440 Chapter 17 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education: Leadership Theory Lorna C Timmerman Ball State University, USA Thalia M Mulvihill Ball State University, USA ABSTRACT This chapter examined the increasing reliance on contingent faculty in U.S higher education as an administrative problem ripe for continued investigation The specific purpose of this inquiry was to gain a better understanding of the impact of employing contingent faculty from the viewpoint of a departmental chair of a medium-sized Midwestern research university who routinely hired many contingent faculty Within the context of these interviews, the chair discussed various aspects of his leadership style, his experiences and responsibilities in the job, his organizational philosophies, his departmental vision and his concerns related to the changing landscape of higher education As Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four-frames model suggests, effective leaders draw from all four frames to make the best decisions and to come to the most productive solutions The results of this examination revealed this leader’s propensity for leading with the human resource frame and then blending in the remaining frames when thinking and acting on issues related to contingent faculty INTRODUCTION The increasing reliance on contingent faculty in U.S higher education is an administrative problem that is ripe for continued investigation Over 75% of new faculty appointments are off the tenure track, and more than half of all college courses are taught by contingent faculty (AAUP, 2013) While the intent of the Affordable Care Act (2010) was to provide healthcare at a reasonable cost to all Americans, it DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch017 Copyright © 2017, IGI Global Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education has also, at least temporarily, instigated institutions of higher education to look for all possible ways to keep more employees under a part-time status rather than a full-time status therefore reducing the institution’s overall cost for healthcare benefits The resulting impact on large numbers of contingent faculty affiliated with U.S institutions of higher education has been a reduction in the number of courses assigned to their load and therefore a reduction in pay in order to stay under the 30-hour/week federal definition of full-time work The divide between tenure-track faculty and contingent faculty has widened, with even greater inequities in working and living conditions, creating an increasingly unjust academic caste system (McHenry & Sharkey, 2014) The implications of this largely invisible and frequently itinerant instructional workforce reach widely – to students, parents, college administrators, taxpayers, and all concerned with promoting high-quality learning Yet, like all administrative problems within higher education, there may be opportunities to discover new pathways for innovative solutions A reexamination of contingent faculty working conditions, the complex diversity among these individuals and their needs, and their varying motivations and levels of commitment all add to fleshing out the context of this administrative challenge Many contingent faculty experience some measure of return on investment for the sharing of their expertise, talents, time and energies with students Contingent faculty who continue to teach semester after semester and year after year, frequently for meager wages, obviously attribute substantial non-monetary value to the personal satisfaction they derive from teaching, to the fulfillment experienced from working with students and being in the academic environment, and to providing a needed service to society The sheer magnitude of the contract faculty workforce in U.S higher education has vast implications for policymakers in making better-informed decisions regarding the development of institutions of higher education in a time of rapid change, dwindling state funding, and global competition Purpose The purpose of this inquiry was to gain a better understanding of the functions, costs and benefits, and the rationale behind employing large numbers of contingent faculty from an administrator’s viewpoint, namely a departmental chair of a medium-sized Midwestern research university whose department routinely hired many contingent faculty This administrator was also questioned extensively concerning his leadership style, his experiences as a departmental chair, his responsibilities and duties, his organizational philosophies, his vision for his department as well as his concerns related to the changing landscape of higher education Throughout this in-depth interviewing process, the aim was to gain more nuanced insights into the larger institutional issues related to contingent faculty (macro) by delving into a particular context (micro) and analyzing the interpretations, perceptions, and understandings held by an administrator THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE: THE ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMES MODEL Bolman and Deal (2013) proposed a four-frame comprehensive model of organizational thought, which brings together insights from organizational research and leadership practices to produce a useful framework for understanding how organizational cultures work The rationale for using Bolman and Deal’s four frames for our study, rather than another leadership theory, was to capitalize on how a department chair thought about and acted on the issues related to the use of contingent faculty 441 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education These four major perspectives, or frames, for studying organizational life and the embedded leaders, include the structural, the human resource, the political, and the symbolic frames Bolman and Deal claimed that the best leaders have a full and active awareness of how these frames situate administrative problems and therefore draw a leader’s focus in particular ways Furthermore, they argue that learning to capitalize on the vantage point of simultaneously using these four frames to analyze any situation and to, give leaders the best opportunity for effectively creating long-term solutions to organizational problems (Bolman & Deal, 2008) The structural frame views the organization as a rational “factory” and emphasizes organizational architecture with a highly specified and clearly defined division of labor and a pyramidal shaped hierarchy of authority The structural frame is quantifiable, providing an objective accounting of organizational assets (Fleming-May & Douglass, 2014) The structural frame highlights the importance of achieving goals and objectives and increasing efficiency within the organization According to the structural frame, organizations work best when rationality prevails and personal agendas and extraneous pressures subside (Bolman & Deal, 2008, 2013) The structural leader can be thought of as the institutional architect who, through rational analysis, divides the workload along formal roles and relationships This leader operates under the assumption that specialization increases efficiency and maximizes cost reduction The structural leader coordinates and integrates the diverse roles and efforts by individuals to ensure quality as well as to align goals with the academic mission (Bolman & Gallos, 2011) The basic premise behind the human resource frame is that investing in people and responding to their needs are the essential elements to the successful working of an organization According to this frame, organizations need people for their energy, efforts, and talents; and people need organizations for the rewards and benefits organizations confer A good fit is required between the individual and the organization “When the fit between people and organizations is poor, one or both suffers; individuals may feel neglected or oppressed, and organizations sputter” (Bolman & Deal, 1997, p 119) Interpersonal relationships are the focus of the human resource frame By viewing the organization as an extended family, made up of individuals with differing needs, biases, skills, strengths, fears and limitations, human resource focused leaders are challenged to find a way to ensure that the work is done while simultaneously assuring that workers feel good about themselves and their work and feel like they are valued in the organization Developing human capital is important in this type of organizational structure Relationships are crucial Capitalizing on each individual worker’s desires and strengths and accommodating for their weaknesses and quirks is a critical element of this family-inspired lens The leader who embraces the human resource frame understands the importance of open communication; individual empowerment; effective teamwork to facilitate problem-solving; engagement through support, coaching, and care; and hiring the right people to ensure fit between the organization and the person (Bolman & Gallos, 2011) The political frame, on the other hand, focuses on the use and distribution of power (Bolman & Deal, 2003) This frame is founded on the premise that conflict and a struggle over scarce resources are inherent in any organization Conflict and differing motivations permeate social and organizational life; and according to this lens, in order to develop a successful organization, leaders must “tame the jungle” by using their advocacy skills and political savvy By leveraging their bargaining and negotiating skills, by compromising and by sometimes resorting to coercion, leaders working within this organizational framework can quell the competition for scarce resources, subdue the competing interests, and mollify the power struggles inherent in any organization Political leaders are adept at setting agendas, mapping the political terrain, networking and building coalitions, and bargaining and negotiating They respect 442 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education differences, value diversity, and compassionately manage the inevitable conflicts that arise within the organization (Bolman & Gallos, 2011) The symbolic frame represents the spiritual side of institutions and maintains that an organization and its culture are inherently linked Symbols permeate our social lives and in order to fully understand the workings of an organization and to make sense of organizational life, one must acknowledge that these symbolic actions convey meaning beyond the obvious People seek to make meaning out of life by incorporating the use of symbols, myths, rituals, ceremonies and traditions From this symbolic perspective, cultural norms, values and symbols unite organizations, connect people, and help to bring about desired goals Symbols embody what it means to be a part of an organization and its culture (Phillips & Baron, 2013) While each of these frames offer a distinct vantage point from which to examine and understand human thinking and interactions within institutions it is equally as important to see these frames as part of a larger whole operating simultaneously yet often within different proportions EXAMPLES OF HOW THE FOUR-FRAMES MODEL HAS BEEN APPLIED IN HIGHER EDUCATION The four-frames model has been applied to various issues in the higher education setting as a means for developing greater understanding of how leadership and social relationships interact to shape group goals and ensure accomplishment of these goals For example, the educational leadership doctoral program at Auburn University is a cohort program that has been analyzed through the four frames model This analysis found that the program was innovative and encouraged risk-taking, decision-making and effective group interaction among cohort classmates, who were involved in creating a community of learners based on multiple relationships The program exemplified the political frame by promoting collegiality through “relationship among key stakeholders on a knowledge expedition with expert tour guides.” The structural frame was demonstrated through “relationship among key interlocking and specialized pieces of a three-dimensional puzzle.” The human resource frame was illustrated through “a relationship of siblings with a common desire to see their family succeed.” And the symbolic frame was epitomized as “a relationship of lifelong friends engaged within a community” (Bentley, Zhao, Reames, & Reed, 2004, p 44) Another example of applying Bolman and Deal’s four-frames model to examine higher education issues was a study of academic librarians where the professional role, responsibilities and status of academic librarians in the university was investigated in the context of each of the four frames (Fleming-May & Douglass, 2014) The relationship between the position of the academic librarian and the academy can be interpreted from the human resource frame, where the ideal is a mutually beneficial fit between the institution and the librarian, with a “shared philosophy and strategy for managing people” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 142) Viewed through the political frame, the relationship involves management of tensions due to finite resources and the common view that libraries are often viewed as huge money sinks The symbolic frame sees the library as the “heart” of the institution and speaks to the symbolic significance of acquisition of doctoral degrees and the granting of tenure (Fleming-May & Douglass, 2014) 443 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education Method This qualitative case study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Creswell, 2013; Marshall & Rossman, 2011) was built using a semi-structured interview protocol (Patton, 1990) with one department chair of a mediumsized Midwestern research university whose department hired many contingent faculty A multi-faceted, in-depth interview with a central member of a complex organization of higher education provides an opportunity to understand the interaction between organizational theories (Bidwell, 2007) and leaders who receive, respond, and create actions in relation to an institutional and larger economic context (Delaney, 2007) This serves as the rationale for building this study around a single-individual who holds the perspective of a department chair; a first-person perspective rarely documented in the literature The interview data were collected in four one-hour audio-recorded sessions and were transcribed verbatim by the first-author In addition to the goal of developing rich-thick descriptions (Geertz, 1994), preparing a highly detailed audit-trail, and a member-checking process, the authors maintained an active process of reflexively examining the raw interview data with the existing literature in order to increase the overall trustworthiness of the study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Lincoln and Guba, 1990; Marshall, 1985) After securing informed consent, the department chair was asked to complete Bolman and Deal’s Leadership Orientations Survey (1990), which was acquired online at http://www.leebolman.com/ Leadership%20Orientations.pdf (see Appendix A for survey results) This survey instrument asked the respondent to describe himself as a manager and a leader; scores were then computed by adding up the number of “structural,” “human resource,” “political,” and “symbolic” phrases denoting the four different conceptions of organization and of leadership Scores were plotted on a scale which had been adjusted to represent percentile scores The participant, who has been the department chairperson for the past 23 years, scored highest (with a score of 22) on the human resource frame, and his next highest score (with a score of 15) was in the political frame As has been found in other studies, administrators with many years of experience are more likely to identify themselves as working primarily from the human resource frame or the symbolic frame (Welch, 2002) The researchers then devised interview questions based upon the two frames to which the participant most identified to inquire more deeply into his organizational style and leadership preference, as well as his thoughts concerning the function of contingent instructors within his department When combining the human resource frame, with its emphasis on family and on developing human capital by making the most of each individual’s strengths and ensuring that workers feel fulfilled, with the political frame, viewing the organization as an arena of competition, coercion, domination and power struggles, one can look at an issue from multiple perspectives to gain a broader understanding and greater clarity of the phenomenon at hand By combining multiple perspectives and reframing them, the hope is that novel ideas and new strategies can be developed which can bring about innovative solutions to problems According to Bolman and Deal’s four frame’s model, successful leaders of effective organizations draw upon elements from all four frames in an effort to work most productively within the increasingly competitive and logistically complicated global society Successful leaders frame and re-frame, taking advantage of the strengths of each perspective and borrowing from the multiple perspectives, to gain the best possible outcome for the occasion at hand This chapter explores how a departmental chairperson combined elements of each lens in his facilitation of departmental operations, with a focus on the complex issue of the roles and functions of contingent faculty within the department 444 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education CONTINGENT FACULTY According to the Non-Tenure-Track Faculty of the Association of American Universities (2001), The mission of research universities is to expand human understanding through the discovery and dissemination of new knowledge, and to preserve the accumulated knowledge of past generations and apply that knowledge to current and future societal challenges The principal means by which universities accomplish these important endeavors is through the teaching, scholarship, and creative work of faculties of exceptional talent and commitment (p 3) In times of recent budgetary constraints, one of the ways that institutions of higher education have attempted to respond to changing landscapes while still preserving their mission is by hiring an everincreasing number of adjunct, non-tenure-track, contingent contract faculty (Nelson, 2010) This method of permanent cost restructuring involving the replacement of full-time faculty with part-time faculty is a widespread strategy for reducing costs in higher education (Wellman, 1999) Beginning in the 1980s, the academic labor force underwent a transformation from being primarily composed of tenurable, full-time faculty to an instructional force that is now predominantly part-time, semester-to-semester contracted faculty (Ferrara, 2015) There are over fifty different terms that have been used to describe this group of instructional faculty Many of these terms reflect a lesser-than nature as compared to regular full-time faculty (Lundquist & Misra, 2015) Some of the value-laden, distasteful terms to describe this teaching faculty numbering nearly one million include: unranked, peripheral, non-standard, non-line (not having a budget line), non-regular, non-academic, non-ladder, casual, ad hoc, non-remunerated (Worthen & Berry, 1999) Contingent faculty have been described as the “hidden professoriate” or “faculty at the margins” (Thedwall, 2008) As defined by Webster’s dictionary, the word “contingent” is an adjective that means “likely but not certain to happen” or, alternately, “a happening by chance or unforeseen causes.” Hence, a contingent faculty member is employed, or not employed, as needed, in an environment which is ever-changing This constant change is due to fluctuations in the economy which impact unemployment levels and enrollment rates, to the course load needs of the full-time academic staff, and to institutional-wide budgetary constraints Notwithstanding the lack of job security or stability or the overall precarious nature of the contract position, non-tenure-track (full and part-time) faculty now number over 800,000 within the United States college system (Osborn, 2012) According to a November 2008 report by the American Federation of Teachers, contingent faculty members taught 49% of the more than 1.5 million undergraduate courses taught each term in U.S public colleges and universities This proportion did not include graduate student teachers or doctoral candidates teaching courses as part of their training, which the American Federation of Teachers estimates to be another 16-32% of all courses taught at the undergraduate level The American Federation of Teachers also reported in March 2010 that the percentage of contingent faculty teaching the majority of courses is even higher at community colleges, with contingent faculty representing nearly 70% of the instructional workforce in the community college arena The Busting the Myths: The Annual Report on the Economic Status of the Profession, 2014-15 report by the American Association of University Professors (AAUP, 2015) revealed that by 2015 only 20.35 percent of instructional faculty held full-time tenured (19.51 percent) or full-time tenure track positions (7.37 percent) The majority of full-time tenured faculty positions have been replaced with part-time instructional staff and graduate teaching assistants Another 445 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education 2010 AAUP report, Tenure and Teaching-Intensive Appointments, reported that this reliance on a system of temporary faculty appointments is detrimental to student learning and is in opposition to the visions of most institutional missions The prevalence of contingent faculty also varies depending upon the academic field The educational field has the highest percentage of part-time to full-time faculty at 48.7%, and the field of education also has witnessed the largest increase in part-time contract appointments, with a 27.7% increase from 1987 to 2003 (Kezar & Sam, 2010b) Clearly, contingent and part-time faculty play a vital and important role in educating the nation’s college students These statistics indicate that tenured and tenure-track faculty handle at most one-third to one-quarter of the undergraduate teaching load in American colleges and universities The increase in contingency is also witnessed by the fact that between 1975 and 2011, the number of tenure-track and tenured instructors in the U.S increased by only 35.6 percent; simultaneously, the number of part-time instructors increased by an incredible 305.3 percent (Hoeller, 2014) 57% of part-time contingent faculty report significant commitment and passion for teaching by indicating that they are in their jobs primarily because they like teaching and not for the money; however, there is a high level of dissatisfaction with working conditions among contingents, and 57% report that their salaries are too small for the amount of work that they 35% of contingent faculty earn less than $2,500 per class, with 42% making more than $2,500 per class, and faculty from two-year institutions usually making less than those from four-year institutions The average per course pay is $2,758—only a quarter of what average full-time (tenured and tenure-track) faculty members receive on a per course basis if their full salaries are divided by the average number of classes they teach While the average full-time faculty member earns an average annual salary of $58,306, or $11,051 per course (American Federation of Teachers, 2010), the average pay for contingent, part-time employees who teach on a semester-to-semester basis, typically without benefits, is $20,000 (Ferrara, 2015) These salary discrepancies are less extreme than the differences in pay of contingent faculty and the college presidents who hire them, whose annual salaries reached nearly $290,000 (plus perks) during the 2014-15 academic year (Ferrara, 2015) Granted, one must acknowledge that full-time, tenured faculty are responsible for more than just teaching They have service and research obligations to fulfill as well This accounts for some of the pay discrepancy noted From the perspective of the contingent faculty, the competition for their share of the finite scarce resources has left them in a powerless, disrespected, insecure position Contingent faculty work is undervalued and underappreciated as evidenced by their designation by such derogatory terms as mobile professors, freeway fliers, and moonlighters (Brown, 1967), as well as ghosts in the classroom (Dubson, 2001), migrant farm workers, vampires (Nelson, 2010), and indentured servants (Hoeller, 2014) The likelihood that any given college student’s course is taught by a full-time, tenurable professor is only 23% (Ferrara, 2015) Most students (and their parents), however, are unaware that the majority of their courses are taught by contract, non-tenured, contingent instructors hired by the university on an as-needed basis, making half the pay of full-time faculty and accorded few benefits or job security (Hoeller, 2014; Swift, 2012) Nationally, only 28% of contingent faculty received health insurance as a part of their benefits, and only 39% state that they have retirement benefits through their employment 41% of contingent faculty report that they are concerned with job security and 62% believe that their opportunities for full-time teaching are slight (American Federation of Teachers, 2010) Furthermore, according to a report released in 2012 by the Coalition on the Academic Workforce (CAW) entitled “A Portrait of Part-Time Faculty Members,” more than three-quarters of part-time faculty members said 446 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education they have sought, are now seeking, or will be seeking a full-time tenure-track position, and nearly threequarters said they would definitely or probably accept a full-time tenure-track position at the institution at which they were currently teaching if such a position were offered (p 2) The working conditions of contingent faculty in our nation leave a great deal to be desired Most contingent faculty are not new to the field of education and they not consider part-time teaching as a temporary position CAW (2012) reported that part-time faculty appreciated little, if any, wage premium based on years of experience or credentials More than 40% have been on their campuses for over 11 years and 32% have been at their job for to 10 years, highlighting the fact that the majority of contract faculty have considerable experience and are committed to teaching (American Federation of Teachers, 2010) The largest proportion of part-time, contingent faculty is between 56 and 65 years of age; they are midcareer professionals Contrary to popular opinion, most are not teaching as a side job, but teaching is their primary occupation and source of income More than half have been employed in their contractual positions for more than six years, which is considered the usual amount of time it takes to earn tenure, yet 76% of the instructional workforce in American institutions of higher education is ineligible for the benefits accorded by tenure (CAW, 2012) CHANGING ORGANIZATIONS IN A COMPLEX HIGHER EDUCATIONAL ARENA Understanding how leaders operating from perspectives embedded within these four frames requires a deeper look at the context of higher education as an important economic driver within the U.S economy Consider this claim made recently within a U.S government report by the Department of the Treasury and the Department of Education (2012) Higher education is a critical mechanism for individual socioeconomic advancement and an important driver of economic mobility Moreover, a well-educated workforce is vital to our nation’s future economic growth American companies and businesses require a highly skilled workforce to meet the demands of today’s increasingly competitive, global economy Higher education is provided through a complex public-private market with many different types of individuals and institutions participating (p 2) As Heraclitus said, “Nothing endures but change.” The economic pressures since the financial crisis of 2007 have necessitated that organizational change occur within higher education The politics of globalization, the advancement of technology, the growth of for-profit and online institutions, as well as tightened budgets and decreased state funding have left institutions of higher education in a state of perpetual flux In the past thirty years, the higher education system, like American society in general, has become more market oriented and corporate The corporatization of higher education, involving a shift from a service orientation to a profit orientation, has resulted in a transformation of the academic workforce The casualization of the faculty workforce has brought about a “permanent lack of permanence” which affects all aspects of higher education (Berry, 2005, p 4) Traditional institutions, being restructured to more immediately serve the needs of private business and being more dependent on federally-subsidized tuition assistance, have come to view students more as customers to be trained for work than as citizens to be educated (Berry, 2005) 447 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education Skillful leaders need to have an awareness and appreciation for how these external events affect their internal operations “Change capability has become a core managerial competence Without change management skills, individuals cannot operate effectively in today’s fluctuating, shifting organizations” (Cawsey, Deszca, & Ingols, 2012, p 5) Change facilitators understand the processes of change and use the strength of their relationships and interpersonal skills to work through change issues by fostering support and alleviating resistance An accomplished change leader shows a rich understanding of his organizational system in particular and shows keen insight into the degree to which strategic change is appropriate, understanding “which tasks are key at this point in time given this environment and this organization strategy” (Cawsey et al., 2012, p 23) Change leaders understand that organizations are made up of people; and change is produced by people Successful change leaders support people and promote a culture that not only endures innovation but embraces innovation “If you want to improve an outcome, don’t spend your time thinking about the outcome itself Spend your time improving the culture that produces the outcome” (Buller, p 217) Outsourcing of services is one method that organizations have traditionally practiced in an effort to save money and increase efficiency Great business thinkers caution, though, that there are dangers imminent in outsourcing the “core” components of an organization The “on-shore outsourcing” of college and university teaching by contingent faculty within higher education is rarely considered as outsourcing, however, it clearly is; and furthermore, this is outsourcing the commodity that educational institutions value most highly – the teaching of students This political stance infers that this conflict over scarce resources benefits some and sacrifices others Some contingent faculty, operating from a political frame, clearly view the function of contingents in the higher education system as “academic sharecroppers” (Fountain, 2005) This view is not shared by all contract faculty, as they are a diverse group of individuals with vastly different motivations and experiences; but that this unfavorable interpretation of the role of contingents is held by any is a clear indication of the severity of the problem The fabric of American faculty has changed dramatically within the past forty years (Nelson, 2010) It is important that this change in the academic workforce be analyzed, that we understand who the new faculty are, what their experiences are, and what their growth means for undergraduate instruction and students The expansion of the body of contingent faculty impacts the various stakeholders in diverse ways and they experience its impact in differing degrees Contingent faculty are a heterogeneous mixture of individuals Contingent faculty members are responsible for teaching the majority of undergraduate students and for encouraging them that education is the key to future economic success and a fulfilling life Though highly educated, these same faculty are oftentimes so poorly compensated that they not display evidence of the economic benefits of education When a contract faculty member can be hired and fired at will, they will “generally teach what they are assigned, shy away from experiment and innovation, and avoid risk-taking in their teaching and their scholarship (if they have the luxury of research time)” (Kolodny, 1999, p 77) When contract faculty feel it necessary to avoid contentious subjects in their teaching and research endeavors, the notion of academic freedom is under fierce attack (AAUP, 2009) The opportunity for creative intellectual inquiry and critical student learning will diminish The freedom to pursue cutting-edge, controversial research initiatives will necessarily fade away These conditions, unless constrained, are progressively damaging the entire fabric of the traditional purpose of higher education, the core purpose of which is to stimulate intellectual curiosity and to learn to examine ideas critically (Kolodny, 2008) As contract faculty teach the majority of students in the higher education system, they are the “key to creating the teaching and learning environment” (Kezar & Sam, 2010a, p 3) It is imperative that the 448 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education experiences and impact of contract faculty are analyzed to identify the policies needed to more fully represent the current educational reality The fundamental change in the academic workforce that has occurred within the past forty years necessitates that we challenge the perceived status quo that pretends tenure-track faculty are the dominant force educating our students (Kezar & Sam, 2010a) Part-time contingent faculty appointments are no longer supplementary to tenure-track appointments; they are the new norm The American Association of University Professors (AAUP) has referenced the rising number of contingent employees as the “new majority faculty” (Bousquet, 2008) Kezar and Sam (2010a) caution that too often “decisions about faculty hires are made mindful of the financial bottom line without acknowledging or being able to reconcile the impact these decisions have on students, departmental health, or faculty composition (p xi) They admonish that shifts in the academic workforce result when “market logic becomes more important than educational goals” (p xi) Care must be taken to intentionally plan for how state budget cuts will affect the academic labor force to ensure that the concerns of all stakeholders are addressed The proceeding overview of the macro-level context of higher education related to contingent faculty issues helps set the stage for the current micro-level investigation of the sense-making a particular leader in higher education, namely a department chair, undergoes when faced with these macro-level realities RESULTS Planning and Leadership within the Department The researchers began the interview portion of this research project by asking the department chairperson a series of questions regarding his planning and leadership within the department When asked what type of leader he perceived himself to be, the chairperson stated I perceive myself as a facilitator I try to connect people with resources and help them succeed in the different things that they want to I try to get consensus whenever possible on different major decisions that affect the department (personal communication, February 16, 2012) He went on to say, “I don’t perceive myself as boss; and even with the clerical staff, like an administrative coordinator or the department secretary; even in that instance I still want to be perceived as more of a facilitator.” He envisioned his role within the department to be very consistent with the human resource frame, saying he tries to promote working together within the department When asked how well he thought the faculty in the department interact and collaborate, he said, “We’ve got a really great cohesive department It’s more of a family than a department.” He went on to say, “everyone is very supportive of each other” and “it’s a very close-knit group.” He mentioned how he plans for social events and parties for the department faculty and that other faculty members take an initiative in organizing social events, too “The socialization piece is really important I think that’s what kind of forges the initial relationships and it keeps those going,” he shared When asked about how his leadership style impacted the general workings of the faculty, he said, “I think quite a bit, because I’ve got kind of a laid-back style I don’t think anyone sees me as a threatening type of figure; nobody is afraid to come in with a problem that they might have.” He discussed how he had learned from a department chair at a previous university what type of leader he did not want to 449 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education be Unlike this department chair, he did not want to be authoritative or to make decisions on his own, without consulting the faculty under him He had learned from his earlier personal experiences as a faculty member working with an authoritative chairperson that he did not want to be that type of leader or model for the faculty He did not want to be thought of as someone who made deals or as someone who was difficult to interact with He wants to create an environment where faculty are never intimidated at the prospect of coming to his office Concerning the inevitable friction that arises among faculty members, he indicated that “overall, the faculty are pretty supportive of one another.” When friction does arise, he said, “I basically try to meet with both faculty members and then get each side to appreciate the other one’s position and what’s involved in it That usually works pretty well.” To a query about how critical the quality of interpersonal relationships are to the effectiveness of the department, he responded Oh very If the people if there’s a lot of disagreements among faculty A lot of friction that’s really not conducive to moving forward, so I think that interpersonal relations - in fact, when we recruit someone into the department, you really cannot talk about issues about collegiality but we look and evaluate someone in terms of how good of a match they will be professionally as well as interpersonally in the department (personal communication, February 16, 2012) When asked about fostering loyalty within the department and about retaining faculty, he replied that the majority of full-time faculty have been in their positions for an average of fifteen to sixteen years and they “find the department, they find Muncie, they find the university, it’s a really good fit Again I think that’s because of the culture of the department Just such a friendly, happy group, and that really encourages people to stay.” These statements confirmed the human resource notion of “good fit” within organizations When inquired regarding how much of a role his leadership plays in promoting the interpersonal relationships that make the organization effective, he responded I just think that perceiving myself as a facilitator, you know, a non-threatening leadership entity, I just think that the faculty don’t have to worry that I’m looking over their shoulder or whatever and I think that gives them more autonomy, which they deserve, and they - they know what their tasks are and they pretty much get them done (personal communication, February 16, 2012) As indicated by his score on the Bolman and Deal Leadership Orientations Survey, this department chairperson operates primarily from the human resource frame He does, however, switch to the political frame when necessary As the four-frames model suggests, effective leaders draw from all four frames to make the best decisions and to come to the most productive solutions While this chairperson prefers to foster collaboration and joint decision-making among the faculty, and likes to ensure that faculty “all work well together” and that he is “providing an overall, kind of a nurturing and friendly, user-friendly environment, and trying to get whatever resources a faculty member might need,” he can and does resort to the political frame when the situation necessitates The Use of Contingent Faculty within the Department This department has undergone tremendous growth in the past several years In May of 2010, they added the Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and Autism master’s degree programs to their degree offerings 450 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education Only a few years ago, these programs were nonexistent Now these two programs alone have over 600 students In 2015, two undergraduate concentrations were added in Autism and ABA This phenomenal growth has benefited the department in myriad ways, not the least of which is the extra revenue these programs generate The development and implementation of these programs has effectively doubled the size of the faculty within the department Some new hires have been full-time faculty, but the majority have been part-time contract faculty As the chair related, “the thing that we really like about contingents and part-time contingent faculty is that they just have such a wealth of plentiful knowledge that they can bring.” He indicated that with the growth of the ABA program the department has hired an additional twenty-five part-time contingent faculty and five full-time contingents teaching somewhere in the neighborhood of sixty sections of courses and “it really gives us some flexibility to have a nice pool like that because if someone is not really doing as well as we would hope we can swap them into a different course.” He went on to say about the full-time tenured faculty that although they are talented teachers and have a wealth of knowledge and information, many of them have not been in the classroom for years Many of the contingents he hires are also teaching in the K-12 system or work in ABA clinics or agencies and have direct, day-to-day experiences that they bring to the classroom and this “really enhances the learning experience for our students.” When asked his opinion about how content the contingent faculty are with their contract status, he indicated that most part-time contracts “really have no aspirations to really other than the course here and there The full-time contract people [well] it kind of depends on the person Some would definitely, given the opportunity, like to move to a tenure-line position.” He went on to say that “those folks who are just part-time, and not getting benefits or anything, they it, almost as part of their own professional development; it’s a voluntary situation.” Asked if he thought that any of the part-time contingent faculty within his department were trying to make a living from their contract teaching work, he responded Not yet With the way that schools are cutting back on teachers, we might, down the road, but at the moment, they just it as extra Just for the experience And it’s a nice thing to have on your resume (personal communication, February 16, 2012) In response to a query about whether he thought that there were differences between student learning outcomes between full-time tenured faculty and contingent faculty, he answered in the negative Numerous studies have indicated that a negative relationship exists between high levels of exposure to part-time faculty by students in their first year of college and student retention to the second year (Jaeger & Eagan, 2011) When asked if he thought grade inflation was an issue for contract employees who might feel that their job security lay heavily on student evaluations of their teaching, again he responded in the negative He further replied that grade inflation was a hot topic at the institution right now but that he didn’t feel that it was a problem in his particular department, stating that some contingents are harder graders than are the full-time faculty Asked whether he believed that most contract faculty can dedicate the appropriate amount of time necessary for quality faculty-student interactions, he affirmed that they could and stated that the department evaluated re-hires largely based upon the faculty/student relationship He indicated that if students have issues with particular faculty, he is generally the first to know; and if he has received negative feedback about an instructor from numerous students, that doesn’t “bode well” for the contingent instructor When asked if he thought most students knew if their class was being taught by a contract instructor, and if this mattered to the students, he replied that he didn’t 451 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education “think it makes any difference in terms of their experience I think, you know, what they look for is that they’re getting information and that they’re learning something in the class.” The next two questions were prefaced with a cautionary note that the questions may appear confrontational and could be taken as inflammatory and offensive, but the participant was asked his opinion of the following two contradictory statements Do you believe that contract faculty were “pawns to be moved where needed and sacrificed when necessary,” or you hold that contract faculty fill important roles where “individuals find meaningful and satisfying work, and organizations get the talent and energy they need to succeed” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 120, p 122) He responded I would go with the latter I think that from the university’s perspective [if a program were to lose a large number of students], it’s easier to make that adjustment, you know, just fewer contingent faculty are necessary because there are fewer sections of courses Because if we had fifteen tenure-line faculty people teaching those courses, and suddenly the enrollment dropped, then the university would have a problem… So, you know, just by the nature of it, I think that overall it gives the university some agility (personal communication, February 16, 2012) His response seems to imply the importance of a good fit between the needs of the organization and the needs of the employees, a tenet strongly advocated by the human resource frame which epitomizes his dominant leadership preference and organizational style The next question could potentially have been perceived as rather antagonistic The participant was asked whether he believed that contract faculty were in any way exploited by the university He indicated that it could potentially happen in some departments where the general studies core introductory courses are quite large and where a contract instructor may be asked to teach several of these large sections that require a lot of grading But he avowed that it wasn’t an issue in his department where the class sizes were typically fairly small While not conceding that any measure of exploitation occurred within his department concerning the use of contingent faculty, he did acknowledge that there was a considerable pay differential between contract instructors and full-time faculty If you look at it from the point of view of pay, if you’re an adjunct faculty member, you get about 2,000 dollars per course So if you teach three courses, you’re getting about 6,000 dollars So the pay is a really great discrepancy between that and what a regular faculty would get for teaching three courses (personal communication, February 16, 2012) To close the interview and to move away from the sensitive issue of the role and functioning of faculty within the university, the department chair was asked to list the key principles, ideas, actions, steps, or investments that he would make to support and inspire innovation, learning, and scholarship in his department While he mentioned the importance of using the latest technology and facilitating faculty in the implementation of new ideas or projects, the thrust of his response centered around the notion that “having the faculty as a whole involved in decision-making leads to a number of good ideas and can take us in different directions.” His response again re-iterated the human resource lens through which he views his organizational style, carries out his responsibilities and duties as department chairperson, and creates his vision for the future of his department 452 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS This department chairperson analyzed most of his decision-making through the lens of the human resource frame, meaning he remained highly sensitive to people’s feelings and their overall sense of wellbeing When examining the ambiguity, uncertainty and complexity involved in managing and leading a diverse group of faculty, he often re-framed his point of view to that of the political lens As he navigated novel situations that are rarely neatly packaged, his original preconceived viewpoint frequently shifted to assess and balance multiple ways of thinking, or frames This merging of frames characterized the tacit process he undertook in order carve out the best possible solutions to address administrative problems and to effectively manage the conflicts that inevitably arise in times of growth and change The implications of moving this tacit knowledge into an observable and discussable decision-making process allows current leaders in higher education to better address ways to tangibly improve their leadership effectiveness related specifically to contingent faculty issues This department chair’s adherence to the belief that “organizations need ideas, energy, and talent; people need careers, salaries, and opportunities” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 122) meshes well with the ideologies of the human resource frame But throughout our conversations, it was apparent that he realized that “there is always more than one way to respond to any problem or dilemma Those who master reframing report a sense of choice and power Managers are imprisoned only to the extent that their palette of ideas is impoverished” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 19) This department chair did not seem to be at all impoverished in his ideas He was skillful at evaluating the multiple frames available to him and he showed wisdom in choosing the best frame for the situation at hand While he was more proficient at using the human resource and the political frames, he was capable of using the symbolic and structural frames when necessary to gain clarity and generate new ideas for discovering workable strategies Concerning the role and function of contingent faculty within his department, one wonders whether an administrator who promotes the human resource philosophy of “people first” and who advocates that “our most important asset is our people” can ethically hire pay-per-course contingent faculty Bolman and Deal (2008) ask the question, “can people find freedom and dignity in a world dominated by economic fluctuation and an emphasis on short-term results?” (p 121) How does an administrator align his core belief system that “organizations exist to serve human needs rather than the converse” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 122) with the reality of a period of global competition, turbulence and rapid change? The founders of the human resource frame challenged the long-held assumption that “workers had no right beyond a paycheck” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 121) These pioneers instead argued that people’s skills, attitudes, and commitments are inherently linked to the effectiveness of an organization When there is a good fit between the needs of the organization and the needs of the individual, both parties benefit When one considers the role and function of contingent faculty from the perspective of innovation, there appears to be at least a moderate fit between the person and the organization, and both the instructor and the institution find value from the relationship When viewing the role and function of contingent faculty as a problem to be alleviated or addressed, the contract instructor appears to be an object to be exploited by the oppressive, enterprising institution These contradictory viewpoints are firmly held by opposing parties There is no easy answer Are contract faculty more often viewed as “pawns to be moved where needed and sacrificed when necessary” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p 120) or as persons who fill important roles where “individuals find meaningful and satisfying work, and organizations get the talent and energy they need to succeed?” (p 122) To 453 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education what extent does contract teaching “fulfill individual financial and life-style needs?” (p 122) Where does the balance lie? To what degree can we achieve a good fit? What are the ethical considerations in hiring (and letting go) contingent faculty? Should an institution of higher education seek cost reduction, flexibility, and adaptability by means of hiring contract faculty, or should they pursue loyalty through long-term commitment to people and their needs? The results of this case study examination reinforce the idea that leaders who constructively use politics can enhance their organizational effectiveness Effective leaders, like the department chairperson discussed in this chapter, combine their political powers of negotiation and bargaining with their human resource “people first” mentality to make just decisions that ultimately bring forth the best outcome for the organization By analyzing ambiguous problems from a variety of frames, effective leaders are able to solve more complex problems and can better address stakeholders’ concerns (Monahan & Shah, 2011) According to leadership experts, “in a world of increasing ambiguity and complexity, the ability to use more than one frame should increase an individual’s ability to make clear judgments and to act effectively” (Bolman & Deal, 1991, p 519) Leaders with vision have a keen ability to multi-task, use numerous frames for analysis, and competitively address the diverse needs of a multitude of stakeholders These qualities and abilities applied to the issues related to contingent faculty quickly reveal the layers of complexity embedded within a hiring and staffing model that is rewarded by short-term planning A steady stream of minimalizing pronouncements by administrators abound while they simultaneously struggle to find adequate justifications for the system-wide ripple effects caused when economic challenges create conditions whereby contingent faculty are categorically determined to be disposable As this case study attests, administrators at the department chair level are often the ones left to grapple with moving forward the models that promise economic solvency for institutions of higher education while humanizing the process for those serving as contingent faculty LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH This study was an exploration of one administrator’s perspective regarding higher education’s increased reliance on a contingent instructional staff The participant’s views on the costs and benefits related to the use of contingent faculty were necessarily dependent on his personal experiences within his particular department and at his specific university, and are not meant to be generalized, yet this insider’s perspective sheds new light on the dimensions of the issues related to contingent faculty Additionally, the beliefs expressed were related to his preferred personal leadership style, revealing yet another interesting variable form which to consider further studies This participant was selected because his department was known to hire a large number of contract faculty; this provided a window into a department with a particular history in relation to hiring and dependence upon a high proportion of contingent faculty This study provided insight into next steps for several types of further research For example, researchers should explore the perspectives of many departmental chairs from departments with different cultural orientations to, and histories of, dependence upon contingent faculty to fulfill their department missions In addition, further research ought to include departmental chairs from multiple institutions of varying sizes, as well as departmental chairs from various fields of study Would leaders’ views differ based upon whether the contingent faculty they hire predominantly taught the large, introductory-level gateway courses? Exploratory research into the contingent faculty members’ perspectives needs to be expanded While some studies exist, including unpublished doctoral dissertations (Rediger, 2013; 454 Department Chair Perspectives About Contingent Faculty in Higher Education Lewellen, 2010), more is needed in order to build a collection of empirical data that can be consulted and used to help inform larger administrative decisions about the care and use of contingent faculty These data, for example, would be useful toward building a series of studies comparing different perspectives and experiences within an era of higher education staffing patterns that are increasingly more reliant on contingent faculty Conducting a comparative analysis of contingent faculty members’ and department chair administrators’ viewpoints of the costs and benefits associated with the increased dependence on a contingent instructional workforce would be useful Additionally, further research into contingency should explore the perspectives of VPs for Business Affairs, who are charged with shaping an institutional budget that reduces the proportionally high cost of faculty and staff salaries and benefits Recent reports in the Chronicle of Higher Education claim that the trend of relying more and more heavily on a contingent teaching force for any institution potentially risks the very heart of the social compact U.S institutions have historically claimed was central to their mission And, overly relying on this model further bends to the philosophy that education can be commodified and thought of predominately as a business transaction rather than remaining focused on a central mission whereby all decisions, including how you amass your employee force, remains aligned with a sense of the greater social good The increase of contingent faculty in higher education mirrors the phenomenon of casualization witnessed throughout service industries in the United States Wal-Mart is well-known for keeping down its number 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