and guidance plus encouragement given by colleagues and supervisors EC “determines the expertise of its students and affects both the quantity and quality professionals produced and also influences their performance” (Hashim, Razikin, Yusof, & Rashid, 2015, p 407) The next section covers educational leadership Educational Leadership (EL) Even as leadership concept can be defined with theory, historical, and practical approaches in 50 different ways (Glasman & Glasman, 1997), this chapter viewed EL of a country as the offspring and/or the victim of the national political leadership of that country Inherited traditionally, succession has become “an institution due to the fact that Africans are used to it and also it serves social needs” (Ake, 2000, p 75) in modern Africa, where then, it is important to find a blend in order to avoid endless jarring notes that generate deep crises and hamper the development of these countries This singular heroic leadership actually hinders instructional improvement in schools and reinforce an individualistic, dominant notion of leadership (Elmore, 2000) To transform schools’ leadership, leadership must move beyond what the principal, alone, can accomplish (Galloway & Ishimaru, 2015) The goal is to provide an equitable education for an increasingly diverse student population The new EL should be embedded in leadership 29  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Because “Leadership is an essential aspect of an educator’s professional life” (Lambert, 2002), educators and policymakers alike seek a framework for instructional leadership that will produce sustainable school improvement Leadership capacity development provides such a framework by adopting Lambert’s definition of “leadership capacity” as broad-based, skillful participation in the work of leadership in schools where learning and instructional leadership becomes fused into professional practice Factually, regular forums should be established where principals and teachers, as well as many parents and students, “participate together as mutual learners and leaders in study groups, action research teams, vertical learning communities, and learning-focused staff meetings” (Lambert, 1998) The link between fear and education should be broken Removing the Culture of Fear Despite compelling evidence to the contrary, Sullo (2009) affirmed that many teachers still believe that fear—fear of failure, fear of an unwanted call home, fear of the teacher, fear of ridicule, or fear of an unpleasant consequence—is a prime motivator for students to high-quality work Contrary, fear compromises the ability to learn, undermines teacher’s capacity to inspire high achievement by creating a classroom environment infused with fear Thus, educational leaders must face the culture of fear (Palmer, 1998) although it involves the necessity to question the traditional approach to interpersonal relations in the professional context It is said that there is no evidence that threats are an effective way to meet long-term academic goals (Mazurkiewicz, 2009a) Unfortunately, it is a derivative of what happens outside school Mazurkiewicz prioritized educational leaders’ assignments arguing: The priority of educational leaders will always be to support students in learning and teachers (or other people) in teaching He/she cannot - teach for them He/she must know how to make people learn The best approach to school management is to treat that process as similar to the process of teaching The school should become a learning community where everyone – including teachers, administrative and auxiliary staff as well as leaders – can learn and everyone does it Being the leader means above all making people aware of what they want and not what they should I will show below in what ways educational leaders may strengthen the process of learning and teaching through concentrating on particular aspects of that process (p 89) Gender-Balanced Educational Leadership The socialisation of women into gendered roles is argued to corrupt their views so that no trust can be placed in their accounts of their experience and their depictions of a valued present or future (Choi, 2006; Lather, 1997; Nussbaum, 2003) From a putative position of cultural superiority and mistrust of women’s own views, Lumby (2013) argued that “a logical sequitur is to impose liberation” (p 434) If the African Proverb, “When you educate a boy, you educate one person; but if you educate a girl you educate a family, and a whole nation,” is true, then ‘using knowledge to create social change’ (Small, 1995, p 946) should become the metric for gender-balanced leadership whereby women are unhemmed from patriarchy to have equal rights, which is the prerequisite for Education for All Females (EFAF): Logically, if one has misdiagnosed a problem, then one is unlikely to prescribe an effective I was eight years old when I heard about going to school for the first time A girl, to school? That is doomed to 31  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa nothing [grandma shouted out that evening] A girl is made to work in the kitchen or farms, but never to school (Matip, 1958, pp 17-18) Education is the solution to this female subjection under the political authority of a village head, not bad in itself, except that it became an instrument for down degrading women with the only right to reside in a village and cultivate its land which is contingent on obedience to the village head and conformity to custom (Mill, 1968, p 29) This explains the scarcity of women in top leadership Even, few women who rose steadily through the ranks eventually crashed into an invisible barrier, they couldn’t just break through the glass ceiling If this is the situation in industrialized nations (Eagly & Carli, 2010, p 439), the situation in Africa hinges on the traditional perceptions there is Comparing Mill’s (1968) and Eagly and Carli’s evidence regarding the leadership positioning of African women would be to highlight how Africans perceive female leadership using the sample of the Ewes people group in Togo, West Africa This expansion is validated by the reality that traditional cultures are similar along the Atlantic West coast of Africa (Hale, 2004a; 2004b) Unless these implicit theories are changed, the scarcity of women in EL would be a vestige of prejudice and the navigation towards gender balanced leadership education and practice would remain utopic and vague Table presents the general perception of female leadership in the Ewe society (an extension of general traditional African view of female leadership) Table Ewe perception of female leadership (Toulassi, 2015, pp 193-194) Male Perception Female Perception God created women to serve but never to be chief of a village That law must be revoked: “It is like a gun been brought and placed in our hands.” It is not in our traditions like in Ghana where chieftaincy is matrilineal Never, will there be a female A woman cannot be a chief for she is a girl, and will marry elsewhere In consequence, making her a queen or chief does not make sense (Anonymous) Men don’t want women to be promoted and many not understand women assertiveness and development Some men don’t want women to be seen, become visible This explains why not encourage female leaders … without women, men could not much (Queen Mother Agbenowabu II, age 60) We cannot say women cannot or not become traditional female notable nor leaders That thinking is archaic, for in those days, female responsibilities existed Nowadays, because things are changing and we called it: le monde l’envers [a world upside down] But women are becoming traditional chiefs (Afagnan canton traditional Chief Chaold III, age 57) Women were not considered nor associated to decisionmaking processes and settings She should be in the kitchen … When my husband became chief, he initiated female participation in the college of notables in the palace (Obim, Lolan chief’s wife, age 54) We want you to learn that beating a woman is forbidden in this kingdom; it is not a courageous behavior either (Lolan Notables, Aneho, Togo) A woman can lead because they study just like and advance just like men They have qualities and can surely lead except that they are afraid though they may have leadership in their blood For instance, madame Adjamagbo Ameganvi is a leader and her actions prove it She can lead if she so wishes (Essenam, age 30) The Notsie Declaration stipulates that women should have equal sharing in parental heritage Widow age is to be improved and reviewed (MC, personal communication, January 24, 2015) Women should become traditional chiefs because women better than some men God gave women intelligence (Akuvi, age 51) A woman can be chief because she is also created by God and God uses each uses each of His creature the way He wants God can give a woman the capability to lead if she fears God It all depends on how humble she is, her self-respect and reactions, and the way she talks in public (Aziakpati, age 49) No more should women be at the fringes of society They are competent as men (Koboyoh, age 32) What can a women do? (Koutoukpa Elders) Without women, men not much (Queen Mother, Agbenowabu II, age 60) 32  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Though the Koutoukpa elders challenged their queen mother about her leadership capabilities and competences, women know that without them, “men not much.” In clear any leadership education void of female education and assertiveness is a colonization in itself, even if justified by customary and ritualistic practices and ceremonies Thus, female maximization would be to join traditional female leaders (for instance queen mothers, growing in their number in Togo, West Africa) in their fight against female discrimination, stereotyping, and education for all females like Nwapa (1966), the first Nigerian female writer insisted that females have the right to go school no matter what the world around thinks and does: It is a good thing you are sending her to school But it is a waste sending them to school you know … boys should be given preference if it comes to that If you had a little brother for instance and there is just enough for the training of one, you wouldn’t train Nkoyeni and leave the boy (p 191) Nwapa’s projection into the future echoed the heartbeat of this queen mother (Toulassi, 2015, pp 188-9) First of all, Enyᴐ be gbetᴐ ɖesiaɖe neyi suku ne wᴐanya naɖe [It is profitable that every human being goes to school to learn something], for education enlightens a lot Because I am educated, when I am with Togbuis, I am not afraid I am enlightened and may say no if they or decide something wrong or bad The most interesting part of it is they know what I am capable of The quality of interpersonal relationships that I built and maintained with male leaders does not depend on a very well appreciated social and marital life only, but education This is the reason why women are not visible Education enlightens women leaders to be confident among fellow traditional leaders Schooling took the fear away Education enabled me to refuse some of male decisions I proved that where there is woman, things go well So, time has come for women to be political and say their words We don’t want politicization but women committed to leadership development, female education, in brief developing women who will become members of official and important decisions making processes and frameworks, and to occupy key positions (Queen mother, Agbenowabu II, age 60) The quotes are sounding trumpets that it is high time things changed, since “Every human life and every articulated body of human thought has been shaped by the particular epoch in which it occurred and shared the relativity of that epoch” (Hillman, 1975, p 47) Only female leadership education would crystalize education for all females (EFAF) especially that: In terms of academic achievement, international education figures from 43 developed countries, showed a consistent picture of women achieving better results than men at every level, particularly in literacy assessments (Craig, Harper, & Loat, 2004, p 268) Without education, women will continue to be handicapped, and their success will always be limited: “The girl-child is one of the most hard-hit demographic when it comes to lack of adequate and affordable basic education facilities Education plays a key role in helping increase women’s numbers in the non-traditional job sector” (Adubra, 2005) Encouraging new ways of learning, teachers establish direction, clarify final destination and identify performance markers The encouragement to develop of new ideas as a means of driving forward innovative practice using portfolio and reflective practice, with contemporary nursing now focusing on theory-practice integration (Kouzes & Posner, 2007) This will also help build trust and loyalty and ensure change is managed effectively 33  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa EL change behavior, her, derives from Bass and Avolio’s (1995, 2005) transformational leadership four constructs namely intellectual stimulation, individualized instruction, and motivation Hashim et al (2015) underlined that in an organization such a school, “it requires many changes of policies and curriculum” (p 567) This means that the educational leader needs intellectual adjustment and responsibilities of a leader to be flexible, malleable and dynamic to the surroundings Lambert (2000) explained that a principal who goes about it alone or who dominates it will find that the school becomes overly dependent on his or her leadership So, today’s effective principal constructs a shared vision with members of the school community, convenes the conversations, insists on a student learning focus, evokes and supports leadership in others, models and participates in collaborative practices, helps pose the questions, and facilitates dialogue that addresses the confounding issues of practice It takes skills and new understanding since it is much easier to tell or to manage than it is to perform as a collaborative instructional leader especially that Kohm (2002) recognized that the more adept he became at solving problems, “the weaker the school became” (p 32) Also, the visibility of educational leadership is its administration Educational Administration Educational administrators are professionals who have a code of ethics and are licensed by state boards of education Thus, their behavior is guided by acceptable standards of practice (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 1996) It matured as a science, that is, it has developed a solid theoretical base – a body of organized and tested knowledge It may be more accurate to refer to educational administration as applied science As such, Griffiths (1988) argued that educational science is using theory “to explain and predict phenomena in educational organizations” (p 27) even as he proposes “theoretical pluralism” that is linked to problems of practice Griffiths’ claim gave meaning to Lakomski’s (1996) “naturalistic coherentism” which contends that knowledge generation should be assessed on the basis of its testability, simplicity, consistency, comprehensiveness, fecundity, familiarity of principle, and explanatory power Just like the administration process of other organizations, this educational administration process might use approaches like classic administration approach, behaviorism approach, human relations approach and system approach, respectively (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 1996) This means that school administrators should not expect practical prescriptions for administering their schools To be practical, educational administration should decentralize educational institutions through educational quota policy This is built higher education facilities according to geographical and population size; taking education to people not people to the education Educational renaissance is an antidote to rural and town exodus and the compacting of students in classrooms: There is an average of 40 pupils per teacher in sub-Saharan Africa, but the situation varies considerably from country to country In many countries, it is more than 60 to one Africa loses an estimated 20,000 skilled personnel a year to developed countries.1 In Sub-Saharan Africa, only two-thirds of children who start primary school reach the final grade Chabasseur (2010) observed that there are 60% of students in urban areas whereas in rural areas about 100 students learn from only one teacher This calls for the democratization of education, that is, making education accessible and affordable To get there, Apollo culture should be broken Dorczak (2011) stated that the Apollo culture is built on rules and regulations that describe every single step of all members of the organization including Apollo Roles and precisely defined and there is no space for creativity and 34  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa autonomy” (p 50) Meanwhile, Lambert (1998) suggests a shift of our thinking about who can learn and who can lead: (1) Everyone has the right, responsibility, and ability to be a leader (2) How we define leadership influences how people will participate (3) Educators yearn to be more fully who they are—purposeful, professional human beings Deobold Van Dalen (1979) has suggested six functions of theories, and we follow his categorization in this discussion: identifying relevant phenomena, classifying phenomena, formulating constructs, predicting phenomena, summarizing phenomena, revealing needed research Administrators are to be familiar with scientific management, administrative management, and the human relations approach While Taylor (1911) suggested four principles for scientific management, designed to maximize worker productivity: Scientific job analysis, selection of personnel, management cooperation, and functional supervising, Gulick and Urwick (1937) coined the acronym POSDCoRB meaning planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting which concerns all activities that accompany budgeting, including fiscal planning, accounting, and control To that effect, Saito and Cappelle (2010) suggested the following variables: • • • School characteristics (type, location, size, resources, principal’s qualification, parental involvement, etc.) Teacher characteristics (age, sex, qualifications, behavior, in-service training, classroom resources, etc.) Students characteristics (age, sex, attendance, repetition, socioeconomic status, nutrition, home help, etc.) (p 18) In addition, Saito and Cappelle suggested the following policy like the (1) consultation with staff, community, and experts, (2) review of existing planning and policy procedures, (3) data collection for planning purposes, (4) educational research, and investment in infrastructures and resources It means that teacher distribution should be improved, dropouts and repetition reduced, increase survival rate, and increase supply of teacher (Saito & Cappelle, 1999, p 20), improvement of teaching, learning methods, encouraging creativity, self-study capability, and use of ICT, and assuring career oriented knowledge rather than subject oriented knowledge (UNESCO, 2008b) Avoiding the Privatization of Education If privatization did not work for the USA, how much more will it fail in third world nations! In case one is wondering whether privatization caused this destruction, “the answer is yes, it did” especially that “In about twenty years the funding model has destroyed the U.S.’s educational advantage” (Newfield, 2011, p.8, 10) Newfield explained that the two-sentence version of the argument is that the private investment process gives the least money to schools with the lowest graduation rates, which receive a disproportionately high percentage of low-income and first-generation students The decades-old failure of the bottom three-quarters of the country’s students (measured by socio-economic status) to improve their educational outcomes has undermined overall advances in attainment Newfield (2010) proved that the third effect of privatization is that it is wrecking the financial solvency of high-quality public universities The funding model doesn’t produce stability because the net private revenues never make up for public funding lost to cuts This structural shortfall will result from the British government’s replacement of most of the teaching grant with a scheme of high fees and loans It has been happening 35  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa for a long time in California, and based on that state’s experience “even a tripling of fees won’t make up for the teaching grant” (p 8) In that light, it is not advisable for a third world country to privatize education Educational leaders should be given freedom to express their real feelings about the institutions they have in charge To get out this tunnel, poverty reduction must be tackled while Africans work at the abrogation of ineffective official educational policies and for the fight against irresponsible budgetary behaviors which contribute, year after year, to the detriment of adequate and relevant educational administration and leadership in Francophone Africa The cultivation of a culture of ethics and excellence should characterize the general policies of education FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Because every work has limitations (Shero, 2014; Miles & Huberman, 1994), to verify the validity of the suggestions to ensure their applicability and sustainability, conducting quantitative research on change knowledge and the needs of the African education and curriculum design and leadership is the first goal to achieve For, education should be designed to internalize African values but also opened to internationalization This highlights the type of curriculum relevant for African needs but also render Africans globally competitive without losing their African identity and consciousness (Xulu, 2015, p 237) A second research would be a qualitative one based on survey questionnaire regarding orality and education A third research would be a meta-analysis which would be to sort out what does the totality of research say about the influence of politics on African educational administration and leadership and also determine the average impact of a better leadership on education CONCLUSION Institutional educational administration and leadership in Francophone Africa needs some heavy push through the national consciousness-raising regarding the incongruence between our education and the needs of its time is alarming and undertake transformational and strategic innovative education and innovational education to spring from educational de-politicization, decolonization, digitalization, and internationalization With the premise that EAL is the offspring or victim of the national political leadership, the issue of emergency oi its development and promotion with a culture of excellence and morality Promoting local languages, under a tripartite partnership (Government, business leaders and educators, the system may enrich itself through volunteership and citizen’s financial sponsorship to ensure better educational policy and curriculum leadership toward the internationalization of education with qualitative school leaders and administrators who not use their school as a theater for political conundrum but rather a laboratory for developing citizens for life and the globalized village REFERENCES Achieveinafrica.org (2009) Facts on education in Africa Retrieved from https://achieveinafrica.wordpress.com/2009/04/15/facts-on-education-in-africa/ 36  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Adubra, A L (2005) Non-traditional occupations, empowerment and women: A case of Togolese women Abingdon: Routledge Agnew, M (2013) Strategic planning an examination of the role of disciplines in sustaining internationalization of the university Journal of Studies in International Education, 17(2), 183–202 doi:10.1177/1028315312464655 Ake, C (2000) The feasibility of democracy in Africa Retrieved from http://www.codesria.org/spip php?article89 Alemu, S K (2014) An appraisal of the internationalization of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa CEPS, 24(2), 1–20 Altbach, P G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L E (2009) Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution France: UNESCO Anderson, G L (2009) Advocacy leadership: Toward a post-reform agenda in education New York, NY: Routledge Anderson-Levitt, K (2003) A world culture of schooling? In K Anderson-Levitt (Ed.), Local meanings, global schooling: Anthropology and world culture theory (pp 1–26) New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan doi:10.1057/9781403980359 Arendt, H (1977a) The Life of the Mind (Vol I) New York, London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Arendt, H (1977b) The Life of the mind (Vol II) New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Balandier, G (1982) La situation coloniale: Approche théorique.[The colonial situation: Theoretical approach] Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, XI, 44–79 Banoğlu, K (2011) A comparative study of “Educational Leadership & Administration” MA Programs in USA and Turkey The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(10), 399–400 Bass, B M., & Avolio, B J (1995) Individualized consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: A multi-level framework for examining the diffusion of transformational leadership The Leadership Quarterly, 2, 199–218 Bass, B M., & Avolio, B J (2005) Transformational leadership Mahwah, NJ: L Erlbaum Associates Bell, C L., & Robinson, N G (2004) The successful student teaching experience: Thoughts from the Ivory Tower Music Educators Journal, 91(1), 39–42 doi:10.2307/3400104 Bianchini, P (2004) Ecole et politique en Afrique Noire: Sociologie des crises et des reformes du système d’enseignement au Sénégal et au Burkina-Faso (1960-2000) Paris: Karthala Biesta, G (2011) Philosophy, exposure, and children: How to resist the instrumentalization of philosophy in education Journal of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain, 45(2), 305–319 doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2011.00792.x Boyer, E L (1990) Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate Jossey-Bass 37  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Britzman, D P (1986) Cultural myths in the making of a teacher: Biography and social structure in teacher education Hayward Educational Review, 56(4), 442–456 Brochier, J (1965) Abdou Moumouni, L’éducation en Afrique Tiers-Monde, 6(21), 313–399 Burkart, K I., & Thompson, C J (2014) Intercultural mindedness: Teachers left behind Florida Association of Teacher Educators Journal, 1, 1-14 Cakmákci, G (2009) Preparing teachers as researchers: Evaluating the quality of research reports prepared by student teachers EJER, 35(2), 39–56 Chabasseur, E (2010) 50 ans de politiques d’éducation en Afrique francophone Retrieved from http:// www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100309-50-ans-politiques-education-afrique-francophone Chandler, B., Robinson, W P., & Noyes, P (1994) Is a proactive student teacher a better student teacher? Research in Education, 45, 41–52 Choi, J (2006) Doing post-structural ethnography in the life history of dropouts in South Korea: Methodological ruminations on subjectivity, positionality and reflexivity International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(4), 435–453 doi:10.1080/09518390600773163 Clignet, R (1967) The fortunate few: A study of secondary school and students in the Ivory Coast In P Bianchini (Ed.), Ecole et politiques en Afrique noire: Sociologie des crises et des reformes, du système d’enseignement au Sénégal et au Burkina Faso (1960-2000) (pp 199–201) Karthala Editions Collier, S T (1999) Characteristics of reflective thought during the student teaching experience Journal of Teacher Education, 50(3), 173–181 doi:10.1177/002248719905000303 Copans, J (2001) La “situation coloniale” de Georges Balandier: Notion conjoncturelle ou modèle sociologique et historique?[George Balandier’s colonial situation: Conjectural notion or sociological or historical model?] Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 1(110), 31–52 doi:10.3917/cis.110.0031 Copland, M A (2003) Leadership of inquiry: Building and sustaining capacity for school improvement Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 25(4), 375–395 doi:10.3102/01623737025004375 Courrier International (2012) Afrique Universités: Année blanche? [Africa Universities: white year?] Retrieved from http://www.courrierinternational.com/article/2012/03/22/universites-annee-blanche Cowie, B., Jones, A., & Harlow, A (2005) The digital horizons: Laptops for teachers policy initiative: Impacts and consequences New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 15, 111–132 Craig, I W., Harper, E., & Loat, C S (2004) The genetic basis for sex differences in human behavior: Role of the sex chromosomes Annals of Human Genetics, 68(3), 269–284 doi:10.1046/j.15298817.2004.00098.x Dale, R., & Robertson, S (2003) Editorial: Introduction Globalisation, Societies and Education, 1(1), 3–11 doi:10.1080/1476772032000061789 Day, V D (2014) Encyclopedia of leadership: Leadership development Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications 38  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Deobold, V D (1979) Understanding educational research (4th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill Diallo, A B (n d.) Technology: Africa and learning Opinion Article Retrieved from http://www unesco.org/education/lwf/doc/portfolio/opinion3.htm Dimmock, C., & Walker, A (2000) Developing Comparative and International Educational Leadership and Management: A cross-cultural model School Leadership & Management, 20, 143–160 Dorczak, R (2011) School organizational culture and inclusive educational leadership Contemporary Management Quarterly, 2, 45–55 Duru-Bellat, C W., & Zanten, A H (1992) Sociologie de l’école[Sociology of school] Revue Francaise de Sociologie, 35(2), 328–331 Eagly, A H., & Carli, L L (2010) Women in the labyrinth of leadership (pp 439–447) Elly, W R (2013) Afrikology and community: Restorative cultural practices in East Africa The Journal of Pan African Studies, 6(6), 1–25 Elmore, R (2000) Building a new structure for school leadership Retrieved from www.shankerinstitute org/Downloads/building.pdf Elmore, R (2002) Improving school through principal professional development Retrieved from http:// www.nsdc.org/library/leaders/leader_report.cfm Enerson, M D (1997) The Penn State teachers II Pennsylvania: University Park, the Pennsylvania State University Engeström, Y (1995) Objects, contradictions and collaboration in medical cognition: An activity theoretical perspective Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 7(5), 395–412 doi:10.1016/0933-3657(95)00012-U Ezer, H., Guat, I., & Sagee, R L (2011) Perception of teacher education and professional identity among novice teachers European Journal of Teacher Education, 33(4), 391–404 doi:10.1080/02619 768.2010.504949 Fullan, M (2003) The new meaning of educational change (3rd ed.) New York: Teachers College Press Fullan, M (2005) Leadership & sustainability: Systems thinkers in action Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Fullan, M., Cuttress, C., & Kilcher, A (2005) forces for leaders of change JSD, 26(4), 54–64 Fullan, M., Hill, P., & Crevola, C (2006) Breakthrough Corwin Press, NSDC Ontario Principals’ Council Galloway, M K., & Ishimaru, A M (2015) Radical recentering: Equity in educational leadership standards Educational Administration Quarterly, 51(3), 372–408 doi:10.1177/0013161X15590658 Glasman, N S., & Glasman, L D (1997) Connecting the preparation of school leaders to the practice of school leadership Peabody Journal of Education, 72(2), 3–20 doi:10.1207/s15327930pje7202_1 Griffiths, D E (1988) Administrative theory In N J Boyan (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational administration (pp 27–51) New York: Longman 39  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Griswoid, W (2013) Community education and green jobs Adult Learning, 24(1), 30–36 doi:10.1177/1045159512467322 Gulick, L., & Urwick, L (1937) Papers on the science and management New York: Columbia University Press Hale, J R (2004a) A contextualized model for cross-cultural leadership in West Africa Paper presented at the Servant Leadership Research Roundtable Virginia Beach, VA: Regent University; Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2004/hale_contextualized_model.pdf Hale, J R (2004b) Toward a theory of divinely empowered leadership: Based on an inter-texture analysis of Acts Unpublished manuscript Virginia Beach, VA: Regent University; Retrieved from https://www regent.edu/ acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2004/hale_contextualized_model.pdf Hallinger, P (2003) Reshaping the landscape of school leadership development: A global perspective Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger Hans, W., & Jooste, N (2014, February 21) Can international education be truly equal and global? University World News, 308 Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article php?story=20140218131715855 Hashim, N., Razikin, M., Yusof, M Y., Rashid, A A., & Hassan, S S S (2015) Investigating educational leadership practices model among teachers in Malaysian secondary schools European Journal of Soil Science, 17(4), 556–569 Hayden, J M (2011) What philosophers of education do? An empirical study of philosophy of education journals Studies in Philosophy and Education, 3(1), 1–27 doi:10.1007/s11217-011-9262-7 Hickman, I G R (Ed.), Leading organizations: Perspectives for a new era (2nd ed.) Sage Hillman, E (1975) Polygamy reconsidered: African plural marriage and the Christian Churches Orbis Books Hytten, K (2009) Dewey and democracy in a globalized world Educational Theory, 59(4), 395408 doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2009.00327.x Kayikỗi, K., & Ercan, B (2013) The evaluation of educational administration and supervision graduate programs in Turkey: A case study International Journal of Educational Research, 4(3), 74–94 Ki-Zerbo, J (1979) Eduquer ou périr L’Harmattan Kohm, B (2002) Opening schools for discussion Educational Leadership, 59(8), 31–33 Kouzes, J M., & Posner, B Z (2007) The leadership challenge (4th ed.) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Kowalski, T J., Dolph, D., & Young, P (2006) Students motives for taking online courses in educational administration Educational Research Quarterly, 38(1), 27–45 La Rocque, N., & Latham, M (2003) The promise of e-learning in Africa: The potential for publicprivate partnerships IBM Endowment for Business of Government Retrieved from http://ahero.uwc ac.za/index.php?module=cshe&action=viewtitle&id=cshe_213 40  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Lakomski, G., & Evers, C W (1996) Science in educational administration: A postpositivist conception Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(3), 379–402 doi:10.1177/0013161X96032003005 Lambert, L (1998) Building leadership capacity in schools Alexandria, VA: ASCD Lambert, L (2000) Beyond Instructional Leadership: A framework for shared leadership Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 59(8), 37-40 Retrieved from https://www.bcpss.org/ bbcswebdav/institution/PUBLICINFO1112/2013%20Summer%20Leadership%20Institute/Binder%20 Materials/Tab%2002%20-%20Teacher%20Teams/Additional%20Resources/A%20Framework%20for%20 Shared%20Leadership%20ASCD.pdf Lange, M (2007) Espaces scolaires en Afrique francophone Ethnologie Francaise, 4(37), 639–645 doi:10.3917/ethn.074.0639 Lather, P (1997) Drawing the line at angels: Working the ruins of feminist ethnography International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 10(3), 285–304 doi:10.1080/095183997237124 Leithwood, K., Louis, K S., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K (2004) How leadership influences student learning (pp 1–90) Retrieved from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/school-leadership/key-research/documents/how-leadership-influences-student-learning.pdf Lumby, J (2013) Past papers, future thinking: Valuing knowledge over action-the example of gender in educational leadership Gender and Education, 25(4), 432–443 doi:10.1080/09540253.2013.772568 Lunenburg, F C., & Ornstein, A C (2008) Educational administration: Concepts and practices (3rd ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Mamrick, J (1999) Internationalizing higher educational institutions: Broadening the approach to institutional change Occasional Papers on Institutional Change and transformation in Higher Education Michigan University, Michigan, USA Marshall, C., & Oliva, M (Eds.) (2010) Leadership for social justice: Making revolutions in education Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Matip, M C (1958) Ngonda Paris: Bibliothèque du Jeune African Mazurkiewicz, G (2011) Educational leadership: Key elements supporting teaching and learning Contemporary Management Quarterly, 2, 84–98 Mazzocchetti, J (2006) When chicks are together they frighten a hawk: Burkina students in politics Politique Africaine (Paris, France), 101, 83–95 doi:10.3917/polaf.101.0083 Miles, M B., & Huberman, A M (1994) Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Mill, J S (1968) The subjection of women London: Longman Moumouni, A (1964) L’education en Afrique Francois Maspero Newfield, C (2010) The end of the American funding model What comes next? American Literature, 82(3), 611–634 doi:10.1215/00029831-2010-026 41  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Newfield, C (2011) Reinventing public universities: From funding deadlock to bootleg U The Western Humanities Review, 65(3), 6–24 Nicolini, D., Mengis, J., & Swan, J (2012) Understanding the role of objects in cross-disciplinary collaboration Organization Science, 23(3), 612–629 doi:10.1287/orsc.1110.0664 Nussbaum, M C (2003) Capabilities as fundamental entitlements: Sen and social justice Feminist Economics, 9(2–3), 33–59 doi:10.1080/1354570022000077926 Nwapa, F (1966) Efuru Ibadan: Heinemann O’Connor, K., & Zeichner, K (2011) Preparing US teachers for critical global education Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9(3-4), 521–536 doi:10.1080/14767724.2011.605333 Ogawa, R T., & Bossert, S T (1995) Leadership as an organizational quality Educational Administration Quarterly, 31(2), 224–243 doi:10.1177/0013161X95031002004 Ong, W J (2002) Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word New York Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group Onslow, B., Beynon, C., & Geddis, A (1992) Developing a teaching style: A dilemma for student teachers The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 38(4), 301–315 Ospina, S., & Sorenson, G (2006) A constructionist lens on leadership: Charting new territory In G Goethals & G Sorenson (Eds.), In quest of a general theory of leadership (pp 188–204) Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar doi:10.4337/9781847202932.00015 Pajares, M E (1992) Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307–332 doi:10.3102/00346543062003307 Palmer, P J (1998) The courage to teach Exploring the inner landscape of a teachers’ life San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers Pape, S L (1992) A case study of secondary student teachers’ curriculum decisions Action in Research Education, 14(4), 52–60 Pigozzi, M J (2006) Chapter 2: What is the ‘quality of education’ (A UNESCO perspective) In K Ross & I J., Genevois (Eds.), Cross-national studies of the quality of education (pp 39-50) Paris UNESCO-IIEP Richardson, R (1996) The role of attitude and beliefs in learning to teach In J Sikula, T Buttery, & T C E Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on Teacher Education (2nd ed., pp 102–119) New York: Macmillan Robinson, K (2001) The role of schools in society: A future vision of education Educational Review, 24(1), 17–23 Ryan, J (2006) Inclusive leadership and social justice for schools Leadership and Policy in Schools, 5(1), 3–17 doi:10.1080/15700760500483995 42  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Ryan, J (2014) Promoting inclusive leadership in diverse schools In I Bogotch & C M Shields (Eds.), International handbook of educational leadership and social (in)justice (pp 359–380) Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6555-9_21 Saito, M., & Cappelle, F V (2010) Monitoring the quality of education: Exploration of concepts, methodology, and the link between research and policy International Perspectives on Education and Society, 13, 3–34 doi:10.1108/S1479-3679(2010)0000013004 Saliruddin, A A., Syamsul, B T., & Husain, S (2014) Expectations of vocational school students in Makassar toward we-based learning for computer applications subjects International Journal of Academic research, 6(5), 32-35 Saussure, F d (1959) Course in general linguistics New York: Philosophical Library Schwartz, S J (2007) The applicability of familism to diverse ethnic groups: A preliminary study The Journal of Social Psychology, 147(2), 101–118 doi:10.3200/SOCP.147.2.101-118 Shero, A P (2014) Embedded leadership: The role of Gisu elders in Uganda in supporting and limiting executive authority (Doctoral dissertation) Virginia Beach, VA: Regent University Small, S A (1995) Action-oriented research: Models and methods Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(4), 941–955 doi:10.2307/353414 Sonia, S (2012) The right to education act: An overview Indian Streams Research Journal, 2(11), 1-6 Retrieved from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/84443019/righteducation-act-overview Steiner-Khamsi, G (2004) Blazing a trail for policy theory and practice In G Steiner-Khamsi (Ed.), The global politics of educational borrowing and lending (pp 201–220) New York, NY: Teachers College Press Sullo, B (2009) Motivated student Unlocking the enthusiasm for learning Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109028/chapters/ Eliminate-Fear-from-the-Classroom.aspx Tarman, B (2012) Prospective teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about teaching as a profession Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12(3), 1964–1973 Taylor, F W (1911) Principles of scientific management New York: Harper Thompson, C (2010) Education and/or displacement? A pedagogical inquiry into Foucault’s ‘Limit Experience.’ Educational Philosophy and Theory, 42(3), 361–377 doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00373.x Timperley, H S (2005) Distributed leadership: Developing theory from practice Journal of Curriculum Studies, 00(0), 1–26 Toulassi, B (2009) Binary opposition & women’s empowerment in Flora Nwapa’s Efuru Département d’Anglais Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines Université de Lomé, Togo: FLESH Toulassi, B (2013) Educational leadership: Educational renaissance in Francophone Africa Proceedings of GLOBAL Mindset Development in leadership and Management Conference (Vol 8, p 73) California, USA: Riverside University 43  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Toulassi, B (2015) Traditionally inherited leadership among the Ewes in Togo, West Africa-Reasons and Beliefs: Building an integrative approach Regent University, Virginia Beach, USA A dissertation UNESCO (2008b) UNESCO national education strategy support (UNESS) Vietnam Paris: UNESCO UNESCO (2015) Education for the 21st Century Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/themes/education21st-century UNESCO Office in Dakar (2015) Sub-saharan Africa regional ministerial conference on education post-2015 Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/dakar/education/education-for-all-in-africa/ sub-saharan-africa-regional-conference-on-education-beyond-2015/ Vargas, J (1992) Technology and the building of local capacity Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/ education/lwf/doc/portfolio/opinion12.htm Vught, F v (n d.) Internationalization and globalization in European Higher Education The Netherlands: University of Twente Wenger, E (2000) Communities of practice and learning systems Organization, 7(2), 225–246 doi:10.1177/135050840072002 Woloschuk, W., Crutcher, R., & Szafran, O (2005) Preparedness for rural community leadership and its impact on practice location of family medicine graduates The Australian Journal of Rural Health, 13(1), 3–7 doi:10.1111/j.1440-1854.2004.00637.x Xulu, V S (2015) The place of African renaissance in South African education The Journal of Pan African Studies, 8(2), 151–248 Yemini, M., Bar-Nissan, H., & Yardeni, O (2014) Between “us” and “them:” Teachers’ perceptions of the national versus international composition of the Israeli history curriculum Teaching and Teacher Education, 42, 11–22 doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.04.003 Yemini, M., & Giladi, A (2015) Internationalization motivations and strategies of Israeli educational administration programs Journal of Studies in International Education, 19(5), 423–440 doi:10.1177/1028315315579240 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Afrikology: A true philosophy of knowledge and wisdom based on African cosmogonies (Elly, 2013) Change Knowledge: Is an understanding and insight about the process of change and the key drivers that make for successful change in practice (Fullan, Cuttress, & Kilcher, 2005) Educational Leader: The person who manages a school or an educational project) is brave and resourceful, perceives changes as an opportunity and not as a threat and above all acts actively while controlling his/her destiny rather than waiting for its verdicts (Mazurkiewicz, 2009a) Ewes: A people group living in southern Benin, Ghana, and Togo Familism: Sociologically, describes a form of social organization in which all values are determined by reference to the maintenance, continuity, and functioning of the family group (Kuada, 1994) 44  Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Internationalization of Education: It is the preparation of people to function in an increasingly international and culturally relevant and diverse environment (Mamrick, 1999) Leadership Capacity: A broad-based, skillful participation in the work of leadership in schools where learning and instructional leadership becomes fused into professional practice (Lambert, 2007) ENDNOTE http://achieveinafrica.wordpress.com/2009/04/15/facts-on-education-in-africa/ 45 ... 395) To develop citizenship education and the prerequisites of educational administration and leadership, education needs innovation Educational Innovation as Innovational Education Educational innovation... Educational Administration and Leadership in Francophone Africa Ryan, J (2014) Promoting inclusive leadership in diverse schools In I Bogotch & C M Shields (Eds.), International handbook of educational. .. sustainable, systemic innovation and change, individuals at all levels of the education sector/system need to provide leadership for change and they need to work together to promote and support change