(BQ) Part 2 book Microbiology principles and explorations presents the following contents: Innate host defenses, basic principles of adaptive immunity and immunization, immune disorders, urogenital and sexually transmitted diseases, diseases of the re
C H A P T E R 16 Innate Host Defenses Sometimes, when you can’t kill something that is harmful, the best thing to is to wall it off But if the wall gets too thick, too rigid, or just too many walls are needed, then your defense mechanism can wind up hurting you In other words, things that your immune system does to try to protect you can sometimes be harmful Granulomas are such an immune response A granuloma is a thick layer of cells around irritants such as chemicals, microbes, parasites, or even tissue damaged by trauma A granuloma forms when the irritant can’t be gotten rid of; e.g., Mycobacterium leprae bacteria which have been phagocytized by macrophages are difficult to kill because they divide so very slowly A person with a strong immune response will form a granuloma around them typical of leprosy (now called Hansen’s disease) This is what forms the disfiguring lumps and bumps These lack sensation due to nerve damage, allowing infections to go unnoticed Patient suffering from advanced leprosy (Hansen’s disease) (Science Source/Photo Researchers) We can look at infectious disease as a battle between the power of infectious agents to invade and damage the body and the body’s powers to resist such invasions In Chapters 14 and 15 we considered how infectious agents enter and damage the body and how they leave the body and spread through populations In the next three chapters we consider how the body resists invasion by infectious agents We begin this chapter by distinguishing between adaptive and innate defenses Until recently these were called specific and nonspecific defenses As the nonspecific defenses were studied, it became apparent that they involved very specific interactions but did not require a previous exposure to be active, hence the term innate defense Then we will look at the innate defense mechanisms in more detail to see how they function in protecting the body against infectious agents 462 INNATE AND ADAPTIVE HOST DEFENSES A With potential pathogens ever present, why we rarely succumb to them in illness or death? The answer is that our bodies have defenses for resisting the attack of many dangerous organisms Only when our resistance fails we become susceptible to infection by pathogens Host defenses that produce resistance can be adaptive or innate Adaptive defenses respond to particular agents called antigens Viruses and pathogenic bacteria have molecules in or on them which serve as antigens Adaptive defenses then respond to these antigens by producing protein antibodies The human body is capable of making millions of different antibodies, each effective CONCEPT COMPASS Follow the Concept Compass to help you pinpoint the core concepts and navigate the chapter INNATE AND ADAPTIVE HOST DEFENSES 462 A Animation: Non-Specific Disease Resistance 462 PHYSICAL BARRIERS 464 CHEMICAL BARRIERS 464 CELLULAR DEFENSES 465 Defensive Cells 465 s Phagocytes 467 s The Process of Phagocytosis 467 s Extracellular Killing 469 s The Lymphatic System 470 At the same time, bone is resorbed and eventually infected fingers, toes, nose, and other tissues are lost Come with me to find out about other kinds of granulomas and their effects INFLAMMATION 472 Characteristics of Inflammation 472 s The Acute Inflammatory Process 473 A Animation: Inflammation 473 Repair and Regeneration 474 s Chronic Inflammation 474 FEVER 475 MOLECULAR DEFENSES 476 Interferon 476 s Complement 478 s Acute Phase Response 481 DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMMUNE: SYSTEM: WHO HAS ONE? 482 Plants 482 s Invertebrates 482 s Vertebrates 483 Video related to this topic is available within WileyPLUS Visit the companion website for the Microbiology Roadmap with practice questions, current examples, and other tools to help you study, review, and master the key concepts of the chapter against a particular antigen Adaptive responses also involve the activation of the lymphocytes, specific cells of the body’s immune system These antibody and cellular responses are more effective against succeeding invasions by the same pathogen than against initial invasions thanks to memory cells Chapter 17 focuses on these and other adaptive defenses of the immune system In the case of many threats to an individual’s wellbeing, adaptive defenses not need to be called on because the body is adequately protected by its innate defenses—those that act against any type of invading agent Often such defenses perform their function before adaptive body defense mechanisms are activated However, the innate system’s action is necessary to activate the adaptive system responses Innate defenses include the following: Physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes and the chemicals they secrete Chemical barriers, including antimicrobial substances in body fluids such as saliva, mucus, gastric juices, and the iron limitation mechanisms Cellular defenses, consisting of certain cells that engulf (phagocytize) invading microorganisms Inflammation, the reddening, swelling, and temperature increases in tissues at sites of infection Fever, the elevation of body temperature to kill invading agents and/or inactivate their toxic products Molecular defenses, such as interferon and complement, that destroy or impede invading microbes 463 464 CHAPTER 16 Innate Host Defenses A P P L I C AT I O N S each of the innate defenses now; we will discuss the adaptive defenses in Chapter 17 Take Two, Not Twenty-Two Do you know someone who is a chronic aspirin or ibuprofen user? These days most people use the “harmless” painkillers freely But these little pills can have deadly effects.The problem is that aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen aren’t specific enough.Their beneficial effects come from their ability to permanently block an enzyme that promotes inflammation, pain, and fevers Unfortunately, the drugs are even more effective at permanently inhibiting a related enzyme that is necessary for the health of the stomach and kidneys Aspirin also disrupts the body’s acid-base balance, which can lead to whole organs—the kidneys, the liver, and the brain—shutting down forever, depending on the amount ingested Patients can also have seizures and develop heart arrhythmias The physical and certain chemical barriers operate to prevent pathogens from entering the body The other innate defenses (cellular defenses, inflammation, fever, and molecular defenses) act to destroy pathogens or inactivate the toxic products that have gained entry or to prevent the pathogens from damaging additional tissues Overactivity of the innate responses, however, can cause diseases such as autoimmune problems of lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and others ( ChapA natural antibiotic, ter 17) Underactivity will leave the human betahost open to overwhelming infecdefensin-2, lurks tion (sepsis) leading to death A delon the human skin icate balance is needed The innate and, when induced, defenses serve as the body’s first can kill pathogens by lines of defense against pathogens punching holes in the The adaptive defenses represent the bacterial membranes second lines of defense Let’s look at A P P L I C AT I O N S Phlegm, Anyone? Remember that thick, viscous mucus you coughed up last time you had a cold? Pretty gross stuff And even grosser when you think of the tons of microorganisms your body had trapped with it With barriers like that, how did those flu organisms manage to infect your respiratory tract in the first place? Some organisms, unfortunately, have evolved ways to get through this mucus barrier For example, the influenza virus has a surface molecule that allows it to firmly attach itself to cells in the mucous membrane Cilia can’t sweep the attached virus out As another example, the organism that causes gonorrhea has surface molecules that allow it to bind to mucous membrane cells in the urogenital tract.With ingenious microorganisms like these, thank goodness your body has other defenses that lie in wait to attack any organisms that make it past your body’s physical barriers PHYSICAL BARRIERS The skin and mucous membranes protect your body and internal organs from injury and infectious agents These two physical barriers are made of cells that line the body surfaces and secrete chemicals, making the surfaces hard to penetrate and inhospitable to pathogens The skin, for example, not only is exposed directly to microorganisms and toxic substances but also is subject to objects that touch, abrade, and tear it Sunlight, heat, cold, and chemicals can damage the skin Cuts, scratches, insect and animal bites, burns, and other wounds can disrupt the continuity of the skin and make it vulnerable to infection Besides the skin, a mucous membrane, or mucosa, covers those tissues and organs of the body cavity that are exposed to the exterior Mucous membranes, therefore, are another physical barrier that makes it difficult for pathogens to invade internal body systems The hairs and mucus of the nasal and respiratory system present mechanical barriers to invading microbes But so the physical reflex flushing activities of coughing and sneezing Vomiting and diarrhea similarly act to flush harmful microbes and their chemical products from the digestive tract Tears and saliva also flush bacteria from the eyes and mouth Likewise, urinary flow is important in removing microbes that enter the urinary tract Urinary tract infections are especially common among those unable to empty their bladder completely or frequently enough CHEMICAL BARRIERS There are a number of chemical barriers that control microbial growth The sweat glands of the skin produce a watery-salty liquid The high salt content of sweat inhibits many bacteria from growing Both sweat and the sebum produced by sebaceous glands in the skin produce secretions with an acid pH that inhibits the growth of many bacteria The very acidic pH of the stomach is a major innate defense against intestinal pathogens Lysozyme, an enzyme present in tears, saliva, and mucus, cleaves the covalent linkage between the sugars in peptidoglycan; hence Gram-positive bacteria are particularly susceptible to killing by this enzyme ( Chapter 19, p 577) Transferrin, a protein present in the blood plasma, binds any free iron that is present in the blood Bacteria require iron as a cofactor for some enzymes The binding of iron by transferrin inhibits the growth of bacteria in the bloodstream A similar protein, lactoferrin, present in saliva, mucus, and milk, also binds iron inhibiting bacterial growth Small peptides called defensins, present in mucus and extracellular fluids, are a group of molecules that can kill pathogens by forming pores in their membranes, or inhibit growth by other mechanisms Cellular Defenses CELLULAR DEFENSES Although the physical defense barriers an excellent job of keeping microbes out of our bodies, we constantly suffer minor breaches of the physical defense barriers A paper cut, the cracking of dry skin, or even brushing our teeth may temporarily breach the physical defenses and allow some microbes to enter the blood or connective tissue However, we survive these daily attacks because ever-present cellular defenses can kill invading microbes or remove them from the blood or tissues When the skin is broken by any kind of trauma, microorganisms from the environment may enter the wound Blood flowing out of the wound helps remove the microor- ganisms Subsequent constriction of ruptured blood vessels and the clotting of blood help seal off the injured area until more permanent repair can occur Still, if microorganisms enter blood through cuts in the skin or abrasions in mucous membranes, cellular defense mechanisms come into play Defensive Cells Cellular defense mechanisms use special-purpose cells found in the blood and other tissues of the body Blood consists of about 60% liquid called plasma and 40% formed elements (cells and cell fragments) Formed elements include erythrocytes (red blood cells), platelets, and leukocytes (white blood cells) (Figure 16.1 and Table 16.1) PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL (in bone marrow) LYMPHOID STEM CELLS (in bone marrow) MYELOID STEM CELLS (in bone marrow) Myeloblast (in blood) Erythroblast Monoblast Reticulocyte Lymphoblast Megakaryocyte (in thymus) Erythrocyte (Red blood cell) Platelets (in tissue) Basophil Eosinophil Neutrophil Granulocytes Dendritic Monocyte B Lymphocyte T Lymphocyte NK cell Agranulocytes Leukocytes (White blood cells) FIGURE 16.1 Formed (cellular) elements of the blood These elements are derived from pluripotent stem cells (cells that form an endless supply of blood cells) in the bone marrow The myeloid stem cells differentiate into several kinds of leukocytes, called granulocytes and agranulocytes Lymphoid stem cells differentiate into B lymphocytes (B cells), T lymphocytes (T cells), and natural killer cells (NK cells) 465 466 CHAPTER 16 Innate Host Defenses TABLE 16.1 Element Formed Elements of the Blood in Healthy Adults Normal Numbers (per microliter*) Erythrocytes Adult male Adult female Newborn 4.6 to 6.2 million 4.2 to 5.4 million 5.0 to 5.1 million Leukocytes 5,000 to 9,000 Life Span Functions 120 days Transport oxygen gas from lungs to tissues; transport carbon dioxide gas from tissues to lungs Hours to days Granulocytes Dendritic cells Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Phagocytic, antigen presentation in lymph node Phagocytic; contain oxidative chemicals to kill internalized microbes Release defensive chemicals to damage parasites (worms); phagocytic Release histamine and other chemicals during inflammation; responsible for allergic symptoms 50–70% of total leukocytes 1–5% of total leukocytes 0.1% of total leukocytes Agranulocytes Monocytes Lymphocytes Platelets 2–8% of total leukocytes 20–50% of total leukocytes 250,000 to 300,000 In tissues, develop into macrophages, which are phagocytic Days to weeks Essential to specific host immune defenses; antibody production 5–9 days Blood clotting *1 microliter (M1) mm3 1/1,000,000 liter All are derived from pluripotent stem cells, cells that form a continuous supply of blood cells, in the bone marrow Platelets, which are short-lived fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes, are important components of the blood-clotting mechanism Leukocytes are defensive cells that are important to both adaptive and innate host defenses These cells are divided into two groups—granulocytes and a granulocytes—according to their cell characteristics and staining patterns with specific dyes GRANULOCYTES Granulocytes have granular cytoplasm and an irregularly shaped, lobed nucleus They are derived from myeloid stem cells in the bone marrow (myelos is Greek for “marrow”) Granulocytes include basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and neutrophils, which are distinguished from one another by the shape of their cell nuclei and by their staining reactions with specific dyes Basophils release histamine, a chemical that The combined mass helps initiate the inflammatory of all of the lymphoresponse Mast cells, which are cytes in your body is prevalent in connective tissue approximately equal and alongside blood vessels, also to the mass of your release histamine and are associbrain or liver ated with allergies Eosinophils (e-o-sin´o-fils) are present in large numbers during allergic reactions (Chapter 18) and worm infections These cells may also detoxify foreign substances and help turn off inflammatory reactions by releasing histaminedegrading enzymes from their granules Neutrophils, also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs), guard blood, skin, and mucous membranes against infection These cells are phagocytic and respond quickly wherever tissue injury has occurred Granules contain myeloperoxidases, able to create cytotoxic substances capable of killing bacteria and other engulfed pathogens Dendritic cells (DC) are cells with long membrane extensions that resemble the dendrites of nerve cells, hence their name These cells are phagocytic and, as we will see in Chapter 17, are involved in initiating the adaptive defense response AGRANULOCYTES Agranulocytes lack granular cytoplasm and have round nuclei These cells include monocytes and lymphocytes Monocytes are derived from myeloid stem cells, whereas lymphocytes are derived from lymphoid stem cells, again in the bone marrow The lymphocytes contribute to adaptive host immunity They circulate in the blood and are found in large numbers in the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils Cellular Defenses Neutrophils and monocytes are exceedingly important components of innate host defenses They are phagocytic cells, or phagocytes Phagocytes Phagocytes are cells that literally eat (phago, Greek for “eating”; cyte, Greek for “cell”) or engulf other materials They patrol, or circulate through the body, destroying dead cells and cellular debris that must be removed constantly from the body as cells die and are replaced Phagocytes also guard the skin and mucous membranes against invasion by microorganisms Being present in many tissues, these cells first attack microbes and other foreign material at portals of entry, such as wounds in skin or mucous membranes If some microbes escape destruction at the portal of entry and enter deeper tissues, phagocytes circulating in blood or lymph mount a second attack on them The neutrophils are released from the bone marrow continuously to maintain a stable circulating population An adult has about 50 billion Neutrophils are recirculating neutrophils at all times leased into the blood If an infection occurs, they are usufrom the bone marally first on the scene because they row, circulate for to migrate quickly to the site of infec10 hours, and then tion Being avid phagocytes, they migrate into the tisare best at inactivating bacteria sues, where they have and other small particles They are a 3-day life span not capable of cell division and are “programmed” to die after only or days Also, they are killed in the process of killing microbes, and form pus The monocytes migrate from the bone marrow into the blood When these cells move from blood into tissues, they go through a series of cellular changes, maturing into macrophages Macrophages are “big eaters” (macro, Greek for “big”) that destroy not only microorganisms but also larger particles, such as debris left from neutrophils that have died after ingesting bacteria Although macrophages take longer than neutrophils to reach an infection site, they arrive in larger numbers TABLE 16.2 Macrophages can be fixed or wandering Fixed macrophages remain stationary in tissues and are given different names, depending on the tissue in which they reside (Table 16.2) Wandering macrophages, like the neutrophils, circulate in the blood, moving into tissues when microbes and other foreign material are present (Figure 16.2) Unlike neutrophils, macrophages can live for months or years As we will see in Chapter 17, besides having a nonspecific role in host defenses, macrophages also are critical to specific host defenses The Process of Phagocytosis Phagocytes digest and generally destroy invading microbes and foreign particles by a process called phagocytosis (Chapter 4) or by a combination of immune reactions and phagocytosis (p 110) If an infection occurs, neutrophils and macrophages use this four-step process to destroy the invading microorganisms The phagocytic cells must (1) find, (2) adhere to, (3) ingest, and (4) digest the microorganisms CHEMOTAXIS Phagocytes in tissues first must recognize the invading microorganisms This is accomplished by receptors, called toll-like receptors (TLRs), on the phagocytic cells that recognize molecular patterns unique to the pathogen, such as peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide, flagellin proteins, zymosan from yeast, and many other pathogen-specific molecules Macrophages and dendritic cells can distinguish between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and Names of Fixed Macrophages in Various Tissues Name of Macrophage Tissue Alveolar macrophage (dust cell) Lung Histiocyte Connective tissue Kupffer cell Liver Microglial cell Neural tissue Osteoclast Bone Sinusoidal lining cell Spleen SEM FIGURE 16.2 False-color SEM of a macrophage moving over a surface (5,375X) The macrophage has spread out from its normal spherical shape and is using its ruffly cytoplasm to move itself and to engulf particles Macrophages clear the lungs of dust, pollen, bacteria, and some components of tobacco smoke (SPL/Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.) 467 468 CHAPTER 16 Innate Host Defenses between bacteria versus viral pathogens They can then tailor the subsequent response to deal best with that type of pathogen There are 10 TLRs now known in humans, 13 in mice, and over 200 in plants Each is targeted at recognizing some particular bacterial, viral, or fungal component which is essential to the existence of that microbe; e.g., TLR recognizes the lipopolysaccharide component of Gram-negative cell walls (Chapter 4, p 84); TLRs 3, 7, and recognize the nucleic acids of viruses; TLR recognizes a protein in bacterial flagella They are called toll-like because they are closely related to the toll gene in fruitflies, which orients body parts properly Flies with defective toll genes have mixed-up, or weird-looking, bodies Toll is the German word for weird Both the infectious agents and the damaged tissues also release specific chemical substances to which monocytes and macrophages are attracted In addition, basophils and mast cells release histamine, and phagocytes already at the infection site release chemicals called cytokines (si´to-kinz) These chemicals are a diverse group of small soluble proteins that have specific roles in host defenses, including the activation of cells involved in the inflammatory response Chemokines are a class of cytokines that attract additional phagocytes to the site of the infection Phagocytes make their way to this site by chemotaxis, the movement of cells toward a chemical stimulus ( Chapter 4, p 93) We will discuss cytokines in more depth in Chapter 17 Some pathogens can escape phagocytes by interfering with chemotaxis For example, most strains of the bacterium that causes gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) remain in the urogenital tract, but some strains escape local cellular defenses and enter the blood Microbiologists believe that the invasive strains fail to release the chemical attractants that bring phagocytes to the infection site ADHERENCE AND INGESTION Following chemotaxis and the arrival of phagocytes at the infection site, the infectious agents become attached to the plasma membranes of phagocytic cells The ability of the phagocyte cell membrane to bind to specific molecules on the surface of the microbe is called adherence A fundamental requirement for many pathogenic bacteria is to escape phagocytosis The most common means by which bacteria avoid Complex antigens this defense mechanism is an an(substances that the tiphagocytic capsule The capsules body identifies as forpresent on bacteria responsible for eign), such as whole pneumococcal pneumonia (Streptobacteria or viruses, tend to adhere well to coccus pneumoniae) and childhood meningitis (Haemophilus influenphagocytes and are readily ingested zae) make adherence difficult for phagocytes The cell walls of the bacterium responsible for rheumatic fever (Streptococcus pyogenes) contain molecules of M protein, which interferes with adherence To overcome such resistance to adherence, the host’s nonspecific defenses can make microbes more susceptible to phagocytosis If microbes are first coated with antibodies, or with proteins of the complement system (to be discussed later in this chapter), phagocytes have a much easier time binding to the microbes Because both these mechanisms represent molecular defenses, we will discuss them later in this chapter Once captured, phagocytes rapidly ingest (engulf) the microbe The cell membrane of the phagocyte forms fingerlike extensions, called pseudopodia, that surround the microbe (Figure 16.3a) These pseudopodia then fuse, enclosing the microbe within a cytoplasmic vacuole called a phagosome (Figure 16.3b) DIGESTION Phagocytic cells have several mechanisms for digesting and destroying ingested microbes One mechanism uses the lysosomes found in the phagocyte’s cytoplasm (Chapter 4, p 100) These organelles, which contain digestive enzymes and small proteins called defensins, fuse with the phagosome membrane, forming a phagolysosome (Figure 16.3b) (More than 30 different types of antimicrobial enzymes have been identified with lysosomes.) In this way the digestive enzymes and defensins are released into the phagolysosome The defensins eat holes in the cell membranes of microbes, allowing lysosomal enzymes to digest almost any biological molecule they contact Thus, lysosomal enzymes rapidly (within 20 minutes) destroy the microbes, breaking them into small molecules (amino acids, sugars, fatty acids) that the phagocyte can use as building blocks for its own metabolic and energy needs Macrophages can also use other metabolic products to kill ingested microbes These phagocytic cells use oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), nitric oxide (NO), superoxide ions (O2– ) and hypochlorite ions (OCl ) (Hypochlorite is the ingredient in household bleach that accounts for its antimicrobial action.) All these molecules are effective in damaging plasma membranes of the ingested pathogens Once the microbes have been destroyed, there may be some indigestible material left over Such material remains in the phagolysosome, which now is called a residual body The phagocyte transports the residual body to the plasma membrane, where the waste is excreted (Figure 16.3b) Just as some microbes interfere with chemotaxis and others avoid adherence, some microbes have developed mechanisms to prevent their destruction within a phagolysosome In fact, a few pathogens even multiply within phagocytes Some microbes resist digestion by phagocytes in one of three ways: Some bacteria, such as those that cause the plague (Yersinia pestis), produce capsules that are not vulnerable to destruction by macrophages If Cellular Defenses Lysosomes Cytoplasm Pseudopod Digestion (a) Formation of phagolysosome Ingestion Phagosome Residual body Bacterial cells Excretion Adherence Plasma membrane of phagocyte Undigested material (b) FIGURE 16.3 Phagocytosis of two bacterial cells by a neutrophil (a) Extensions of cytoplasm, called pseudopodia, surround the bacteria Fusion of the pseudopodia forms a cytoplasmic vacuole, called a phagosome, containing the bacteria (magnification unknown) (Courtesy Dorothy F Bainton, M.D., University of California at San Francisco) (b) Phagocytes find their way to a site of infection by means of chemotaxis Phagocytes, including macrophages and neutrophils, have proteins in their plasma membranes to which a bacterium adheres.The bacterium is then ingested into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte as a phagosome, which fuses with lysosomes to form a phagolysosome The bacterium is digested, and any undigested material within the residual body is excreted from the cell these bacteria are engulfed by macrophages, their capsule protects them from lysosomal digestion, allowing the bacteria to multiply, even within a macrophage Other bacteria—such as those that cause Hansen’s disease, or leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae), and tuberculosis (M tuberculosis)—and the protozoan that causes leishmaniasis (Leishmania species) can resist digestion by phagocytes In the case of Mycobacterium, each engulfed bacillus resides in a membrane-enclosed, fluid-filled compartment called a parasitophorous vacuole (PV) No lysosomal enzyme activity is associated with the PVs as they not fuse with lysosomes These organisms’ resistance to lysosomal activity is due to the complexity of their acid-fast cell walls ( Chapter 4, p 86), which consist of wax D and mycolic acids Lysosomal enzymes are unable to react with and digest these components As the bacilli reproduce, new PVs arise For Leishmania infections, each PV contains several protozoan cells Although the lysosomal enzymes are active in these PVs, microbiologists not understand how the pathogens resist digestion Still other microbes produce toxins that kill phagocytes by causing the release of the phagocyte’s own lysosomal enzymes into its cytoplasm Examples of such toxins are leukocidin, released by bacteria such as staphylococci, and streptolysin, released by streptococci Thus, some pathogens survive phagocytosis and can even be spread throughout the body in the phagocytes that attempt to destroy them Because macrophages can live for months, they can provide pathogens with a longterm, stable environment in which they can multiply out of the reach of other host defense mechanisms Extracellular Killing The phagocytic process described previously represents intracellular killing—that is, the microbe is degraded within a defense cell However, other microbes, such as viruses and parasitic worms, are destroyed without being ingested by a defensive cell; they are destroyed extracellularly by products secreted by defensin cells Neutrophils and macrophages are too small to engulf a large parasite such as a worm (helminth) Therefore, another leukocyte, the eosinophil, takes the 469 470 CHAPTER 16 Innate Host Defenses leading role in defending the body Although eosinophils can be phagocytic, they are best suited for excreting toxic enzymes such as major basic protein (MBP) that can damage or perforate a worm’s body Once such parasites are destroyed, macrophages can engulf the parasite fragments Viruses must get inside cells to multiply ( Chapter 1, p 4) Therefore, host defenses must eliminate such infectious agents before they can reproduce in the cells they have infected The leukocytes responsible for killing intracellular viruses In humans, Chediakare natural killer (NK) cells NK Higashi syndrome is cells are a type of lymphocyte associated with an whose activity is greatly increased absence of natural by exposure to interferons and killer cells and with an cytokines Although the exact increased incidence of mechanism of recognition is not lymphomas known, NK cells probably recognize specific glycoproteins on the cell surface of virus-infected cells Such recognition does not lead to phagocytosis; rather, the NK cells secrete cytotoxic proteins that trigger the death of the infected cell They are the first line of defense against viruses, until the adaptive immune system can become effective days later The Lymphatic System The lymphatic system, which is closely associated with the cardiovascular system, consists of a network of vessels, nodes and other lymphatic tissues, and the fluid lymph (Figure 16.4) The lymphatic system has three major functions: It (1) collects excess fluid from the spaces between body cells, (2) transports digested fats to the cardiovascular system, and (3) provides many of the innate and adaptive defense mechanisms against infection and disease LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION The process of draining excess fluid from the spaces between cells starts with the lymphatic capillaries found throughout the body These capillaries, which are slightly larger in diameter than blood capillaries, collect the excess fluid and plasma proteins that leak from the blood into the spaces between cells Once in the lymphatic capillaries, this fluid is called lymph Lymphatic capillaries join to form larger lymphatic vessels As fluid moves through the vessels, it passes through lymph nodes Finally, the lymph is returned to the venous blood via the right and left lymphatic ducts, which drain the fluids into the right and left subclavian veins There is no mechanism to move or pump lymphatic fluid Hence, the flow of lymph depends on skeletal muscle contractions, which squeeze the vessels, forcing the lymph toward the lymphatic ducts Throughout the lymphatic system, there are one-way valves to prevent backflow of lymph LYMPHOID ORGANS Specific organs of the lymphatic system are essential in the body’s defense against infectious agents and cancers These organs include the lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen Although all lymphatic organs contain numerous lymphocytes, these cells originate in bone marrow and are released into blood and lymph They live from weeks to years, becoming dispersed to various lymphatic organs or remaining in the blood and lymph In humans most lymphocytes are either B lymphocytes (B cells) or T lymphocytes (T cells) B cells differentiate in the bone marrow itself and migrate to the lymph nodes and spleen Immature T cells from the bone marrow migrate to the thymus, where they mature; they then migrate to the lymph nodes or spleen We will discuss these cells in more depth in Chapter 17 At intervals along the lymphatic vessels, lymph flows through lymph nodes distributed throughout the body They are most numerous in the thoracic (chest) region, neck, armpits, and groin The lymph nodes filter out foreign material in the lymph Most foreign agents passing through a node are trapped and destroyed by the defensive cells present Lymph nodes occur in small groups, each group covered in a network of connective tissue fibers called a capsule (Figure 16.5) Lymph moves through a lymph node in one direction Lymph first enters sinuses, wide passageways lined with phagocytic cells, in the outer cortex of the lymph node The outer cortex houses large aggregations of B lymphocytes The lymph then passes through the deep cortex, where T lymphocytes exist The lymph moves through the inner region of a lymph node, the medulla, which contains B lymphocytes, macrophages, and plasma cells Finally, lymph moves through sinuses in the medulla and leaves the lymph node This filtration of the lymph is important when an infection has occurred For example, if a bacterial infection occurs, the bacteria that are not destroyed at the site of the infection may be carried to the lymph nodes As the lymph passes through the nodes, a majority of the bacteria are removed Macrophages and other phagocytic cells, especially dendritic cells, in the nodes bind to and phagocytize the bacterial cells, thereby initiating an adaptive immune response (Chapter 17) The thymus gland is a multilobed lymphatic organ located beneath the sternum (breastbone) (Figure 16.4) It is present at birth, grows until puberty, then atrophies (shrinks) and is mostly replaced by fat and connective tissue by adulthood Around the time of birth, the thymus begins to process lymphocytes and releases them into the blood as T cells T cells play several roles in immunity: they regulate the development of B cells into antibodyproducing cells, and subpopulations of T cells can kill virus-infected cells directly The spleen, located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, is the largest of the lymphatic organs (Figure 16.4) Anatomically, the spleen is similar to the Cellular Defenses Palatine tonsil Submandibular node Cervical node Right internal jugular vein Right lymphatic duct Right subclavian vein Thymus Left internal jugular vein Thoracic duct Left subclavian vein Axillary node Lymphatic vessel Thoracic duct Spleen Cisterna chyli Intestinal node Large intestine Small intestine Aggregated lymphatic follicle (Peyer’s patch) Iliac node (b) Areas drained by right lymphatic and thoracic ducts Appendix Inguinal node Area drained by right lymphatic duct Area drained by thoracic duct Red bone marrow Lymphatic vessel FIGURE 16.4 Structure of the lymphatic system The lymphatic system filters out microbes (a) Anterior view of principal components of lymphatic system lymph nodes It is encapsulated, lobed, and well supplied with blood and lymphatic vessels Although it does not filter material, its sinusoids contain many phagocytes that engulf and digest worn-out erythrocytes and microorganisms It also contains B cells and T cells OTHER LYMPHOID TISSUES Earlier, we mentioned the lymphoid masses found in the ileum of the small intestine Called Peyer’s patches, these are lymphoid nodules, unencapsulated areas filled with lymphocytes Collectively, the tissues of lymphoid nodules are referred to as gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), which are major sites of antibody production from the fluids surrounding cells In so doing, it is subject to infections that overrun the ability of the system to destroy the microbes Lymphocytes are defensive cells commonly found in the lymphatic system against mucosal pathogens Similar nodules are found in the respiratory system, urinary tract, and appendix The tonsils are another site for the aggregation of lymphocytes Although these tissues are not essential for fighting infections, they contribute to immune defenses, as they contain B cells and T cells Although lymphatic tissues contain cells that phagocytize microorganisms, if these cells encounter more pathogens than they can destroy, the lymphatic tissues can become sites of infection Thus, swollen lymph nodes and tonsillitis are common signs of many infectious diseases In summary, lymphoid tissues contribute to innate defenses by phagocytizing microorganisms and other foreign material They contribute to adaptive immunity 471 INDEX F cells, 220–222 Fecal transplant, 365 Feces, 683 Feedback inhibition, 121, 192, 193 Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), 282, 283 Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), 748–749 Female reproductive system, 607–609 Fermentation: alcoholic, 126, 839–841 carbohydrate, 153 compared with other metabolic processes, 132 defined, 116 as element in metabolic pathway, 117 food products, 834–839 homolactic acid, 126 illustrated, 125, 126 overview, 125–127 Fetus, mother’s tolerance of, 548–549 Fever: beneficial role, 475–476 normal body temperature vs., 475 overview, 475 Fibroblasts, 474 Fidaxomicin, 365 Fifth disease, 282, 749 Filariasis, 728–730 Filoviruses, 276, 280, 747 Filter paper method, 342 Filtration, 154, 357–359, 809 Fimbriae, 94 Fine adjustments (microscopes), 58 Finlay y Barres, Carlos, 17, 745 Fire, Andrew, 187 First-line drugs, 373 Fish: genetically-engineered, 235 microorganisms in, 824–826 Pfiestria toxin and, 314 FIV, see Feline immunodeficiency virus Five-kingdom system, 245, 246 Flagella: cilia vs., 100–101 defined, 90 eukaryotic, 100 illustrated, 91, 92 prokaryotic, 90–91, 100 Flagellar stains, 69 Flagellin, 90 Flash pasteurization, 832 Flasks, swan-necked, 11 Flat sour spoilage, 830 Flatus, 697 Flatworms, 326, 640 Flavin adenine dinucleotide coenzyme, see FAD Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), 140 Flaviviruses, 276, 279 Flavoproteins, 130 Flea bites, 332, 600 Fleming, Alexander, 16–17, 366, 841 Flesh-eating bacteria, 579 Flocculation, 809 Florey, Howard, 17, 366 Flu, see Influenza Fluctuation test, 202–203 Flucytosine, 387 Fluid-mosaic model, 86, 87 Flukes: defined, 326 illustrated, 327 infections, 708–709 life cycle, 326–328 overview, 326–328 Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS), 566, 567 Fluorescence microscopy, 59–60, 66 Fluorescent antibody staining, 59–60 Fluorescent dyes, 59–60 Fluorescing, defined, 55 Fluoride, 122, 685 Fluorochromes, 59 Fluoroquinolones, 619 Flu shots, 668, 669 See also Influenza FMN (flavin mononucleotide), 140 Focal infections, 414 Folliculitis, 578 Fomites, 436 Food, microorganisms as, 834 Food allergies, 529, 530 See also Allergies Foodborne botulism, see Botulism Foodborne disease transmission, 437 Food poisoning: bacterial, 688–689, 700 Campylobacter, 696–697 defined, 688–689 and Staphylococcus aureus, 689 types, 688–690 Food production: antibiotic additives, 832 chemical additives, 831–832 drying, 831 fermented, 834–839 freeze-drying, 831 freezing, 831 irradiating, 831, 832 microorganisms in, 820–828, 834–838 pathogenic organisms in, 829 preservation, 829–832 preventing spoilage and disease transmission, 828–833 produce contamination, 348 refrigeration, 831 standards for, 833 Foot-and-mouth disease, 455 Forensics, 233 Formaldehyde, as antimicrobial agent, 348 Formalin, phenol coefficient, 341 Formed elements in blood, 465–466, 723–724 Fourneau, Ernest, 366 Fourth-line drugs, 373 Fox, G E., 248 F pili, 220–221 F’ (F prime) plasmids, 222 F (fertility) plasmids, 220–221 FPV (feline panleukopenia virus), 748–749 Frameshift mutations, 197, 198 Freeze-drying, 355, 359, 831 Freeze-etching, 63 Freeze-fracturing, 63, 97 Freezing, as antimicrobial agent, 354, 355, 359, 831 Fructose, 36 Fruits: bacteriophage products for, 763–764 microorganisms in, 822–823 Fujimori, Alberto, 694 Fulminating, 415 Functional groups, 35 Fungal diseases, 4, 321, 412–413 in AIDS patients, 554 lower respiratory, 671–673 skin, 589–591, 593 Fungal toxins, 707–708 Fungi: age, 325 characteristics, 318–320 classification, 321–325 defined, 4, 318 as food, 834 immunity to, 519–520 imperfect, 325 importance, 320–321 in kingdom Fungi, 245–247 marble deterioration by, 34 and orchids, 321 sexual reproduction, 319 size, 325 in soil, 431 as sources of antibiotics, 378 as type of microbe, Fungicides, 340 Fungi Imperfecti, 325 Funguslike protists, 312–314 Furuncles, 578 Gaffky, Georg, 694 Gajdusek, D Carleton, 778 Gall bladder, 699 Gallstones, 699 GALT, 553, see Gut-associated lymphatic tissue Gametes, 98 Gametocytes, 315 Gamma globulins, 517, 518 Ganciclovir, 388 Ganglia, 760 Gangrene, gas, 596–598 Gardasil™, 270 Gardnerella vaginitis, 614 Garnham, P C C., 317 Gas gangrene, 597–598 Gastritis, chronic, 697 Gastrointestinal diseases: bacterial, 688–700 effects of fungal toxins, 707–708 helminth, 708–716 protozoan, 704–707, 716 summary, 700, 716 viral, 699–704, 716 Gelantinases, 163 Gelatin liquefaction, 261 I-9 I-10 INDEX Genes, 18, 181, 192, 194 Gene amplifications, 229 Generalized anaphylaxis, 530, 533–534 Generalized transduction, 218 Generation time, 149 Gene therapy, 18 Genetically modified organisms, 235 Genetic code, 187, 188 Genetic engineering: food crops, 828 overview, 18, 227 products and applications, 227 techniques, 227–235 Genetic fusion, 228 Genetic homology: amino acid sequences, 257–259 base composition, 257 DNA and RNA sequencing, 257 DNA hybridization, 257, 258 overview, 256–257 protein profiles, 257–259 Genetic immunity, 489 Genetic resistance, 371–372 Genetics, background, 18 as bacterial classification criterion, 260 defined, 178 and molecular biology, 18 overview, 179–183 Gene transfer: by bacteriophages, 372 lateral, 213, 251, 252 mechanisms of, 223 overview, 212–214 summary of effects, 223 vertical, 213 Genital herpes, 628–629 Genital warts, 588, 631–632 Genome, 272 Genomics, 21 Genotypes, 196 Genus, defined, 241–242 Geothermal vents, 788, 789 German measles, see Rubella Germicides, 340 Germination, spore, 166 Germ theory of disease, 10–14 controlling infections, 13–14 defined, 10 early studies, 10–11 Koch’s role in, 12–13 Pasteur’s role in, 11 Gerstmann-Strassler disease, 777–779 Giardiasis, 704–705 Gingivitis, 686 Gingivostomatitis, 630 Giolgi apparatus, 100 Glands, 643 Glomerulonephritis, 612, 646 Glomerulus, 606 Glucose, 36 Glycerol, 130, 844 Glycocalyx, 94 Glycogen, 37 Glycolysis: alternate metabolic pathways, 123, 125 defined, 116 illustrated, 124 in metabolic pathway, 117 other metabolic processes vs., 132 overview, 123, 124 oxidation of glucose, 116 Glycoproteins, 273 Glycosidic bonds, 37 Gold, Thomas, 3, 798 Golgi, Camillo, 317 Golgi apparatus, 100 Gonorrhea: diagnosis, 619 illustrated, 617 incidence, 618, 619 overview, 616–620 prevention, 619–620 treatment, 619–620 Gorgas, William Crawford, 317 Graft tissue, 547 Graft-versus-host (GVH) disease, 547 Grains, microorganisms in, 821–822 Gram, Hans Christian, 68.69 Gram molecular weight, 29 Gram-negative bacteria, 83–86, 92, 367, 368 Gram-positive bacteria, 81–86, 92, 367, 368 Gram stains, 68, 70 Granulation tissue, 474 Granules, 89 Granulocytes, 466 Granulomas, 462, 474, 475 Granuloma inguinale, 627–628 Granulomatous hypersensitivity, 543 Granulomatous inflammation, 474 Gratia, André, 226 Griffith, Frederick, 18, 214 Griseofulvin, 387 Ground itch, 713 Group B streptococcal disease, 725 Group translocation reactions, 106 Growth: as bacterial classification criterion, 260 bacterial interactions affecting, 163–164 of microbes, controlling, 340–341 Guanine, 44, 45, 257 Guérin, Camille, 661 Gummas, 622, 623 Gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), 471, 553 Gut bacteria, obesity and, 680, 681 GVH (graft-versus-host) disease, 547 Gypsum, crystals, 803 H1N1 pandemic (2009), 666–667 HAART (Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy), 556 Hackett, C J., 624 Hackett, Kevin, 161 Haeckel, Ernst H., 244 Haemophilus meningitis, 763 Halogens, as antimicrobial agents, 346–347, 350 Halophiles, 160–161 Hand cleaner, waterless, 345 Hanging drops, 67 Hansen, Armauer, 405 Hansen’s disease, 462–463 See also Leprosy armadillos as culture vessel for, 405 diagnosis, 772 illustrated, 71 incidence, 770 overview, 770, 772 prevention, 772 treatment, 772 Hantavirus, 283, 670 Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), 670 Haploid cells, 98 Haptens, 491 H chain, see Heavy chain HDV, see Hepatitis delta virus Heart, 722–723 Heat, antimicrobial action of, 350 dry heat, 351 moist heat, 350–351 overview, 350–351 in pasteurization, 352–353 Heat fixation, 67 Heavy (H) chain, 497 Heavy metals: as antimicrobial agents, 346, 350 as denaturing agents, 343 HeLa cell line, 296 Heliobacter pylori, 697–698 Helix, 45 Helminths: bladder worms, 710 blood and lymph diseases, 727–729 characteristics, 325–326 defined, 325–326 disease caused by, 6, 413 flatworms, 326 gastrointestinal disease, 708–716 hookworms, 326, 713 illustrated, 327 immunity to, 520, 522 in kingdom Animalia, 248 overview, parasitic, 326–331 pinworms, 715 roundworms, 326, 329–331 tapeworms, 326–329, 709–711 Helper T cells, 506–508 Hemagglutination, 93, 563 Hemagglutination inhibition test, 563 Hemolysins, 409 Hemolytic disease of the newborn, 537–538 Hemorrhagic uremic syndrome (HUS), 696 Hepadnaviruses, 277, 282 Hepatitis: defined, 701 incidence, 702, 703 Hepatitis A virus, 701–703 Hepatitis B virus, 302, 701–704 Hepatitis C virus, 701, 702, 704 Hepatitis delta virus (HDV), 298, 701, 702 Hepatitis D virus, 701, 702, 704 Hepatitis E virus, 701, 702, 704 Hepatoviruses, 279 INDEX Herd immunity, 438–439, 441 Heredity, 179 See also Genetics Hermaphroditic, defined, 311 Herpes gladiatorium, 630 Herpes labialis, 630 Herpes meningencephalitis, 768 Herpes pneumonia, 630 Herpes simplex virus (HSV), 297, 628–633 Herpes simplex virus type (HSV-1), 595, 628–631 Herpes simplex virus type (HSV-2), 628–631 Herpesviruses: characteristics, 277, 281 components, illustrated, 272 corneal damage, 595 defined, 281 diagnosis, 630 disease-causing, 281 herpes simplex virus, 297, 628–633 herpes simplex virus type 1, 628–631 herpes simplex virus type 2, 628–631 illustrated, 281 immunity, 631 latent, 294–295 overview, 628–633 prevention, 631 prognosis, 631 treatment, 630–631 Hershey, Alfred, 15 Hesse, Angelina, 12, 13, 166 Hesse, Walther, 13 Heterogeneity, 496 Heterotrophs, 116 Hexachlorophene: as disinfectant, 347 structural formula, 344 Hfr (high frequency of recombination) strains, 221–222 Hib vaccines, 513 High-energy bonds, 43 High frequency of recombination (Hfr) strains, 221–222 Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), 556 High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, 832 Hippocrates, Histamines, 473, 532 Histocompatibility antigens, 547–548 Histones, 98 Histoplasmosis, 672 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus): becoming infected, 556–557, 560 CDC classification, 555 defined, 553 economic issues, 560–561 estimated number of infections, 556, 558 ethical issues, 560–561 feline immunodeficiency virus vs., 282 legal issues, 560–561 minimizing risk, 560 progression, 555–556 as retrovirus, 283, 554 HLA (human leukocyte antigens), 547–549 Holding method, in pasteurization, 832 Holoenzymes, 119 Home canning, 354, 830 Home pregnancy tests, 565 Homolactic acid fermentation, 126 Hooke, Robert, 9, 57 Hookworms, 326, 713 Horizontal transmission, 436 Hospitals: drug-resistant infections, 390 nosocomial infections, 446–452 Hosts: adaptive defenses, 462–463 compromised, 451, 510 defined, 308, 398 innate defenses, 463 Host-microbe relationships, 398–403 Host range, 274 Host specificity, 310 Hot springs, 804 Household dust, 431 HPS (hantavirus pulmonary syndrome), 670 HPV (human papillomaviruses), 270–271, 302, 587 HSV, see Herpes simplex virus HSV-1, see Herpes simplex virus type HSV-2, see Herpes simplex virus type HTST (high-temperature short-time) pasteurization, 832 Hudson, Ellis, 624 Human Genome Project, 21, 272 Human immunodeficiency virus, see HIV Human leukocyte antigens (HLA), 547–549 Human papillomaviruses, see HPV Humoral immunity: antibody properties, 497–499 antigen-antibody reactions, 500–503 defined, 493–494 illustrated, 503 overview, 497 primary response, 500, 502 secondary response, 500–502 summary, 504 HUS (hemorrhagic uremic syndrome), 696 Hyaluronidase, 408 Hybridomas, 234, 503 Hydatid cysts, 328, 710 Hydrocarbons, 35 Hydrogen, 27, 28 Hydrogen bonds, 30–31, 43 Hydrogen peroxide, 341, 347–348 Hydrogen sulfide, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Hydrologic cycle, 790–791 Hydrolysis, 32 Hydrophilic, defined, 86 Hydrophobic, defined, 86 Hydrostatic pressure, 159 Hydrothermal vents, 806–807 Hyperimmune sera, 517 Hyperparasitism, 310 Hypersensitivity, 529–530 cell-mediated (Type IV), 530, 541–543, 551 characteristics, 543 cytotoxic (Type II), 529, 535–538, 550–551 defined, 529 and drug reactions, 550–551 immediate (Type I), 529–534, 550 immune complex (Type III), 529–530, 538–541, 551 Hypertonic fluid, 106, 107 Hyphae, 318 Hypochlorous acid, as antimicrobial agent, 346 Hyposensitization, 534, 535 Hypotonic fluid, 106, 107 Iatrogenic diseases, 406 Ibuprofen, 464 ICTV, 275 Idiopathic diseases, 406 Idoxuridine, 387 Ig, see Immunoglobulins IgA, 498–499 IgD, 498, 499 IgE, 498, 499 IgG, 498 IgM, 498, 499 Imidazoles, 384 Immediate (Type I) hypersensitivity: allergen overview, 530 characteristics, 543 defined, 529 and drug reactions, 550 generalized anaphylaxis, 533–534 genetic factors, 534 localized anaphylaxis, 532–533 mechanism, 530–532 overview, 530–534 treatment, 534, 535 Immersion oil, 56 Immune complex (Type III) hypersensitivity: characteristics, 543 defined, 529–530 and drug reactions, 551 examples of disorders, 539–541 mechanism of disorders, 539 overview, 538 Immune cytolysis, 480 Immune responses: factors modifying, 510–511 properties of, 494–496 Immune serum globulin, 517 Immune system: boy in bubble, 552 characteristics, 491–496 defined, 489 and diversity, 494, 496 dual nature, 493–494 and heterogeneity, 496 innate and adaptive defenses, 480 and memory, 496 mucosal, 509–511 properties of responses, 494–496 and protozoa, 520, 522 self vs nonself concept, 494 and specificity, 494, 496 I-11 I-12 INDEX Immunity: acquired, 490, 491 active, 490 adaptive, 490 artificially acquired, 490, 491 to bacteria, 519 cell-mediated, 494, 504–509 characteristics, 491–496 defined, 488 to fungi, 519–520 genetic, 489 to helminths, 520, 522 herd, 438–439, 441 humoral, 493–494, 497–503 innate, 463, 489–491 naturally acquired, 490 passive, 490 and pregnancy, 510 to protozoa, 520, 522 species, 489 types, 489–490 to various pathogens, 519–522 to viruses, 519, 520 Immunization See also Vaccines active, 511–515 future, 518–519 hazards of, 513, 516–517 large-scale programs, 441 overview, 511 passive, 517–518 recommended, 515–516 sample adult schedule, 515 sample childhood schedule, 515 Immunocompromised, defined, 403 Immunodeficiencies, 530 Immunodeficiency diseases, 551–561 See also AIDS Immunodiffusion tests, 561–562 Immunoelectrophoresis, 562 Immunoenhancers, 388 Immunofluorescence, 565–566 Immunoglobulins (Ig) See also Antibodies classes, 498–499 defined, 497 illustrated, 497 kinds of antigen-antibody reactions, 500–503 properties, 497–499 structure, 497 Immunological diseases, 406 Immunological disorders: defined, 528 overview, 528–530 Immunological tests: agglutination reactions, 563 immunodiffusion tests, 561–562 overview, 561 precipitin test, 561 tagged antibody tests, 565–566 Immunology, 5, 14–15, 259, 489 Immunosuppression, 549–550 Impetigo, 580 Inapparent infections, 414–415, 431 Incidence (rates), 425–428 botulism, 774 chicken pox, 426 chlamydias, 625 defined, 425, 426 diphtheria, 427 eastern equine encephalitis, 428 encephalitis, 426–428 gonorrhea, 618, 619 Hansen’s disease, 770 hepatitis, 702–704 influenza, 663, 668 malaria, 441, 751 measles, 583 plague, 733 poliomyelitis, 775, 776 rabies, 431, 764–766 Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 741–742 rubella, 582 St Louis encephalitis, 426–427 syphilis, 621 tuberculosis, 656–658 western equine encephalitis, 428 whooping cough, 651, 652 Inclusions, 89 Inclusion blennorrhea, 626 Inclusion conjunctivitis, 626 Incubation period, 415, 417 Index cases, 430 Index of refraction, 55 Indicator organisms, 808–809 Indigenous organisms, 788–789 Indirect contact transmission, 435, 436 Indirect fecal-oral transmission, 436 Indole production, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Induced mutations, 198 Inducers, 163, 193 Inducible enzymes, 192, 195 Induction, 290 Induration, 542 Industrial microbiology, 841–842 Infant botulism, 774, 827 Infections: abortive, 412 algal, 589 anaerobic, 598–599 bites, 599–601 from burns, 581 defined, 400 drug-resistant, 388, 390 fungal, 589–591 list of descriptive terms, 414 portals of entry, 432–434 portals of exit, 434 productive, 412 staphylococcal, 578 streptococcal, 579 wounds, 596–598, 601 Infectious diseases: acute, 413, 414 cellular defenses, 465–472 chemical barriers, 464 communicable, 406, 440–442 contact transmission, 435, 436 controlling transmission, 440–442 convalescence period, 417 deaths from, 419 decline phase, 417 defined, 406 and fever, 476 host defenses, 462–480 incubation period, 415, 417 and inflammation, 473–474 invasive phase, 415, 417 molecular defenses, 476–480 noncommunicable, 406 notifiable, 444–450 overview, 418–419 physical barriers, 464 prodromal phase, 415, 416 stages, 415–417 transmission by vectors, 437–438 transmission by vehicles, 436–437 transmission modes, 434–438 types, 413–415 Infectious hepatitis, 701 Infectious mononucleosis, 745–747 Infestations, 400 Inflammation: as acute process, 473–474 characteristics, 472–473 chronic, 474–475 and complement system, 480 granulomatous, 474 illustrated, 473 overview, 472 repair and regeneration, 474 Influenza: antigenic variations, 663, 666 causative agents, 663 common cold vs., 668 defined, 663 diagnosis, 668 immunity, 668–669 incidence, 663, 668 new strains of, 283 overview, 663 pandemic of 1918, 665 pneumonia vs., 668 prevention, 668–669 transmission, 668 treatment, 668 2009 H1N1, 666–667 vaccine, 666–669 virus, illustrated, 664 Ingestion, by phagocytes, 467 Inherited diseases, 405 Initiating segments, 221 Innate host defenses: cellular, 466–472 defined, 463 and fever, 475–476 and inflammation, 473–474 molecular, 476–480 Innate immunity, 463, 489, 491 Insects, 332–334, 438 Insect bites, 599–601 Insertions, base, 197 The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), 178 Interactions, bacterial, 163–164 INDEX Interferons, 388, 476–478 Intermediate hosts, 310 International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), 275 Intestinal anthrax, 731 Intestines: bacterial disease summary, 700 bacterial infections, 697–698 large intestine, 682–683 small intestine, 682 Intoxications, 411 Introns, 185 Invasiveness, 408 Invasive phase, infectious disease, 415, 417 Involuntary drunkenness, 126 Iodine, as antimicrobial agent, 346 Ions, 28 Ionic bonds, 30 Ionizing radiation, as antimicrobial agent, 356–357, 359 Iris diaphragm, 58 Irradiating food, 831, 832 Ischemia, 751 Isografts, 547 Isolation, 439–440 Isomers, 36–37 Isoniazid, 17, 367, 384 Isopropyl alcohol: as antimicrobial agent, 347 structural formula, 344 Isotonic fluid, 106, 107 Isotopes, 29 Jacob, François, 193, 221, 290 Jakob, Alfons Maria, 299 James, S P., 317 Jaundice, 703 Jenner, Edward, 14, 586 Jorgensen, James, 372 Kaiser, A D., 229 Kala azar, 750 Kaposi’s sarcoma, 555–556 Karentz, Deneb, 202 Karyogamy, 319 Keratin, 574 Keratitis, 592, 594 Keratoconjunctivitis, 630 Ketones, 36 Keyes, Paul H., 687 Kidneys, 606, 646 Killer cells, 470, 493, 506, 508 Kingdoms, 242, 244–252 See also Fivekingdom system Kirby-Bauer method, 375 Knipling, Edward, 601 Koch, Robert, 12–13, 166, 404, 657, 694, 731 Koch’s postulates, 12–13, 404, 405 Koplik‘s spots, 583 Krebs, Hans, 127 Krebs cycle, 127–128, 131 Krieg, Arthur M., 183 Kuru, 777–778 Lacrimal glands, 577 B-Lactamase, 372, 373 Lactase, as exoenzyme example, 163 Lagging strands, 184 Lag phase, 148–149 Lambda phages, 217 Lander, Eric, 21 Large intestine, 682–683 Laryngeal papillomas, 632–633 Laryngitis, 645, 646 Larynx, 641, 645 Lassa fever, 748 The Last Supper (da Vinci), 34 Latency, viral, 281 Latent diseases, 414 Latent period, 288 Latent viral infections, 412 Lateral gene transfer, 213, 251, 252 Laveran, Alphonse, 317 Lazear, Jesse, 17 L chain, see Light chain Leading strands, 184 Leavening agents, 834–835 Lechuguilla Cave, 803 Lederberg, Esther, 203 Lederberg, Joshua, 203, 216, 220 Leewuenhoek, Anton van, 9–10, 50–52, 827 Legionnaires’ disease, 655–656 Leishmaniasis: in Desert Storm soldiers, 751 diagnosis, 750 illustrated, 749–750 overview, 749–750 prevention, 750 treatment, 751 LEM (leukocyte-endogenous mediator), 476 Lepromas, 771 Lepromatous, 771 Lepromin skin test, 770–771 Leprosy, 405, 462–463, 475, 546, 770–772 See also Hansen’s disease Leptospira, 606 Leptospirosis, 606, 607, 612–613 Leukocidins, 409, 411, 469 Leukocytes, 15, 465, 469 Leukocyte-endogenous mediator (LEM), 476 Leukocytosis, 413, 473 Leukostatin, 411 Leukotrienes, 532 L-forms, 86 LGV (lymphogranuloma venereum), 626–627 Lice, 333 Lichen, 319 Life processes, 2–3 Ligases, 184 Light See also Ultraviolet light absorption, 55 diffraction, 56, 57 properties, 53–57 reflection, 54–55 refraction, 55–56 transmission, 55 visible, 53–54, 357, 359 wavelength, 53–54 Light (L) chain, 497 Light-dependent (light) reactions, 134, 135 Light-independent (dark) reactions, 135–136 Light microscopy: bright-field vs dark-field, 58, 59 compound light microscopes, 57–58 monocular vs binocular, 57 other types compared with, 66 overview, 57 specimen preparation, 67 Light repair, 200 Lincomycin, 382–383 Linnaeus, Carolus, 10, 241, 242 Lipase, as exoenzyme example, 163 Lipids: bacteria characteristics comparison, 81, 84 exoenzyme examples, 163 overview, 37–40 Lipid A, 81 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 81, 84 Lister, Joseph, 13, 14, 338, 341 Listeriosis, 763–764 Litmus milk, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Loaiasis, 596 Loa loa, 596 Lobar pneumonia, 654 Local infections, 414 Localized anaphylaxis, 530, 532–533 Locus, 181 Logarithmic rate, 149 Log phase, bacterial growth curve, 149–150 Lophotrichous bacteria, 90 Lower respiratory tract: bacterial diseases, 650–662, 674 defined, 640 disease summary, 674 fungal diseases, 671–673 illustrated, 642 overview, 641 parasitic diseases, 673–674 viral diseases, 663–671 Low-temperature long-time (LTLT) pasteurization, 832 LPS (lipopolysaccharide), 81, 84 LTLT (low-temperature long-time) pasteurization, 832 Luciferase, 140 Lucretius, Luminescence, 55 Luminescent microorganisms, 140 Lung flukes, 640, 641 Lupus, 546–547 Luria, Salvador, 202 Lwoff, André, 290 Lyme disease, 737–740 Lymph, 470 Lymphangitis, 725 Lymphatic nodules, 472 I-13 I-14 INDEX Lymphatic system: circulation, 470 diseases, 725–730 illustrated, 471 organs, 470–472 overview, 470 Lymphatic vessels, 470 Lymph nodes: defined, 470 illustrated, 472 overview, 470 structure, 471 Lymphocytes: defined, 466 differentiation of stem cells into, 492 in mice, 496 natural killer cells, 470 Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), 626–627 Lymphoid nodules, 471 Lymphoid organs, 470–472 Lyophilization, 355, 831 Lysogens, 289 Lysogenic cells, 217, 289 Lysogenic conversion, 289 Lysogenic cycle, 290 Lysogeny, 217, 289–291 Lysol, phenol coefficient, 341 Lysosomes, 100, 468 Lysozyme, 16, 577 Lytic cycles, 216, 288 McCarty, Maclyn, 18 McClintock, Barbara, 18, 225, 226 MacLeod, Colin, 18, 214 McNeill, William H., 430 Macrolides, 382 Macrophages: activated, 508–509 characteristics, 509 defined, 467 fixed vs wandering, 467 illustrated, 467 MACs, see Membrane attack complexes Mad cow disease, 777, 779–780, 823 Madura foot, 592 Maduromycosis, 592 Maggots, 10–11 Magnetosomes, 89, 95 Magnetotactic bacteria, 95 Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 496, 505, 509, 547 Malaria: and anemia, 752 controlling, 441 diagnosis, 751 incidence, 441, 751 overview, 750 and Plasmodium parasite, 315–317 prevention, 752–753 treatment, 751 and world politics, 753 Male reproductive system, 608–609 Malignant tumors, 301 Mallon, Mary, 692 Malta fever, see Brucellosis Maltase, 163 Malted grain, 839 Mammary glands, 608 Marble, deterioration of, 34 Marfan’s syndrome, 204 Margulis, Lynn, 103, 244 Marshall, Barry, 697 Mash, 839 Mast cells, 466 Mastigophorans, 315 Mastoid area, 644 Matrix, 99 Maturation, viral: animal viruses, 294 defined, 285 replication comparison, 290, 291 T4 phages, 288 MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration), 376 Measles (rubeola), 583–584 See also German measles Measles encephalitis, 583 Meats: fermented, 838 microorganisms in, 823–824 Mebendazole, 390 Mechanical stage, microscopes, 58 Mechanical vectors, 310 Medawar, Peter, 272 Medium, 148 Meiosis, 98 Mello, Craig, 187 Membrane attack complexes (MACs), 480, 481 Membrane filters, 357–359 Membrane filter test, 810–811 Memory, 496 Memory cells, 496 Meninges, 760–761 Meninges diseases, see Brain and meninges diseases Meningitis, 442, 761–764 Meningococcal meningitis, 762–763 Mental diseases, 406 Mercury, in antimicrobial agents, 346 Mercury chloride, phenol coefficient, 341 Merozoites, 315 Mesophiles, 157, 158 Mesophilic spoilage, 830 Mesosomes, 89 Messenger RNA (mRNA) See also RNA defined, 187 list of properties, 189 Metabolic pathways, 117, 123, 125 Metabolism: aerobic, 132 anaerobic, 123–127, 131, 132 chemistry of, 26 comparison of processes, 132 fats and proteins, 133–134 illustrated, 114, 135 overview, 114–117 oxidation vs reduction, 115, 116 regulating, 192–195 Metacercariae, 328 Metachromasia, 89 Metachromatic granules, 89 Metastasis, 301 Metchnikoff, Elie, 15 Meters, defined, 53 Methanogens, 252 Methyl red, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Metric units, 51, 53 Metronidazole, 364, 389 MHC, see Major histocompatibility complex MIC, see Minimum inhibitory concentration Microaerophiles: defined, 158–159 growing, 170 illustrated, 159 oxygen use, 159 Microbes, 3–5 See also Microorganisms Microbial antagonism, 403 Microbial biodegradation, 813–814 Microbial growth: bacterial interactions affecting, 163–164 decline or death phase, 150 defined, 146–147 factors affecting, 156–163 lag phase, 148–149 log phase, 149–150 measuring, 150–155 nutritional factors, 161–163 physical factors, 156–161 stages, 148–150 standard curve, 148 stationary phase, 150 Microbial mining, 846–847 Microbial resistance, 372–373 Microbiologists: achievements of, 19 diversity of careers, fields of study, 5, Nobel Prize winners, 20 overview, 5, Microbiology: defined, fields of study, 5, 7, 14–18 in history, 8–10 investigators and achievements, 19 Nobel Prize winners, 20 reasons to study, 1–3 research, Microenvironment, 789 Microfilaments, 100 Microfilariae, 330, 331 Microflora: disruption by antimicrobial agents, 370–371 normal, 402–403 resident, 402 transient, 403 Micrographs, 62 Micrometers (microns), 51, 53 Microorganisms: in air, 799–800 classification problems, 244 INDEX controlling growth of, 340–341 counting, 152–155 in deep ocean vents, 806–807 defined, determining sensitivities to antimicrobial agents, 375–377 disease causation by, 406–413 first person to view, 50–51 as food, 834 in food, 820–828 in food production, 834–838 growth, defined, 146–147 luminescent, 140 major groups, 3–5 marble deterioration by, 34 naming, new discoveries, 264 overview, 3–5 portals of entry, 432–434 portals of exit, 434 preparing specimens for microscopy, 67–71 preserving, 158 reasons for studying, 1–3 research uses, in soil, 800–803 as sources of antibiotics, 378 uses of energy, 137–140 in water, 805 Microscopy, 51–52 bright-field vs dark-field, 58, 59 compound, 57–58 confocal, 60–61, 66 defined, 51 digital, 61–62, 66 electron, 62–66 fluorescence, 59–60 images, 62 light, 57–58, 62, 66, 67 Nomarski, 59 numerical aperture of lenses, 54 phase-contrast, 58 principles, 51–57 resolving power of lenses, 54 types of, 66 Microtiter plates, 563, 564 Microtox Acute Toxicity Test, 140 Microtubules, 100 Microvilli, 682 Microwave radiation, as antimicrobial agent, 357, 359 Mildew, 314 Miliary tuberculosis, 660 Milk: antibiotic additives, 832 fermented beverages, 835–836 microorganisms in, 826–827, 835–836 pasteurization, 832–833 pathogenic organisms in, 829 production standards, 833 tests for quality, 833 Millimeters, defined, 53 Mimicry, molecular, 369, 543 Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), 376 Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), 375, 376 Mining, microbial, 846–847 Miracidia, 326 Mitchell, Peter, 131 Mites, 332 Mitochondria, 99, 102–104 Mitosis, 98 Mixed infections, 414 Mixtures, 32 MMR vaccine, 514 Moist heat: antimicrobial properties, 359 as sterilization agent, 351–353 Moisture, as bacterial growth factor, 159 Molds, 314, 322–323 Mole (unit), 29 Molecular mimicry, 369, 543 Molecules, 27 Molla, A., 272 Molluscum contagiosum, 587 Monera kingdom, 245–246 Moniliasis, 591 Monkeypox, 587 Monoclonal antibodies: defined, 234 illustrated, 505 overview, 503–504 production, 505 Monocular compound light microscopes, 57 Monocytes, 466 Monod, Jacques, 193, 290 Monolayers, 295 Mononucleosis, infectious, 745–747 Monosaccharides, 36–37 Monotrichous bacteria, 90 Montagu, Lady Ashley, 14 Morbidity rate, 425 Mordants, 68 Morphology, 244, 255–256, 260 Mortality rate, 425 Mosquitoes, 24, 332 Most probable number (MPN), 153–154 Mother cells, 146 Mother’s milk, 530 Motile bacteria, 90, 139 Motile proteins, 42 Mouse lymphocytes, 496 Mouth: bacterial diseases, 683–688 disease summary, 688 overview, 681–682 periodontal disease, 686–687 viral diseases, 687–688 MPN (most probable number), 153–154 mRNA, see Messenger RNA MS (multiple sclerosis), 429–430 MTAN inhibitors, 375 Mucin, 681 Mucociliary escalator, 64 Mucosal immune system, 509–511 Mucous membranes: defined, 464 illustrated, 576 overview, 575–576 as physical barrier, 464 Mucus, 576 Multiple sclerosis (MS), 429–430 Multiple-tube fermentation method, 810 Mumps, 687–688 Murine typhus, 741 Mushrooms, 324, 708, 820, 821 Mutagens: chemical, 198–199 defined, 198 induced, 198 radiation as, 199–200 spontaneous, 198 Mutations: defined, 181 delta 32, 735 frameshift, 197, 198 overview, 196 and plague resistance, 735 point, 196, 197 studying, 200–204 types and effects, 196–197 Mutualism, 399–400 Myasthenia gravis, 544–545 Mycelium, 318 Mycobacteria, as cause of disease, 657–659 Mycobacterium laboratorium, 212 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 84, 659 See also Tuberculosis Mycology, 318 See also Fungi; Mushrooms Mycoplasmas, 88 characteristics compared with other bacteria, 263 defined, 263 Mycoplasma capricolum, 212 Mycoplasmal infections, 626 Mycoplasma mycoides, 212 Mycoplasma pneumonia, 655 Mycoses, 321 Myiasis, 600 Myocarditis, 727 NA (numerical aperture), 54 NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) coenzyme, 119 Nagana, 781 Naked viruses, 273, 292 Nanometers, 51, 53 Narrow spectrum antibiotics, 367 Nasal cavity, 640 Nasal sinuses, 640 Natural killer (NK) cells, 470, 493, 506, 508 Naturally acquired active immunity, 490 Naturally acquired adaptive immunity, 490 Naturally acquired immunity, 490 Naturally acquired passive immunity, 490 Needham, John, 10 Negative-sense RNA, 278 Negative stains, 69, 70 Negri, Adelchi, 764 Neisser, Albert, 616 Nelson, Karen E., 178, 180 Nematodes, 326 Neonatal herpes, 629–630 Neoplasms, 301 I-15 I-16 INDEX Neoplastic diseases, 406 Neoplastic transformations, 302 Nephrons, 606 Nerves, 760 Nervous system: bacterial diseases, 761–764, 770–775, 783 components, 760–761 disease summary, 783 normal microflora, 761–762 parasitic diseases, 780–783 prion diseases, 777–780, 783 viral diseases, 764–769, 775–780, 783 Nesse, Randolph, 536 Neurosyphilis, 622 Neurotoxins, 411 Neutralization, 502 Neutralization reactions, 564–565 Neutral substances, 34 Neutrons, 28 Neutrophiles, 156, 465, 466 NGU (nongonoccal urethritis), 625 Niclosamide, 389–390 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) coenzyme, 119 Nitrate reduction, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Nitrification, 795 Nitrofurans, 384 Nitrogen, 27, 28, 161–162 Nitrogenase, 793 Nitrogen cycle: illustrated, 793 nitrifying bacteria, 795 nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 793–795 overview, 793 Nitrogen fixation, 793–795 NK cells, see Natural killer cells Nobel Prize: list of winners, 20 overview, 18 Nocardiosis, 662 Nocturia, 612 Nomarski microscopy, 59, 60, 66 Noncommunicable infectious diseases, 406 Noncompetitive inhibitors, 121 Noncyclic photoreduction, 135 Nongonoccal urethritis (NGU), 625 Nonindigenous organisms, 789 Noninfectious diseases, 406 Nonpolar compounds, 30 Nonself, in immunology, 494, 496 Nonsense codons, 187 Nonspecific defenses, 464 Nonsynchronous growth, 149 Normal microflora: cardiovascular system, 724 digestive system, 683 list, 402 nervous system, 761–762 overview, 402–403 respiratory system, 644–645 skin, 577 urogenital system, 609–610 Northrup, Diana E., 1, 803 Nosocomial infections: common sites, 451 controlling, 453–454 epidemiology, 446–452 equipment as contributor, 452 overview, 450 preventing, 453–454 procedures as contributors, 452 sources, 450–451 susceptibility, 451 transmission, 451 Universal Precautions, 452 Notifiable diseases: defined, 444 at national level, 445 provisional cases, 444–450 Nuclear envelope, 76, 97 Nuclear pores, 97 Nuclear regions, 88–89 Nucleic acids: classification, 278 illustrated, 44 and information storage, 181–182 and information transfer, 182–183 inhibiting synthesis, 370 overview, 43–45 satellite, 298 structure, 44 as virus component, 272 Nucleocapsids, 273 Nucleoids, 88–89 Nucleoli, 98 Nucleoplasm, 97 Nucleotides, 43–45 Nucleus, see Cell nucleus Numerical aperture (NA), 54 Numerical taxonomy, 256 Nutrients, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Nutrition, as bacterial classification criterion, 260 Nutritional complexity, 162 Nutritional factors in bacterial growth: carbon sources, 161 complexity, 162 defined, 156 enzyme locations, 162 limited nutrients, 162–163 nitrogen sources, 161–162 overview, 161–163 phosphorus, 162 sulfur, 162 trace elements, 162 vitamins, 162 Nystatin, 387 O’Beirn, Francis, 689 Obesity, gut bacteria and, 680, 681 Objective lens, 58 Obligate aerobes, 158, 159, 170 Obligate anaerobes, 158, 159, 170–171 Obligate bacteria, 157 Obligate intracellular parasites, 272 Obligate parasites, 310 Obligate psychrophiles, 157 Obligate thermophiles, 157 Ocean, deep vents in, 806–807 Octets, rule of, 28 Ocular herpes, 595 Ocular lens, 58 Ocular micrometers, 58 Oil immersion, 55–56 Oil spills, cleaning up, 133 Okazaki fragments, 184 Oligonucleotides, 204, 366 Olives, 838 Onchocerciasis, 595–596 Oncogenes, 303 ONPG and MUG test, 811 Oomycota, 314 Operons, 193, 195 Ophthalmia neonatorum, 592, 594 Opportunists, 403 Opsonins, 480, 503 Opsonization, 480, 503 Optical microscopes, 57 See also Light microscopy Optimum pH, 156 Oral cavity, see Mouth Oral vaccines, 440 Orbivirus, 748 Orchids, fungi and, 321 Orchitis, 687 Order, defined, 242 Organelles, 77 Organic acids, 35 Organic chemistry, 35 Ornithosis, 661 Oroya fever, 743.744 Orthomyxoviruses, 276, 280, 663 Osmosis, 79, 105–107 Osmotic pressure: as antimicrobial agent, 359 as bacterial growth factor, 160–161 defined, 106 overview, 160–161 Otitis externa, 648 Otitis media, 648 Outer membrane, 81, 83 Ovarian follicles, 607 Ovaries, 607 Oxidase, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Oxidation, 35, 115, 116 Oxidative phosphorylation, 130 Oxidizing agents, as antimicrobial agents, 347–348 Oxygen: as bacterial growth factor, 158–159 as chemical building block, 27, 28 controlling, in culture media, 170–172 in organic compounds, 35 Ozone biosensors, 202 Pachysolen tannophilus, 844 PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis), 258–259 Pandemics, 282, 427, 665–667 Papillomas, 587–588 See also Warts Papillomaviruses, human, see HPV Papovaviruses, 277, 282 INDEX Paracelsus, Aureolus, 16 Paragonimus kellicotti, 640, 641 Parainfluenza, 650, 651 Parainfluenza viruses, 650, 651 Paramecium, microscopic images, 60, 62 Paramyxoviruses, 276, 279–280 Parasites See also Fungi; Helminths accidental, 310 defined, 308, 400 hosts vs., 308 illustrated, 400 obligate vs facultative, 310 overview, 308–309 permanent vs temporary, 310 significance, 309–310 Parasitic diseases See also specific diseases of blood and lymph, 724, 727–729 of eye, 595–597 lower respiratory, 673–674 of nervous system, 780–783 urogenital, 614, 634 Parasitic helminths, see Helminths Parasitism, 400 Parasitology, 308 Parfocal microscopes, 58 Parovirus infections, 748–749 Paroxysmal stage (whooping cough), 65 Parrots, 662 Parvoviruses, 277, 281–282 Passive immunity, 490 Passive immunization, 517–518 Pasteur, Louis, 11–15, 401, 764, 767 Pasteurization: antimicrobial properties, 359 flash, 832 high-temperature short-time, 832 history, 11 holding method, 832 low-temperature long-time, 832 milk, 832–833 overview, 352–353 surface, 822–823 Pathogens, 308, 398, 401, 519–522 Pathogenicity, 401 Paul, A., 272 PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 204–205 Pediculosis, 600 Pellicles, 94, 101, 313 Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), 619 Penetration, viral: animal viruses, 293 defined, 284 replication comparison, 290, 291 T4 phages, 286 Penicillins, 17, 366, 367, 373 comparison of molecules, 379 as inhibitors of cell wall synthesis, 378– 381, 385 microbial sources, 378–381 producing, 844–845 Penis, 608 Peptic ulcers, 697–698 Peptide bonds, 40 Peptidoglycan, 81, 338 Peptone, 167 Perforin, 506 Pericarditis, 727 Periodontal disease: and autoimmune disorders, 687 illustrated, 686 overview, 686–687 prevention, 687 treatment, 687 Periodontitis, 686 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 760 Periplasmic enzymes, 162 Periplasmic space, 83 Peritrichous bacteria, 90 Permanent parasites, 310 Permeases, 139 Peroxisomes, 100 Persistent viral infections, 412 Pertussis, 651 See also Whooping cough Pets, genetically-engineered, 235 Petroff-Hauser bacterial counter, 152, 153 Pettenkofer, Max von, 694 Pfiestria, 314 pH: in antimicrobial agents, 341 as bacterial growth factor, 156 impact on enzyme reactions, 122 optimum, 156 overview, 33–34 Phages, 216 See also Bacteriophages Phage therapy, 285 Phage typing, 259, 260 Phagocytes, 15, 467 Phagocytosis: adherence step, 468 chemotaxis step, 468 defined, 108 digestion step, 468–469 ingestion step, 469 overview, 467 Phagolysosomes, 468, 469 Phagosomes, 468, 469 Pharmaceutical microbiology, 841–842 Pharyngitis, 645–646 Pharynx, 641 Phase-contrast microscopy, 58, 60, 66 Phenols (phenolics): as antimicrobial agents, 347 antimicrobial properties, 350 as disinfectant, 341–342 phenol coefficient, 341 structural formula, 344 Phenol coefficient, 341–342 Phenotypes, 197–198 Phenylalanine draminase, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Phleboviruses, 748 Phospholipids, 39, 40, 86 Phosphorescence, 55 Phosphorus, as bacterial growth factor, 162 Phosphorus cycle, 798 Phosphorylation, 123 Phosphotransferase system (PTS), 139 Photoautotrophs, 116, 134–136 Photoheterotrophs, 116, 136 Photolysis, 135 Photophosphorylation, cyclic, 134–135 Photoreactivation, 200, 288 Photoreduction, noncyclic, 135 Photosynthesis: as element in metabolic pathway, 117 illustrated, 117, 135 light-dependent (light) reactions, 134–135 light-independent (dark) reactions, 135–136 overview, 116–117, 134–136 Phototaxis, 91 pH scale, 33 Phylogenetic relationships, 244 Phylum, defined, 242 Physical antimicrobial agents, 350–360 cold-temperature, 353–355 filtration, 357–359 future trends, 359–360 heat killing, 351–353 osmotic pressure, 359 radiation, 355–357 sonic/ultrasonic waves, 357 Physical factors in bacterial growth: hydrostatic pressure, 159 moisture, 159 osmotic pressure, 160–161 overview, 156 oxygen, 158–159 pH, 156 radiation, 161 temperature, 156–158 Physiology, as bacterial classification criterion, 260 Phytoplankton, 805, 806 Pickles, 838 Picornaviruses, 276, 277, 279–280 PID (pelvic inflammatory disease), 619 Pigs: and disease, 709–711 manure problem, 797 transgenic, 232 Pig whipworm, 528–529 Pili, 93–94 Pimples, 578 See also Acne; Folliculitis Pinna, 643 Pinta, 624 Pinworms, 715 Piperazine, 390 Placebos, 430 Plague: among humans, 733 and bioterrorism, 456–457 bubonic, –9, 438, 734 defined, 740 diagnosis, 734 incidence, 733 mutations and, 735 overview, 733–735 pneumonic, 734 prevention, 734 resistance to, 735 rural, 733 septicemic, 734 treatment, 734 I-17 I-18 INDEX Plants: in kingdom Plantae, 247–248 viruses of, 274 Plantae kingdom, 245–248 Plantlike protists, 312–313 Plaques, 288 See also Dental plaque Plaque assay, 288, 289 Plaque-forming units, 288 Plasma, 465, 723 Plasma cells, 497 Plasma membranes, 97 See also Cell membranes Plasmids: characteristics, 224 defined, 220 promiscuous, 223 resistance, 224–225, 371 transfer, 221–222 Plasmodial slime molds, 313, 314 Plasmodium, 314–317, 752 Plasmogamy, 318 Plasmolysis, 160, 359 Platelets, 465–466 Pleomorphism, 79, 80, 263 Pleura, 643 Pleurisy, 654 Pneumocystis pneumonia, 672–673 Pneumonia: and alcoholics, 645 as biofilm, 163 bronchial, 654 classifying, 653–654 common cold vs., 668 defined, 653 diagnosis, 654–655 influenza vs., 668 lobar, 654 mycoplasma, 655 overview, 653–654 pneumococcal, 654 pneumocystis, 672–673 prevention, 655 primary atypical, 655 and product processing, 130 transmission, 654 treatment, 655 walking, 655 Pneumonic plague, 734 PNS (peripheral nervous system), 760 Poi, 838 Point mutations, 196–198 Poison ivy, 541–542 Polar compounds, 31 Poliomyelitis: diagnosis, 775–776 illustrated, 775 incidence, 775, 776 overview, 775–777 prevention, 775–776 treatment, 775–776 vaccines, 282, 513, 514, 776–777 Pollution, water, 807–809 Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), 258–259 Polyenes, 384 Polymaviruses, 768–769 Polymers, 37 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 204–205 Polymyxins: defined, 381 as disrupters of cell membranes, 381 microbial sources, 378 spectrum of activity, 367 Polynucleotides, 43 Polypeptides, 40 Polyribosomes, 88, 191 Polysaccharides, 37, 38 Polyunsaturated fats, 39 Pond scum, 311 Pontiac fever, 656 Population, diseases in, 426–428 See also Epidemiology Porins, 138 Portals of entry, 432–434 Portals of exit, 434 Positive-sense RNA, 278 Postpolio syndrome, 777 Potable water, 807–808 Poultry, microorganisms in, 823–825 See also Chickens Pour plates, 150, 166 Poxviruses, 281–282 Precipitation reactions, 561 Precipitin test, 561 Preempt, 690 Pregnancy: and immunity, 510 tests for, 565 tolerance of fetus, 548–549 Preserved cultures, 171 Presumptive test, multiple-tube fermentation method, 810 Prevalence (of diseases), 425, 426 Preventable deaths, 450 Primaquine, 389 Primary atypical pneumonia, 655 Primary cell cultures, 295 Primary immunodeficiencies, 530 Primary immunodeficiency diseases, 551, 552 Primary infections, 414 Primary protein structure, 41, 42 Primary response, 500, 502 Primary sewage treatment, 812, 813 Primary structure of proteins, 41, 42 Prions, 777–778 defined, 5, 253 illustrated, 300 nervous system diseases, 777–780, 783 overview, 299–301 viruses and viroids vs., 300 Privileged site, 510 Probes, 257 Prodromal phase, infectious diseases, 415, 416 Prodromes, 415 Producers, 790 Productive infections, 412 Profet, Margie, 536 Proglottids, 328 Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, 768–769 Prokaryotae kingdom, 245, 246 Prokaryotic cells: arrangement, 79–80 cell membranes, 88, 103–108 classifying, 244–245 defined, 76, 245 division, 147–148 DNA in, 76, 184–185, 190 DNA replication, illustrated, 185 eukaryotic cells vs., 76–77 evolution, 248–249, 251 external structure, 90–96 extracellular structures, 78 genetic structures, 78 giant, 83 and heredity, 180 internal structure, 88–90 intracellular structures, 78 in kingdom Monera, 245–246 overview, 76–78 reproductive process, 78 RNA in, 184–185, 187, 191 shapes, 79, 80 size, 78–79, 83 structure overview, 79 taxonomy, 255–256 Promiscuous plasmids, 223 Proofreading in DNA, 184 Propagated epidemics, 428, 429 Prophages, 217, 289 Prostaglandins, 473, 532 Prostate gland, 608 Prostatitis, 610–612 Proteases, 163 Proteins See also Enzymes and chemical antimicrobial agents, 343 classification, 42 denaturing, 35, 343 determining properties, 257–259 and evolutionary relatedness, 257–259 exoenzyme examples, 163 illustrated, 42 inhibiting synthesis, 369, 381–383 interferon, 476–478 levels of structure, 41–42 metabolism, 134, 135 overview, 39–40 primary structure, 41, 42 quaternary structure, 41, 42 secondary structure, 41, 42 structural, 42 synthesis, 184–192 tertiary structure, 41, 42 transport, 214–215 Protein profiles: as bacterial classification criterion, 260 illustrated, 258 overview, 257–258 Protists: animal-like, 315–316, 318 characteristics, 311 classification, 312–316, 318 defined, 311 INDEX funguslike, 312–314 illustrated, 312, 318 importance, 311–312 plantlike, 312–313 Protista kingdom, 246–247 Protons, 28 Proto-oncogenes, 303 Protoplasts, 84, 228–229 Protoplast fusion, 228–229 Prototrophs, 198 Protozoa: defined, diseases caused by, 6, 412–413 gastrointestinal diseases, 704–707, 716 illustrated, 313, 315, 316 immune system and antigens of, 520, 522 immunity to, 520, 522 infections in AIDS patients, 554 overview, 315 systemic diseases, 749–755 as type of microbe, Provirus, 279 Prowazek, Baron von, 740 Prusiner, Stanley, 299–300 Pseudocoelom, 326 Pseudocysts, 782 Pseudomembranes, 647 Pseudomembranous colitis, 698 Pseudomonas, 94, 163 Pseudoplasmodium, 314 Pseudopodia, 101, 102 Psittacosis, 661 Psychrophiles, 157, 158 PTS (phosphotransferase system), 139 Public health agencies: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 443–444, 555 overview, 442 World Health Organization, 444 Puerperal fever, 725 Pulmonary anthrax, 731 Pure cultures: defined, 166 history, 12–13 obtaining, 166, 167 pour plate method, 166 streak plate method, 166, 167 Purines, 44, 45, 387–388 Pus, 474 Pustules, 578 Pyelonephritis, 610–612 Pyoderma, 580 Pyrimethamine, 389 Pyrimidine: analogs, 387 defined, 44 dimers, 200, 201 Pyrogens, 416, 475 Q fever, 456–457, 661–662 Quarantine, 440–441 Quats, 345 Quaternary ammonium compounds, 345 Quaternary structure of proteins, 41, 42 Quinine, 389 Quinolones, 383, 386 Quinones, 130 Quorum sensing, 163, 164, 374–375 RA (rheumatoid arthritis), 545–546 Rabies: and bats, 765 diagnosis, 767 incidence, 431, 764–766 overview, 764–765 prevention, 67, 767 symptoms, 67 treatment, 767 vaccine, 12, 15 Rabies virus, 765–766 Rads, 356 Radial immunodiffusion, 562 Radiation: as antimicrobial agent, 355–357, 359 as bacterial growth factor, 161 defined, 199 for food preservation, 831, 832 as mutagen, 199–200 Radioactivity, 29 Radioimmunoassay (RIA), 566, 567 Radioisotopes, 29 Radwan, Samir, 815 Rat bite fever, 598–599 Reactants, 32 Reagin, defined, 530 Recombinant DNA: agricultural applications, 233–234 defined, 213 illustrated, 230 industrial applications, 233 medical applications, 231–233 overview, 229–231 producing, 229–231 risks vs benefits, 234–235 Recombination (DNA), 213 Redi, Francesco, 10 Rediae, 328 Red tides, 311 Reduction, 35, 115, 116 Reed, Walter, 17, 745 Reference cultures, 171 Reflection, light, 54–55 Refraction, light, 55–56 Refrigeration: as antimicrobial agent, 354, 359 of food, 831 Regulator genes, 193 Regulatory sites, 193 Relapsing fever: defined, 740 diagnosis, 737 endemic, 736 epidemic, 736 overview, 736–737 prevention, 737 treatment, 737 Release, viral: animal viruses, 294 defined, 285 replication comparison, 290, 291 T4 phages, 288 Rennin, 836 Reoviruses, 276–278, 280 Replica plating, 203–204 Replication curves, 288 Replication cycles, 284 Replication forks, 184, 185 Repressors, 193 Reservoir hosts, 310 Reservoirs of infection: animal, 431–432 human, 431 nonliving, 432 overview, 430–431 Resident microflora, 402 Resistance, drug: acquiring, 371–373 chromosomal, 371–372 cross-resistance, 373 defined, 371 extrachromosomal, 372 hospital infections, 390 limiting, 373–374 mechanisms, 372–373 quorum sensing to block, 374–375 Resistance (R) genes, 224, 226 Resistance (R) plasmids, 224–225, 372 Resistance transfer factor (RTF), 224, 226 Resolution, 54 Resolving power (RP), 54 Respiration, aerobic, see Aerobic respiration Respiration, anaerobic, see Anaerobic respiration Respiratory anaphylaxis, 533 Respiratory anthrax, 731 Respiratory bronchioles, 642, 643 Respiratory chains, see Electron transport chains Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 669 Respiratory system: components, 640–645 diseases, 645–649 illustrated, 642 lower respiratory tract, 640, 643, 650–674 normal microflora, 402, 644–645 overview, 640 structures, 642 upper respiratory tract, 640–641, 645–649 Restriction endonucleases, 200, 231 Restriction enzymes, 231 Restriction fragment, 231 Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), 231 Retroviruses, 276–279 See also HIV Reverse transcriptase, 279 Reverse transcription, 183 R factors, 372 RFLPs (restriction fragment length polymorphisms), 231 R genes, see Resistance genes R groups, 40 I-19 I-20 INDEX Rhabdoviruses, 276, 280 Rh antigens, 537–538 Rheumatic fever, 725–726 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), 545–546 Rheumatoid factors, 546 Rhinoviruses, 279, 293, 649 RIA (radioimmunoassay), 566, 567 Ribavirin, 388 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), see RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), see rRNA Ribosomes: determining properties, 259 eukaryotic cells, 99–100 and evolutionary relatedness, 259 overview, 88 prokaryotic cells, 88 Ricin, 455–457 Ricketts, Howard T., 740 Rickettsiae: defined, 263 other bacteria’s characteristics vs., 263 Rickettsial systemic diseases, 740–744 Rifamycins, 383 Rift Valley fever, 748 Ringworm, 589–590 River blindness, 595–596 RNA (ribonucleic acid): background, 15 components, 43–45 and evolutionary relatedness, 259 kinds of, 187–188 overview, 43–45 separating, in ribosomes, 259 sequencing, 257 RNA polymerase, 184 RNA primer, 184 RNA tumor viruses, 302, 303 RNA viruses, 278–280 illustrated, 278 key groups, 276, 278–280 overview, 278 replication, 293–294 Rocky Mountain spotted fever: illustrated, 743 overview, 741–742 summary, 744 U.S incidence, 741–742 Rohrer, Heinrich, 64–65 Rommel, Gen Erwin, 648 Roseola, 584 Ross, Ronald, 317 Rotaviruses, 699–701 Roundworms: adult, 329 characteristics, 326 illustrated, 327, 329 larvae, 329–331 life cycle, 329–331 operons, 193 overview, 326 Rous, F Peyton, 301 RP (resolving power), 54 R plasmids, see Resistance plasmids rRNA (ribosomal RNA): defined, 187 and evolutionary relatedness, 259 list of properties, 189 RSV (respiratory syncytial virus), 669 RTF, see Resistance transfer factor Rubella (German measles): diagnosis, 582 immunity, 582–583 incidence, 582 overview, 582 prevention, 582–583 teratogenic effects, 297 transmission, 582 Rubeola (measles), 583–584 Rule of octets, 28 Rush, Benjamin, 744 Russell, Ken, 325 Rust fungus, 802 Sabin, Albert, 777 Sac fungi, 323–324 St Anthony‘s fire, 580 St Louis encephalitis (SLE), 426–427, 767–768 Salivary glands, 682 Salk, Jonas, 777 Salmonella, 455, 690–691 Salmonella typhi, 341, 691 Salmonellosis, 690, 691 Sandflies, 332 Sanitation, soaps and, 345 Sanitizers, 340 Sapremia, 414 Saprophytes, 314 Sarcinae, 79, 148 Sarcodines, see Amebozoa Sarcoptic mange, 599–600 SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), 669, 670 Satellite nucleic acids, 298 Satellite viruses, 298 Saturated fatty acids, 38 Sauerkraut, 837–838 SBS (sick building syndrome), 800 Scabies, 599–600 Scalded skin syndrome, 578–579 Scanning electron microscope (SEM): atomic force, 65 images, 63–64 other microscopes vs., 66 overview, 64 sizes of objects, 53 transmission electron microscope vs., 64 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM): illustrated, 62 images, 62, 65 other microscopes vs., 66 overview, 64–65 Scarlet fever, 579 Schaeffer-Fulton spore stains, 70, 71 Schick tests, 564–565 Schistosomiasis, 727–728 Schizogony, 311 Schizophrenia, and toxoplasmosis, 753 Schleiden, Matthias, 10 Schultz, Heide, 83 Schwann, Theodor, 10–11 SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency), 552 Scientific method, 22 Scolex, 328 Scorpions, 332 SCP (single-cell protein), 842 Scrapie, 778, 779 Screwworm flies, 600 Scrub typhus, 741, 744 Seafood, microorganisms in, 824–826 Sebaceous glands, 575 Sebum, 464, 575 Secondary immunodeficiencies, 530 Secondary immunodeficiency diseases, 551–553 Secondary infections, 414 Secondary response, 500–502 Secondary sewage treatment, 812–813 Secondary structure of proteins, 41, 42 Second-line drugs, 373 Secretory component, 499 Secretory vesicles, 100 Seeps, cold, 806–807 Selective culture media, 168, 169 Selectively permeable membranes, 105 Selective toxicity, 367, 377 Selenium, in antimicrobial agents, 346 Self, in immunology, 494, 496 SEM, see Scanning electron microscope Semen, 608 Semiconservative replication, 184 Seminal vesicles, 608 Semisynthetic drugs, 366 Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp, 13, 14 Sense codons, 187 Sensitization, 497, 530 Septa, 147, 318 Septicemias, 414, 724–727 Septicemic plague, 734 Septic shock, 725 Septic tanks, 813–814 Sequelae, 413 Sequence of bases in rRNA, as bacterial classification criterion, 260 Serial dilutions, 150 Seroconversion, 563 Serology, 260, 561 Serovars, 690 Serum, 167, 376 Serum hepatitis, 701 Serum killing power, 376 Serum sickness, 540 Severe acute respiratory syndrome, see SARS Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), 552 Sewage: defined, 812 primary treatment, 812, 813 secondary treatment, 812–813 tertiary treatment, 813–814 treatment facilities, 805–808 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) See also AIDS INDEX bacterial, 616–628, 634 overview, 616 summary, 634 transmission, 438 viral, 628–635 Shadow casting, 63 Shagam, Edward, 684 Shangkers, 622 Shaw, Terry, 325 Shellfish, microorganisms in, 824–826 Shigella, 692, 693 Shigellosis, 691–693 Shingles, 574–575, 584–585 Shortt, H C., 317 Shrub of life, 251, 252 Shultz, Heide, 83 Sibling warfare, 163, 164 Sick building syndrome (SBS), 800 Side effects, 370–371 Signs of disease, 413 Silicon, 27 Silver, in antimicrobial agents, 338–339, 346 Silver sulfadiazine (SSD), 339 Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), 283 Simple diffusion, 104 Simple stains, 68, 70 Single-cell protein (SCP), 842 Sinuses, 470 Sinusitis, 646 Sinusoids, 682 SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), 283 Skin: defined, 464 diseases, 578–591 illustrated, 576 normal microflora, 402, 577 overview, 574–575 as physical barrier, 464 Skin diseases: bacterial, 578–581, 593 fungal, 589–591, 593 summary, 593 viral, 582–589, 593 SLE (St Louis encephalitis), 426–427, 767–768 SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus), 546–547 Sleeping sickness, African, 780–781 Slime layer, 95–96 Slime molds, 313, 314 Sludge, 812, 813 Sludge digesters, 813 Small intestine, 682–683 Smallpox, 14–15, 455–457, 586–587 Smears, 67 Smith, Myron, 325 Snotites, Snottites, 803 Snow, John, 428, 429 Soaps: as antimicrobial agents, 345, 350 and sanitation, 345 as source of microbes, 345 as surfactants, 41 Sodium, 28 Soil: in caves, 803 decomposers, 802–803 microorganisms in, 800–803 overview, 800 pathogens in, 803 as reservoir for infection, 432 Soil amoebas, 769 Soil microbes, 378 Solutes, 33 Solutions, 32–33 Solvents, 33, 844 Sonication, 357 Sonic waves, as antimicrobial agent, 357, 359 Sørenson, Søren, 156 Soy products, 838, 839 Space travel, 340, 372 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 10 Specialized transduction, 216–218 Species, 241–244 Species immunity, 489 Specific defenses, 464 Specific epithet, 241–242 Specific heat, 32 Specific immunity, 496 Specificity: enzyme, 42, 119 host, 310 in immunology, 494, 496 protein, 42 viral, 274 Spectinomycin, 373 Spectrophotometers, 155 Spectrum of activity, 367, 368 Spheroplasts, 86 Spices, microorganisms in, 827, 828 Spiders, 332 Spikes, 273 Spindle apparatus, 98 Spirillar fever, 599 Spirillum bacterial shape, 79, 80 Spirits, 841 Spirochetes, 79, 80, 103, 139, 737 Spiroplasmas, 161 Spleen, 470–471 Spontaneous generation, 10–11 Spontaneous mutations, 198 Sporadic diseases, 427 Spores See also Endospores bacterial, 89–90 in cell reproduction, 98–99 mushroom, 324 Spore coat, 165–166 Spore stains, 70, 71 Sporocides, 340 Sporocysts, 326 Sporotrichosis, 590 Sporozoites, 315 Sporulation, 164–166 See also Endospores Spread plate method, 151 Square-shaped bacteria, 80 SSD (silver sulfadiazine), 339 SSPE (subacute sclerosing panencephalitis), 583 Stains, 68–71 Staining, as bacterial classification criterion, 260 Standard bacterial growth curve, 148 Standard plate count, 150–152 Stanier, R Y., 244 Stanley, Wendell, 15 Staphylo-, 79 Staphylococcal enterotoxin B, 456–457 Staphylococcal infections, 578 Staphylococcus aureus, 82, 84, 126, 242, 341, 372, 378, 578, 689 Starch, 37, 261 Star-shaped bacteria, 80 Start codon, 187 Stationary phase, bacterial growth curve, 150 STDs, see Sexually transmitted diseases Steere, Allen, 737 Stem cells, 492–493 Stereoisomers, 81, 82 Sterility, 339 Sterilization, 339, 340, 351–353 Steroids, 39, 40 STM, see Scanning tunneling microscope Stock cultures, 171 Stomach, 682, 697–698 Stomach ulcers, 697–698 Stop codon, 187 Strains, 242 Streak plate method, 166, 167 Strep throat, 645–646 Strepto-, 79 Streptococcal infections, 579 Streptococcal pharyngitis, 645–646 Streptococcus agalactiae, 725 Streptococcus pneumoniae, 763 Streptokinase, 408 Streptolysin, 469 Streptomycetes, as sources of antibiotics, 378 Streptomycin, 367, 378, 381 Stroma, 99 Stromatolites, 248–249, 255 Strong visible light, antimicrobial properties of, 359 Strongyloidiasis, 714–715 Structural genes, 193 Structural proteins, 42 Subacute diseases, 414 Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE), 583 Subclinical infections, 414, 431 Subculturing, 295 Subcutaneous fungal infections, 590–591 Substrates, enzyme, 42, 118, 119 Sucrase, 163 Sucrose, 37 Sugars, 163 Sugar alcohols, 36, 37 Sugar fermentation, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 I-21 I-22 INDEX Sulfa drugs, 17 Sulfate reduction, 797–798 Sulfonamides, 366, 367, 383–384 Sulfur, as bacterial growth factor, 162 Sulfur cycle, 796–798 Sulfur oxidation, 798 Sulfur reduction, 798 Sullivan, Robert J., Sunlight, as antimicrobial agent, 357 Superantigens, 509 Superinfections, 370, 414 Superoxide, 159 Superoxide dismutase, 159 Suppressor T cells, 506–508 Suramin sodium, 389 Surface pasteurization, 822–823 Surface tension, Surfactants, 41, 139, 343, 344, 350 Sushi, 709 Swarmer cells, 795 Sweat glands, 464, 575 Swimmer’s itch, 592 Swine flu, 666 Sydenham, Thomas, 16 Symbiosis, 102, 398–400 Sympathetic blindness, 545 Symptoms, 413 Synchronous growth, 149 Syncytia, 296, 669 Syndromes, 413 Synergism, 374 Synthesis, viral: animal viruses, 293–294 defined, 284 replication comparison, 290, 291 T4 phages, 286, 288 Synthetic culture media, 167, 168 Synthetic drugs, 366 Synthetic Genomics, 213 Syphilis: congenital, 623 evolutionary aspect, 624 identifying, 59 illustrated, 475, 622, 623 incidence, 621 overview, 620 Systemic blastomycosis, 590 Systemic diseases: bacterial, 729–740 protozoan, 749–755 rickettsial, 740–744 summaries, 740, 744, 755 viral, 744–749 Systemic infections, 414–415 Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 546–547 Tagged antibody tests: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, 566, 567 fluorescence-activated cell sorter, 566, 567 overview, 565–566 radioimmunoassay, 566, 567 Western blotting test, 568 Tapeworms: defined, 326 illustrated, 327 infections, 709–711 overview, 328 Tartar, 686 Tate, P., 317 Tatum, Edward, 18 Taxon, defined, 240 See also Taxonomy Taxonomy, bacterial, 243, 260–265 binomial nomenclature system, 241–243 dichotomous keys, 243 and evolution, 244 genus, defined, 241–242 hierarchy of ranks, 243 human classification, 243 numerical, 256 overview, 240–241 problem areas, 244, 262 species, defined, 241–242 viral, 275–282 TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle, 127 T cells, 492–493 and cell-mediated immunity, 504–509 characteristics, 509 cytotoxic, 506–508 defined, 492 delayed hypersensitivity, 506, 541 helper, 506–508 natural killer, 506, 508 suppressor, 506–508 types, 508 T-dependent antigens, 500 Teeth, 681–682 See also Periodontal disease Teichoic acid, 81, 84 Teleomorph names, 325 TEM, see Transmission electron microscope Temperate phages, 216–217, 289–291 Temperature: as bacterial growth factor, 156–158 impact on enzyme reactions, 122 Templates, 182 Temporary parasites, 310 Teratogenesis, 296–297 Teratogens, 296–297 Terbinafine, 387 Teriary sewage treatment, 813–814 Terminator codon, 187 Terrorism, biological, see Bioterrorism Tertiary structure of proteins, 41, 42 Tests: biochemical, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 of protists, 311 Testes, 608 Tetanus, 772–773 Tetanus neonatorum, 773 Tetracyclines: as broad-spectrum agent, 368 illustrated, 382 as inhibitor of protein synthesis, 381–382, 386 overview, 381–382 role in reducing acne, 382 Tetrads, 79, 147–148 Thallus, 318 Therapeutic dosage levels, 367 Therapy, phage, 285 Thermal death point, 351 Thermal death time, 351 Thermal hot springs, 804 Thermodaric organisms, 157 Thermophiles: defined, 157 growth rates, 158 illustrated, 157 obligate vs facilitative, 157 Thermophilic anaerobic spoilage, 830 Thiomargarita namibia, 83 Third-line drugs, 373 Thomas, Lewis, 366, 400, 588 Three-domain classification system, 248–252 Thrush, 591, 688 Thucydides, Thylakoids, 99 Thymine, 44, 45, 200, 257 Thymus gland, 470 Ticks, 104, 308–309, 332 Tick paralysis, 599 TIGR (The Institute for Genomic Research), 178, 179 Tinctures, 346 Tincture of iodine, 341 T-independent antigens, 500 Tinea barbae, 590 Tinea capitis, 590 Tinea corporis, 589 Tinea cruris, 589 Tinea pedis, 590 Tinea unguium, 590 Tissue cultures, 295 See also Cell cultures Titers, 491, 499 TLRs (toll-like receptors), 467–468 T lymphocytes, 492–493 See also T cells Tobacco mosaic virus, 16, 273, 274 Tobramycin, 367, 381 Togaviruses, 276, 277, 279 Tolerance, in immunology, 494 Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 467–468 Tolnaftate, 387 Tonicity, 106, 107 Tonsils, 471 Tonsilitis, 645 TORCH blood test series, 297 Total magnification, 58 Toxemia, 409, 411, 414 Toxic dosage levels, 367 Toxicity, and antimicrobial agents, 370 Toxic shock syndrome (TSS), 614–615 Toxins, 314, 409–411 Toxoids, 411, 511 Toxoplasmosis, 753–755 Trabant cars, 813–814 Trace elements, 162 Trachea, 641 Trachoma, 594 Transcription, 183–191 Transducers, 91 INDEX Transduction: generalized, 218 mechanisms, 216–219 overview, 216 significance, 218–220 specialized, 216–218 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 187, 188 Transformation, bacterial: illustrated, 215, 216 mechanism, 214–216 overview, 214 significance, 215–216 Transfusion reactions, 536, 537 Transgenic organisms, 229 Transient microflora, 403 Translation, 183, 188–191 Transmission, light, 55 Transmission electron microscope (TEM): other microscopes vs., 66 overview, 63–64 scanning electron microscope vs., 64 sizes of objects, 53 Transmission spongiform encephalopathies, 777–780 Transovarian transmission, 735 Transplantation, 547–550 Transplant rejection, 548, 549 Transport proteins, 214–215 Transposable elements, 225–226 Transposal of virulence, 401 Transposition, 225–226 Transposons, 225–226 Traumatic herpes, 630 Traveler’s diarrhea, 695–696 Trench fever, 742–743 Treponema pallidum, 624 Triacylglycerols, 38, 39 Triazoles, 384 Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, 127 Trichinosis, 712 Trichlosan, as disinfectant, 347, 350 Trichocysts, 318 Trichomoniasis, 615–616 Trichuriasis, 714 Trickling filter system, 813 Tricothecene mycotoxicosis, 456–457 Triglycerides, see Triacylglycerols tRNA, see Transfer RNA Trophozoites, 315 Trypanosomiasis, 780–781 Tsetse flies, 780 TSS (toxic shock syndrome), 614–615 Tube agglutination test, 563 Tubercles, 659 Tuberculin hypersensitivity, 542–543 Tuberculin skin test, 542–543 Tuberculoid, 771 Tuberculosis: as biofilm, 163 causative agents, 657–658 defined, 656 diagnosis, 660 disseminated, 660 in history, 13 illustrated, 475 incidence, 656–658 miliary, 660 overview, 656 prevention, 661 treatment, 660–661 U.S incidence, 656, 658 worldwide incidence, 657 Tularemia, 456–457, 734–735, 740 Tumors, 301 Turbidity, 155 Twins, identical, 403 2009 H1N1 virus, 666, 667 Tympanic membrane, 643–644 Tyndall, John, 11 Type strains, 261 Typhoidal tularemia, 735 Typhoid fever, 691, 692 Typhoid Mary, 692 Typhus fever: Brill-Zinsser, 740, 741 endemic, 741 epidemic, 741 overview, 740, 742 scrub, 741, 744 summary, 744 UHT processing, see Ultra-high temperature processing Ulcers, peptic, 697–698 Ulcerative colitis, 528 Ulceroglandular diseases, 735 Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing, 353, 833 Ultraviolet light: as antimicrobial agent, 355–356, 359, 360 in confocal microscopy, 60–61 in fluorescence microscopy, 59 illustrated, 356 overview, 54 Uncoating, 293 Undulant fever, see Brucellosis Unicellular organisms, 146–147 U.S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, see Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Universal common ancestor, 248, 249, 251 Universal Precautions, 452 Unsaturated fatty acids, 38–39 Upper respiratory tract: bacterial diseases, 645–649 defined, 640 diseases, 645–649 illustrated, 642 overview, 640–641 viral diseases, 649–651 Uracil, 44, 45 Ureaplasmas, 263 Urease, for identifying and classifying bacteria, 261 Ureters, 607 Urethra, 607 Urethritis, 610 Urethrocystitis, 610 Urinalysis, 607 Urinary bladder, 607 Urinary system, 606–607 Urinary tract infections (UTIs), 610–611 Urine, 607, 610–611 Urkaryotes, defined, 248 Urogenital system: bacterial diseases, 610–615, 634 components, 606–610 defined, 606 diseases not transmitted sexually, 610–615 disease summary, 634 female reproductive system, 607–609 male reproductive system, 608–609 normal microflora, 402, 609–610 parasitic diseases, 615–616, 634 urinary system, 606–607 Use-dilution test, 342 Uterine tubes, 607 Uterus, 607 UTIs (urinary tract infections), 610–611 Vaccines, 14–15, 488–489 See also Immunization for addiction, 512 for AIDS, 560 for botulinum, 410 for chickenpox, 585 for common cold, 650 defined, 511 DTaP, 512 DTP, 648, 653 hazards, 513, 516 for Hib, 513 for influenza, 666–669 in insect cell culture, 296 MMR, 514 oral, 440 for poliomyelitis, 282, 512, 513, 776–777 and prevention of death, 450 for rabies, 12, 15 for shingles, 585 for smallpox, 14 Vaccine corridor (rabies), 765 Vacuoles, 100 Vagina, 607 Vaginitis, 591 Vancocin, 364 Vancomycin: as inhibitor of cell wall synthesis, 380 spectrum of activity, 368 Van Leewuenhoek, Anton, see Leewuenhoek, Anton van Van Niel, C B., 244 Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), 584 Varro, Vasodilation, 473 Vectors: biological, 310, 438 controlling, 440–442 defined, 229, 310, 437 disease transmission by, 435, 437–438 mechanical, 310, 437–438 VEE, see Venezuelan equine encephalitis Vegetables, microorganisms in, 822–823 Vegetation, 726–727 Vegetative cells, 89 I-23 ... to and coat the surface of the infectious agent C1 binds to these antibodies, initiating the cascade C1 causes the cleavage of C4 into C4a and C4b C4b and C1 then cause C2 to split into C2a and. .. How innate and adaptive defenses differ? List six categories of innate defenses List and describe the steps in phagocytosis What are NK cells and how they function? What are the parts and functions... TABLE 16 .2 Macrophages can be fixed or wandering Fixed macrophages remain stationary in tissues and are given different names, depending on the tissue in which they reside (Table 16 .2) Wandering