Skkn tiếng anh an investigation into the sub categories of attitude in the book the world is flat by thomas l friedman from the perspective of appraisal theory

The present study explores sub-categories of Attitude -Affect, Judgementand Appreciation- in the book “The World is Flat” by Thomas L.. The study makes a significant contribution to ouru

LÊ THỊ VÂN HỒNG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE SUB-CATEGORIES OF “ATTITUDE”

IN THE BOOK THE WORLD IS FLAT

BY THOMAS L FRIEDMAN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF APPRAISAL THEORY

MASTER THESIS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

AND HUMANITIES

Danang, 2015

LÊ THỊ VÂN HỒNG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE SUB-CATEGORIES OF “ATTITUDE”

IN THE BOOK THE WORLD IS FLAT

BY THOMAS L FRIEDMAN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF APPRAISAL THEORY

FIELD: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CODE: 60.22.02.01

MASTER THESIS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

AND HUMANITIES

Supervisor: NGUYỄN THỊ QUỲNH HOA, Ph D.

Danang, 2015

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby certify this thesis “An Investigation into the Sub-categories of

“Attitude” in the book The World Is Flat by Thomas L Friedman from the

Perspective of Appraisal Theory” is my own work No other person’s work

has been used without the acknowledgement in the thesis

This paper has not been submitted for the award of any degree ordiploma in any other tertiary institution

Danang, 2015

Lê Thị Vân Hồng

The present study explores sub-categories of Attitude -Affect, Judgementand Appreciation- in the book “The World is Flat” by Thomas L Friedman inthe light of Appraisal Theory The study aims to investigate the syntactic andsemantic realizations of Attitude sub-categories from 358 samples collectedfrom the book The thesis employed the descriptive method to fully describethe realizations of Attitude sub-categories in terms of syntax and semantics toobtain the setting goals The finding of the research demonstrate that Attitudesub-categories can be recognized in various group and phrase structures inwhich nominal groups and adjective groups are more favourable The studyalso works out typical functions of Attitude sub-categories as components intransitivity processes Semantically, the findings show that all Appraisalevaluating criteria were reflected in the book and significantly the positivevalues are dominant This is the interpersonal meaning which the bookcontributes to nurture its readers’ insights to the reality of the world in the era

of digital technology The study makes a significant contribution to ourunderstanding of the sub-categories of Attitude in the book and provides theteachers and university students majoring in English with practicalimplication to evaluate a discourse fragment and interpret a discoursefragment in the light of Appraisal Theory and in line with SystemicFunctional Linguistics

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS v

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 RATIONALE 1

1.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 4

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 5

1.3.1 Aims of the Study 5

1.3.2 Objectives of the Study 5

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 6

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 8

2.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES 8

2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 12

2.2.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics 12

2.2.2 Appraisal Theory 15

2.2.3 Attitude as a Category Encoding Attitudinal Meaning 18

2.2.4 Syntactic Realizations of Attitude - Experimental Elements of Clause as Representation 28

2.2.5 Structures of Word Groups and Phrases 33

2.3 SUMMARY 39

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 40

3.2 RESEARCH METHODS 40

3.3 DATA COLLECTION 40

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS 41

3.5 RESEARCH PROCEDURE 42

3.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 42

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 43

4.1 SYNTACTIC REALIZATIONS OF ATTITUDE SUB-CATEGORIES43 4.1.1 Syntactic Realizations of Affect 43

4.1.2 Syntactic Realizations of Judgement 60

4.1.3 Syntactic Realizations of Appreciation 71

4.2 SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ATTITUDE RESOURCES IN THE BOOK “THE WORLD IS FLAT” IN VIEW OF APPRAISAL 88

4.2.1 Semantic Features of Affect Markers 88

4.2.2 Semantic Features of Judgement Markers 93

4.2.3 Semantic Features of Appreciation Markers 96

4.3 SUMMARY 103

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 105

5.1 CONCLUSIONS 105

5.2 IMPLICATIONS 106

5.2.1 To the Teachers 106

5.2.2 To the Learners 107

5.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 108

5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 108

REFERENCES 110 QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI (Bản sao)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TWF The World Is Flat

SFL Systemic Functional LinguisticSFG Systemic Functional Grammar(-) Negative attitude

(+) Positive attitude

Rq Appreciation: reaction-quality

LIST OF TABLES

No Names of Tables Page

2.5 The principle categories of ‘relational’ clause 31

4.2 Summary structures of Appreciation adjectival groups 834.3 Summary of group and phrase structures of Attitude sub-

4.9 Occurrence frequencies of Affect semantic values 934.10 Occurrence frequencies of Judgement semantic values 964.11 Occurrence frequencies of Appreciation semantic values 1004.12 Summary of semantic realizations of Attitude sub-categories 101

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Judgement and Appreciation as institutionalized affect 26

2.4 Material process in active and passive clause 30

2.11 Nominal group, showing multivariate structure 36

2.13 Verbal group with marked polarity and contrastive tense 37

4.4 Affect nominal groups as Possessed in Possessive relational

process

51

4.5 Affect nominal groups as Goal in Material process 524.6 Affect nominal groups as Existent in Existential process 524.7 Affect nominal groups as Attributor in Existential process 534.8 Summary structures of Affect adjectival groups 574.9 Affect adjectival groups as Attributes in Attributive

4.14 Judgement nominal groups in Relational process 644.15 Judgement nominal groups in marked Relational process 65

4.16 Judgement nominal groups in Possessive relational

4.19 Judgement adjectival groups as Attributes in Attributive

relational processes with Anticipatory “It”

A new world where the worldwide cooperative relationships are fostered hasbeen being nurtured In this situation, every country, even the most developedone, is facing plenty of competitive challenges which require necessaryknowledge about the times to adapt well to modern life.

Fortunately, one of the most successful books about the trend ofintegration and globalization, “The World Is Flat” (hereafter TWF), has beenintroduced to the readers as a useful source of reference The book was written

by Friedman, T.L., a New York Times columnist, and first published in 2005

by Farrar, Straus and Giroux Publishing House It describes the relationshipbetween countries, communities, organizations and individuals in the age ofinformation and technology advance The world is metaphorically implied flatbecause different aspects of social life in the world have been happening inmore equal relationships The world is flattening in terms of geography,

economy, politics, etc People in different spheres are no longer in the curve ofthe earth because they can see each other in the cyber world Economicallycompetitive relationships are being replaced by the cooperative ones.Developing nations, medium and small enterprises or even people in lowersocial statuses have emerged to become the partners of the other ranks Evenpolitical barriers have been gradually broken down Digital technology is beingfully employed and it brings opportunities to change the world

Consisting mainly of personal observations and anecdotes, the fiction book TWF ingeniously explains how the flattening of the worldhappened at the dawn of the twenty-first century By means of amusingstories about big corporations and enterprises such as Wal-Mart, UPS, Dell,JetBlue and many others related to his basic theme, the author introduced ten

non-flatteners - factors that change the situation of the world such as outsourcing,

offshoring, and “supply chaining” Also, he wrote about two key trends: theadoption of more collaborative business processes and the addition of threebillion Chinese and Indian consumers to the global marketplace It is by this

“triple convergence” that he shows the flattening of the world over the lastdecades and the changes in international cooperation and integration Itprovides beneficial update information of the real situation of the world inglobalization and integration process

The newest edition of TWF was published in August, 2007 by PicadorPublishing House In this new edition, Friedman, T.L included fresh storiesand insights to help us understand the flattening of the world He added twonew chapters on how to be activist and social entrepreneur in a flat world andhow to manage our reputations and privacy in a world where we are allbecoming publishers and public figures

In the book, Friedman, T.L demystified the brave new world in the

phase of globalization He helped the readers to make sense of the oftenbewildering global scene unfolding before their eyes with his inimitableability to turn complex foreign policy and economic issues into more simpleones He exposed his profound and deeply important insights about thephenomenon in the global context which to some extent help to make thepublic conceptual shift about the reality of the world The book opened a newdoor for countries, companies, communities, and individuals to come into anew domain and suggested the way governments and societies can and mustadapt to achieve their goals With such significant contributions, the book was

awarded the inaugural Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of

the Year Award in 2005 It also became one of the international best-selling

books in the years 2005 and 2006 In The New York Times reviewing The

World Is Flat in 2005, the Nobel laureate Joseph E Stiglitz remarked "One

mark of a great book is that it makes you see things in a new way, and Mr.Friedman certainly succeeds in that goal"

In recent years, researching linguistic objectives in the framework ofAppraisal Theory proposed by Martin and his colleagues has becoming moreand more popular To linguistic disciplines such as discourse analysis, appliedlinguistics and other related fields, this new linguistic theory contributes anapproach to examine how speakers or writers express their opinions for thingsand ideas The theory which develop the model of personal meaning withinthe paradigms of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) helps to furtherexplore the interpersonal meaning of language in the scope of discourse aswell as rhetoric and communicative effects by judging the speakers’/writers’stance and their communication messages in the relation to thehearers/readers, Appraisal theory addresses not only the means by which

speakers/writers overtly encode what they present as their own attitudes butalso the means by which they more indirectly activate evaluative stance andposition the readers/listeners to supply their own assessments Theseevaluations reveal both speakers’/writers’ feelings and their status or authority

as construed by the text [22, p.2] Therefore, this is a potential approach todiscover the attitude, the evaluation as well as the personal meaning a speakerimplies in his words With a non-fiction book like TWF where the stance andauthority of the author are revealed, this approach is applicable

A desire to have further insights into what Attitudinal linguistic devicesare realized in the book, how they convey the author’s viewpoints andconstrue the interpersonal meaning has inspired us to develop the research

entitled “An Investigation into the Sub-categories of “Attitude” in the

book The World Is Flat by Thomas L Friedman from the Perspective of

Appraisal Theory”

1.2 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

- Appraisal Theory is defined as an elaborate system is developed from

the overarching framework of systemic functional linguistics by Martin andWhite [22] It refers to the grammatical and lexical resources for expressingevaluation The theory is concerned with how text producers construeparticular authorial identities for themselves, how authors align/disalignthemselves with actual or potential respondents and how writers or speakersconstruct an ideal audience for their texts

- Attitude refers to a domain of Appraisal which is concerned with our

feelings including emotional reactions, judgement of behaviour andevaluation of things It is divided into three regions of feeling namely Affect,Judgement, Appreciation

- Affect is an emotive dimension of Attitude which is concerned with

positive and negative feelings

- Judgement deals with attitudes toward people and the way they behave

which we admire, criticize, praise or condemn

- Appreciation involves evaluations of semiotic and natural phenomena

according to the ways in which they are valued or not in a given field

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Aims of the Study

The study primarily aims at investigating the syntactic and semanticrealizations of the three sub-categories of Attitude namely Affect, Judgement,and Appreciation in the book TWF The findings of the study, then, willprobably help the teachers and university students majoring in Englishincrease their knowledge about how to evaluate a discourse and to someextent enable them to interpret a discourse in light of Appraisal Theory

1.3.2 Objectives of the Study

The study is intended to:

- To identify the different sub-categories of Attitude used in the book TWF

- To recognize the syntactic and semantic realizations of Attitude sub-types

- To realize the occurrence frequencies of each type

- To offer some implications in teaching and learning sub-categories ofAttitude in English

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study attempted to answer the following research questions:

1 What are the syntactic realizations of Affect, Judgement andAppreciation as the sub-categories of Attitude in TWF?

2 What are the semantic realizations of the above mentioned categories of Attitude in TWF?

sub-1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

As a new theory developed within the paradigms of SFL, AppraisalTheory helps to provide an analytical tool for linguistic researchers to betterunderstand the issues associated with evaluative linguistic devices and thenegotiation of intersubjective positions, and opens a new area of interpersonalmeaning The thesis, which is an application of this theory to linguisticresearch, presents an exploration of syntactic and semantic realizations ofAffect, Judgment and Appreciation as Attitude sub-categories in the bookTWF The study is hoped to make a certain contribution to both linguisticsand pedagogy domains In the aspect of linguistics, the paper may add to acomprehensive understanding of attitude linguistic devices included in thebook Also, the result of the research is expected to dedicate to ourunderstanding of language development Pedagogically, it is hoped that thethesis can be a source of reference for those who teach and study English inhigher education institutes

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Appraisal Theory with three categories of Attitude, Engagement andGraduation is an approach which enables to explore, describe and explain theway language is used to evaluate, to adopt stances, to construct textualpersonas and to manage interpersonal positioning and relationships.Therefore, the theory may be potentially employed to study a wide range ofaspects such as linguistic features, application of the theory in teaching andlearning English However, the thesis is limited in the study of syntactic andsemantic realizations of the three Attitude sub-categories Affect, Judgementand Appreciation appearing in the book TWF

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The study is organized into five chapters as followed:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter presents the rationale, the aims and objectives, the scope, theresearch questions, the signification as well as the organization of the study

Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Background

This chapter consists of two parts The first one is a review of previousstudies relating to the investigated problem The second is concerned withtheoretical knowledge related to issues under study

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter presents research design, research methodology, datacollection, data analysis and research procedure It also includes the reliabilityand validity of the thesis

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion

This chapter is concerned with the work of discovering realizations ofsub-categories of Attitude in “The World Is Flat” in terms of syntax andsemantics Also, the occurrence frequencies of each sub-type are drawn out

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications

This chapter presents the conclusions and a summary of major findings,the implications of the study results in teaching and learning English inVietnam, the limitations of the study and some suggestions for furtherresearch related to the study

works: The Language of Evaluation- Appraisal in English, published in 2005

by Palgrave MacMilan The major concerns of Appraisal Theory include howwriters or speakers express their stance toward the things or ongoing events inthe world, how they express their agreement or disagreement with thepotential responses form the other readers, and how they establish andstrengthen their identities in a text or a discourse The function practiced byappraisal items in a discourse is to help writers or speakers to express theirevaluation, negotiate their relationship with the respondents, and establishtheir persona Appraisal Theory also provides a new approach which operatesthe evaluation in a somehow different way from other modals existing beforewhich mainly dealt with evaluation in relation to propositions and narratives

by Ocha & Schiefflen 1989, Biber& Finnegan 1989, Bybee & Fleischman

1995, Conrad & Biber 2000, Hunston & Thompson 2000a [22, p.38] With

Appraisal Theory, we move to a range of other educationally significant genreand casual conversation Most importantly, within the general framework ofSFL, the theory helps to prove an approach to deal with evaluation wasdeveloped in the context of the rich developing descriptions ofphonology/graphology and signing, lexicogrammar, discourse semantics,register and genre and multimodality [22, p.40]

Up to now, Appraisal Theory has attracted much attention of many known English scholars A variety of studies have been conducted in various

well-fields, some of the most typical of which are Talking with readers:

Meta-Discourse as Rhetorical Act by Crismore [3], Evaluation in Texts: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse by Hunston and Thompson [13] The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English by Martin and White [22],

and Working with Discourse: Meaning Beyond the Clause by Martin and

Rose [21] etc A large number of articles were published to propose, discuss

and clarify the matters within the domain of Appraisal, including Beyond

exchange: Appraisal system in English by Martin [20], Beyond modality and Hedging: a dialogic view of the language of intersubjective stance by White

[32], Stance and Engagement: a model of instruction in academic discourse

by Hyland [14], Annotating Expressions of Appraisal in English by Read et al

[29], etc These publications focus on a certain areas of Appraisal such asmetadiscourse, stance, evaluation, and basic concepts of the theory and theyprovide us an overall picture about the theoretical background of Appraisal inuse

Since the Appraisal Theory was developed from Systemic FunctionalLinguistic by Martin and White, it has been adopted as a new approach tolinguistic study and the Appraisal framework has been applied to other areas

In the doctoral dissertation named “Construction of Evaluative Measuring in

IELTS Writing: an Intersubjective and Intertextual Perspective”, Nakamura

[25] applied the framework of Appraisal as a theory of language as a socialsystem for making meaning to study evaluative interpersonal meaningwritings by IELTS candidates via the Appraisal resources used in the texts In

Appraisal in Online Discussions of Literature Texts, Love [18] investigated

Australian students’ online response to the teacher about a postmodernistnarrative in the Appraisal framework The study shows the value of Appraisalanalysis as a diagnostic tool in art curriculum and cultural contexts Liu [17]implied the Appraisal Theory in her reading teaching for college students in

An Application of Appraisal Theory to Teaching College Reading in China.

The results showed that teaching reading in Appraisal approach is animportant strategy which helps develop students’ critical ability and supplyteachers with a new perspective to teach reading

Furthermore, a variety of studies which was conducted in the light ofAppraisal mainly focused on media discourses Juana and Begona [16]explored the engagement patterns in journalistic commentary and news inEnglish and Spanish in terms of writer stance and the dimension of

(inter)subjectivity in “Evaluation and Engagement in Journalistic

Commentary and News Reportage” The presence and patterning of various

linguistic resources and the comparison across languages are results of the

study In “Exploring the Dialogism of Academic Discourse: Heteroglossic

Engagement in Medical Research Articles” Fryer [6] indicated a variety of Engagement resources used the articles and their distributions both across and

within different sections of the articles

Also, studies on sub-categories of Attitude are in favour of media discourses In “Attitudinal Analysis of VOA and BBC News Report in the

Light of Appraisal Theory”, Wang [31] analyzed the attitudinal meaning of

radio news report in VOA and BBC using the Appraisal system with a view

to revealing what linguistic elements realizes the Appraisal meaning andespecially what attitudinal value is of frequent occurrence in the two differenttypes of radio news report The study came to the conclusion that in theAttitude system, Affect turns to be the least presentation; implicit Judgementshows less distribution than explicit Judgement; and more Appreciationsoccur rather than Judgement and Affect Ju [15] applied the Appraisal theory,particularly the sub-system of Attitude to analyzing Political Editorials in

American Newspaper in “Appraisal Analysis of Political Editorials in

American Newspaper” The study finds that the distributions and values of

the resources are different in political editorials and all serve for the purpose

of political editorials Besides, the study shows that the values of resourcesmay be related to the American cultural background and ideology

For Vietnamese linguistic researchers, applying the Appraisal frameworkinto linguistic researches has gradually become a new trend In his Ph.D

dissertation, “Style, Structure, and Ideology in English and Vietnamese

Business Hard News Reporting”, Vo Duy Duc [30] compared and contrasted

patterns in ideological positions and orientations in the business newsreporting of English language versus Vietnamese in the framework ofAppraisal and provided an insight of presenting news texts in both languages Learners of MA courses in Vietnam have not fully applied this theory intheir study Some certain aspects have been employed in other frameworksrather than Appraisal or applied the Appraisal framework to some extent In

his MA thesis, “Proclaim Markers in English and Vietnamese on the

Appraisal Framework”, Nguyen Van Khoi [26] focused on the syntactic,

semantic and pragmatic features of Proclaim markers in epistemic modalityand evidentiality, speech acts, force dynamics, politeness principles and

dialogistic view Also, Ho Long Ngoc [12] investigated the Disclaim markers

in the light of Appraisal in “A Study of Disclaim Markers in English and

Vietnamese” The study provides a collection of linguistic devices of Disclaim

in structures of verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns in both English and

Vietnamese Furthermore, Tran Huu Thuan [28] with “A Study of

Appreciation in Football Commentaries in English and Vietnamese”

classified and analyzed commentaries in three subcategories: reaction,composition, and valuation and helps valuate the beauty of language Anotherlatest researcher, Nguyen Thanh Tam [27] adopted the Appraisal Theory of

Judgement in her study “A Study of the Semantic Features of Explicit

Judgements in Political Speeches in American English” to examine the

semantic features of English political speeches The conclusions of explicitjudgement in view of Epithet, Illocutionary force, social esteem and socialsanction are helpful to English teachers and learners

To sum up, in the light of Appraisal, a large number of researches havebeen conducted in various subfields and on a variety of materials However,there have never been any insights into the sub-categories of Attitudecategory for a literature discourse fragment in Vietnam for the time being Aninvestigation into the Attitude systems of non-fictions like TWF has not beenthe focus of any researches This study is expected to fill in this gap

2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.2.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a school of linguisticsdeveloped by Halliday in 1960s [22] It is a linguistic school which considerslanguage as a social semiotic system in which language exists and evolves inconstantly changing contexts of human interaction The term “systemic”refers to the view regarding language as a network of systems or interrelated

sets of options for making meanings Additionally, “functional” denotes to thefunctions that language system has to serve Language function can berecognized on the structure and organization of language of all levels.Therefore, Halliday focused on exploring “both how people use language indifferent contexts and how language is structured for use as a semioticsystem” [4]

To deal with the syntactic forms of language, Systemic FunctionalGrammar (SFG) was introduced Different from traditional grammar, “theway in which a language is organized” [2], SFG attempts to explain anddescribe the organization of the “meaning-making resources” [10] we use toexpress meanings and perform various functions in different contexts andsituations of our daily lives SFG analyzes language as a resource for makingmeaning from the view point of meaning basing on extensive written orspoken texts Language consists of a set of system which offers thespeaker/writer choices in expressing meaning Such choices are made from aset of systems containing structures which allow us unlimited ways ofcreating meaning [1] and our experience of the world, of text types andsocially, culturally bounded situations help us build a schemata of thesesystems SFG encodes three modes of meaning which operate simultaneously

in all utterances namely the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual

In terms of semantics, language in SFL simultaneously takes over threefunctions called metafunctions namely ideational, interpersonal and textualfunctions Ideational function helps explore the ideational meaning oflanguage It is regarded as “content function of language” [5, p.73] Itanalyzes human experience through the means by which we make thebroadest sense of the world and is involved with Clauses as Representation.Ideational resources are concerned with experience: what is going on,

including who is doing what to whom, where, when, why and how and thelogical relation of one going on to another Interpersonal function isconcerned with negotiating social relations especially the relation betweenspeaker and hearer It indicates how people interacting including the feelingthey try to share In other words, it conveys how language is used to expressjudgement and attitudes This function of language is related to clause asexchange, which is interpreted as interactive speech roles or communicativefunctions Halliday [10] suggests by means of interpersonal function we areable to establish and maintain relations with people, to influence theirbehaviour, to express our attitude toward what we say and other beings in theworld and to explicit changes in others Textual megafunction is about theverbal world, especially the flow of information in a text and it is concernedwith clause as message Halliday [9, p.97] describes it as the “relevance” orthe enabling function which is concerned with how a text is organized as aclause through the process of thememasation Two elements in this processare Theme and Rheme The first serves as the point of departure of themessage while the latter is a part to develop the first Eggins [4, p.275] claimsthat the Theme typically contains familiar or given information, namely theinformation which has been given somewhere in the text or familiar from thecontext SFG is, thus, a study of meaning construction through system oflexical-grammar choices that serve functions within social and culturalcontexts.

In the level of discourse semantics, interpersonal meaning covers threesmaller systems: negotiation which focuses on the interactive aspects ofdiscourse, speech functions and exchange structures, involvement which dealswith non-gradable resources for negotiating tenor relation and appraisal, ourmain focus theory

In the next section, we will further explore some considerable content ofAppraisal theory in the frame of SFL.

2.2.2 Appraisal Theory

a Appraisal Theory in Line with SFL

Appraisal is a model of evaluation evolved within the general theoreticalframework of SFL It is an extension of linguistic theories of Halliday and hiscolleagues to develop a comprehensive way to analyze evaluation indiscourse by a group of Functional linguists in Sydney in the late 1980s andearly 1990s Along with involvement and negotiation, appraisal is one of thethree major discourse semantic resources construing interpersonal meaning.According to Martin and White [22], Appraisal is defined as an approach toexploring, describing and explaining the way language is used to evaluate, toadopt stances, to construct textual and to manage interpersonal positioningand relationship

It is located as “an interpersonal system at the level of discoursesemantics” [22, p.33] Therefore, the Appraisal system offers a functionalmodel of interpersonal meaning at this level describing how socialrelationships are negotiated through evaluations of self, other and artifacts.The Theory of Appraisal comprises of 3 semantic areas termed Attitude,Engagement and Graduation as shown in the following figure adapted from[22, p.38]:

Figure 2.1 An overview of Appraisal resources [22, p.38]

b The Category of Engagement

Engagement is concerned with the linguistic resources by which speaker/writer adopt a stance toward the value position referenced by the text and withrespect to those they address [22, p.92] It is related to the way discourse’sinterpersonal and ideational meanings negotiate The engagement network iscovered by both monoglossic and heteroglossic

Monoglossic is the factual utterances or bare assert in which have noreference and no recognition of dialogistic alternative It is just the simpledeclaration without any variation Martin amd White [22] claim thatmonoglossic resource is about “the speaker’s commitment to the truth-value

of their utterances” Heteroglossic, recognition of dialogistic alternative, isconcerned with multiple choices It allows the speaker to “characterize theirutterances less than factual or less than certain knowledge” [22, p.102].Monoglossis makes no reference to other voices while Heteroglossis allowsfor dialogistic alternative

Heteroglossia can be divided into two sub-categories, Dialogic

Expansion and Dialogic Contraction The former is supposed to “open up”

the dialogue space for alternative positions That is, it invites or at leastentertains dialogic alternatives and lowers the interpersonal cost of theadvance alternative On the contrary, the latter has the opposite effect whichcloses down the space for alternative positions The grammar of reportedspeech is usually employed in this Heteroglossic sub-category and thereby the

“true” or “valid” authorial voice can align itself with the other voicesintroduced as the source of the proposition

Dialogic Expansion can be further judged in such terms as Entertain andAttribute Entertain refers to wordings which indicates that the authorial voice

is just one of a number of possible positions via modal, via modal adjuncts,via modal attributes, via certain mental verbs/attribute projections

While construing dialogistic backdrops for the text of other voices andother positions, dialogically contractive utterances may be classified intoDisclaim - meanings by which some dialogic alternative is directly rejected orsupplanted or is represented as not applying - and Proclaim - meanings bywhich, through some authorial interpolation, emphasis or intervention,dialogic alternatives are confronted, challenged, overwhelmed or otherwiseexcluded

c The Category of Attitude

Attitude is one of sub-systems of Appraisal Theory which refers to “ourfeelings, including emotional reactions, judgement of behaviours andevaluation of things” [22, p.35] The system of meanings as Attitude is aframework for mapping feeling as they are construed in texts It is concernedwith emotional responses, judgement of human behaviours and evaluation ofproducts and processes

Attitude itself is divided into three sub-categories, namely Affect,Judgement and Appreciation As the basic framework of this study, Attitude

and its sub-categories will be further explained in the next section

d The Category of Graduation

Different from the two sub-systems mentioned above, Graduation isconcerned with adjusting the degree of evaluation – how strong or weak thefeeling is [22, p.37] Graduation is essential in the process of construingmeaning in which every attitudinal meaning is characterized by itsgradability It operates across two axes of scalability which grade the degree

in the aspect of intensity or amount and termed as Force and Focus.Graduation affects both Attitude and Engagement in the account of either up-scaling or down-scaling [22, p.135]

Focus deals with scalar categories gradable according to either intensity/amount or prototypicality In terms of intensity/amount, graduationexemplifies assessments of scalar or size, vigour, extent, proximity etc Prototypical graduation, however, deals with meanings which is operated inexperiential taxonomies where category membership is more or less preciselydetermined by some combination of sufficient and necessary conditions.Force refers to the assessment to the degree of intensity or the amount of thevalue realized via the two sub-categories namely Intensification andQualification

In a literary works which reflects numerous comments on the topic ofglobalization like TWF, Attitude outnumbers the other sub-systems.Therefore, it is chosen as the main focus of the study and is explained indetail in the following section

2.2.3 Attitude as a Category Encoding Attitudinal Meaning

As one of the sub-system of Appraisal, Attitude is a system of meaningsinvolving in three semantic domains traditionally referred to as emotion,ethics and aesthetics Attitude is divided into the sub-types: Affect -

expression about the feelings of human beings, Judgement - evaluation aboutthe characters and behaviours of human beings and Appreciation - assessmentwith the value of things.

a The Sub-category Affect

Affect is considered to be positioned at the heart of the discoursesemantic system of Attitude It is referred as resources for expressing feeling

or author’s emotion as represented by the texts It evaluates an entity, aprocess or a state of affair emotionally Affect is typically realized throughvarious lexical items include:

Verbs of emotion: (e.g You offer pleases me, I hate chocolate.)

Modal adjuncts (e.g Sadly, the government has decided to abandon its

commitment to the comprehensive school system.)

Adjectives of emotion (e.g I am sad you’ve decided to do that.)

Nominalization (e.g His fear was obvious to all.)

Martin and White [22] suggest six factors that are applicable tocategorize Affect They are cultural vibes, emerging emotion, reaction tospecific emotional phenomena and a general mood or Undirected Mood, thescale of feelings, the intention or reaction

On the ground of those criteria, Martin and White [22] divide affectemotion groups into four major sets namely un/happiness, in/security,dis/satisfaction and dis/inclination The un/happiness includes “affairs of theheart” which deal with the mood of feelings-sadness, hate, happiness and love.The in/security covers emotions concerned with eco-social well-being – anxiety,fear, confidence and trust - in relation to the environment Dis/satisfaction dealswith our feelings of achievement and frustration in relation to the activity inwhich we are engaged, including our roles as both participants and spectators.Dis/inclination refers to such feelings as desire or fear

b The Sub-category Judgement

Judgement is the domain of meaning which construes our attitude topeople or their behaviour [22] It covers meaning to evaluate human andhuman behaviour either positively or negatively by reference to a set ofconventional norms Judgement evaluates human behaviours as moral orimmoral, legal or illegal, socially acceptable or unacceptable, normal orabnormal etc It is a sort of language to criticize, praise, condemn or applaudthe actions, deeds, beliefs of human individual or groups

In general terms, Judgement, as Martin and White [22] view, can bedivided into Social Esteem and Social Sanction The former deals with thevalues formed in social network They show the ways we admire or criticizehow unusual someone is - Normality, how capable they are - Capacity andhow resolute they are - Tenacity Social Sanction, however, refers to theattitudes toward behaviours as praising or condemning values qualified ascivic duty or religious observances It is judged with Veracity - how honest abehaviour is, Propriety - how a behaviour is far beyond reproach It can beseen that Judgement is highly restricted by cultural and ideological values.Like Affect, the values of Judgement may be positive or negative Therealizations can be illustrated in the table below However, the range ofmeanings listed is not exhausted and lexical items will vary the attitudinalmeanings according to the use context

Table 2.1 Judgement - Social Esteem

lucky, fortunate, charmed,

normal, natural, familiar, ;

cool, stable, predictable,

in, fashionable, avant garde,

powerful, vigorous, robust,

sound, healthy, fit,

adult, mature, experienced,

witty, humorous, droll,

insightful, clever, gifted,

balanced, together, sane,

sensible, expert, shrewd,

literate, educated, learned,

competent, accomplished,

successful, productive,

mild, weak, whimpy,

unsound, sick, crippled, immature, childish, helpless,

dull, dreary, grave,

slow, stupid, thick,

flaky, neurotic, insane, nạve, inexpert, foolish, illiterate, uneducated, ignorant,

incompetent, unaccomplished,

unsuccessful, unproductive,

Tenacity

How

dependaple?

plucky, brave, heroic,

cautious, wary, patient,

careful, thorough, meticulous,

tireless, persevering, resolute,

reliable, dependable,

faithful, loyal, constant,

flexible, adaptable, accommodating,

timid, cowardly, gutless, rash, impatient, impetuous, hasty, capricious, reckless, weak, distracted,

despondent,

unreliable, undependable, unfaithful, disloyal,

inconstant,

stubborn, obstinate, willful,

Table 2.2 Judgement - Social Sanction

truthful, honest, credible,

frank, candid, direct,

discrete, tactful,

dishonest, deceitful, lying, deceptive, manipulative, devious,

good, moral, ethical,

law abiding, fair, just,

sensitive, kind, caring,

unassuming, modest, humble,

polite, respectful, reverent,

altruistic, generous, charitable,

bad, immoral, evil,

corrupt, unfair, unjust,

insensitive, mean, cruel, vain, snobby, arrogant,

rude, discourteous, irreverent,

selfish, greedy, avaricious,

White [33] shows that in discourse Judgement values can be recognized

in such forms as Adverbials, Attribute and Epithet, Nominal and Verbal.Hereby are the typical realizations

Adverbial: justly, fairly, virtuously, honestly, pluckily, indefatigably,

cleverly, stupidly, eccentrically

Attribute and Epithet: a corrupt politician, a skillful performer, truly

eccentric behavior, that was dishonest, don’t be cruel, she’s very brave

Norminal: a brutal tyrant, a cheat and a liar, a hero, a genius, a marverick Verbal: to cheat, to deceive, to sin, to lust after, to chicken out, to

triumph

Besides, Judgement is grammatically realized in the system ofmodalization [16] By constructing a series of realizations for probability,

usuality, and capacity with congruent realizations and pushed throughmetaphorical realization toward lexis, modalizations can be related tolexicalized Judgement of all kinds

c The Subcategory Appreciation

Appreciation is the last sub-system of Attitude by which evaluation aremade of procedures and processes Martin and Rose [21, p.24] regardAppreciation as “resources for valuing the worth of things” It deals withthings we make, performances we give and also natural phenomena Thevalues taken into consideration may be either aesthetic ones or non-aesthetic

“social valuation” referring to such meanings which is significant andharmful The typical materials to be evaluated may be natural objects,artificial objects, texts and abstract constructs like plans and policies Evenhuman may also be evaluated by means of appreciation as entities rather thanparticipants

Martin and White [22] categorize Appreciation into three sub-types:Reaction, Composition and Valuation

Reaction denotes to the evaluation of a product or process in the aspects

of the impact and quality it leaves on the readers, listeners or viewers by theorientation to interpersonal significance

Composition is applied to evaluate a product or process according to itsmake-up, according to whether it conforms to various conventions ofstructural organization It is oriented to textual organization and describes thetexture of an object in terms of complexity and detail

Under the sub-type Valuation, an object, a product or a process isevaluated according to a variety of social norms to justify whether it isworthwhile Under social conventions, criteria to evaluate are distinctive

between different domains That is, the valuation of one field will not beapplicable or relevant in another.

Like both Affect and Judgement, values of Appreciation have eitherpositive or negative status - good versus bad, exciting versus boring,harmonious versus discordant, etc [20] and these features cover all of thesub-types The table below illustrates the realizations of Appreciation sub-categories in detail

Table 2.3 Types of Appreciation

lively, dramatic, intense,

remarkable, notable, sensational,

dull, boring, tedious,

dry, ascetic, uninviting, flat, predictable,

okay, fine, good, ;

lovely, beautiful, splendid, ;

appealing, enchanting, welcome, ;

bad, yuk, nasty, ;

plain, ugly, grotesque, ;repulsive, revolting, off-putting, ;

shapely, curvaceous, willowy,

unbalanced, discordant, irregular, uneven, flawed, ;contradictory, disorganized, ;shapeless, amorphous,

simple, pure, elegant, ;

licid, clear, precise, ;

intricate, rich, detailed, precise, ;

ornate, extravagant, byzantine, ;

arcane, unclear, wooly, ;plain, monolithic, simplisticValuation

‘was it

worthwhile?’

penetrating, profound, deep, ;

innovative, original, creative, ;

timely, long waited,

shallow, reductive, insignificant, ;

derivative, conventional,

landmark, ;

inimitable, exceptional, unique, ;

authentic, real, genuine, ;

valuable, priceless, worthwhile, ;

appropriate, helpful, effective,

prosaic, ;

dated, overdue, untimely, ;dime-a-dozen, everyday, common, fake, bogus, glitzy, ;

worthless, shoddy, pricey, ;ineffective, useless, write-off,

Affect, Judgement and Appreciation encode the attitudinal meaning inthe domain of Attitude Affect, which can be taken as the heart of thisdomain, is concerned with emotional response and disposition whileJudgement focuses on the assessment of human’s behaviour by reference to aset of institutionalized convention and Appreciation is about evaluation ofthings, of concrete, natural objects, products and processes Taken intoconsideration in the uncommon sense worlds of shared community value,Judgement and Appreciation may be regarded as institutionalized feelings.Judgement deals with feelings in the realm of proposals about behaviour -how we should behave or not Appreciation, on the other hand, reworksfeelings as propositions about the value of things - what value they are worth

In reality, a lexical item of Affect may be rephrased in Judgement orAppreciation meanings When emotional values towards people’s behaviourare institutionalized, they become Judgement values; otherwise,institutionalization of feeling towards aesthetics and values of “things”become appreciation values The orientation may be outlined as follows

Figure 2.2 Judgement and Appreciation as institutionalized affect [22, p.45]

For example:

(1) Affect: To my surprise, students performed the role play with wild

enthusiasm

(2) Judgement : The students are so surprising that they performed the

role play with wild enthusiasm

(3) Appreciation: The enthusiastic students performed a surprising role

play in the class

In (1), “surprise” functions as Affect which denotes the author’s emotion

to the state of affair However, in (2) “surprising” assesses the students’behaviour and in (3) evaluates the value of “the role play” So, a lexical itemshould be judged in the linguistic context to be confirmed the attitudinalvalues

Martin and White [22] suggest frames to distinguish the borders of thethree attitudinal sub-categories For Affect, a useful distinguishing frame is a

relational attributive process with a conscious participant involving the verb feel:

Affect:

{ person feel Affect about something}

{it makes person feel Affect that [proposition]}

For example:

-I feel happy that they’ve come.

-It makes me happy that they’ve come.

For Judgement, a relational attributive process ascribing an attitude tosome people’s behavior is useful

Judgement:

{it was Judgement for/of a person to do that}

{[for a person] to do that was a Judgement}

For example:

-It was silly of them to do that.

-(For them) to do that was silly.

For Appreciation, a mental process describes an attitude to a thing/aperson can be used as a diagnostic

Appreciation:

{Person consider something Appreciation}

{Person see something as Appreciation}

For example:

-I consider it beautiful.

-They see it as beautiful.

In summary, the Appraisal system is concerned with the linguisticresources by which the speaker/writer can offer a positive or negativeassessment of people, things, states of affairs and processes Furthermore, ofthe three broad domains of the Appraisal system, Attitude is useful to identifyand analyze a speaker/writer’s attitudinal resources, so it can be applicable for

investigating the semantic features of the attitude construed in the book TWF.

2.2.4 Syntactic Realizations of Attitude - Experimental Elements of Clause as Representation

Language is a semiotic system which can be realized at three levels ofabstraction including phonology and graphology, lexicogrammar, anddiscourse semantics as illustrated in the following figure

Figure 2.3 Language strata [22, p.9]

The most concrete of these, phonology and graphology, deals with theorganization of phonemes into syllables combining with rhythm andintonation in spoken forms and the combination of letters into words andsentences in writing The second level, lexicogrammar, is concerned with theformation of words and structures in the same mechanism of the previouslevel The discourse semantic level which is concerned with the meaningsbeyond the clause focuses on aspects of discourse organization It isnoticeable that the more abstract level in this stratification is the recoding ofthe patterns of the lower level It is not made up of the lower level patterns,but it is recognized through them [22, p.9]

Located as an interpersonal system at the level of discourse semanticwithin the general theoretical framework of SFL, syntactic aspects ofAppraisal can be realized on the basis of SFG [22, p.7] In SFG, the semanticorganization of a clause may be interpreted in three aspects namely Clause asMessage, Clause as Exchange and Clause as Representation Clause asMessage shows the meaning of a clause in its functions as a message andanalyzes the clause itself as a two-part structure with the elements Theme andRheme Clause as Exchange considers the meaning of a clause in itsinteractional meaning The language in a clause is organized in this way asMood and Residue In Clause as Representation, the meaning of a clause isinterpreted by the content of the language it includes, which demonstrateswhat the speaker has experienced or what he wants to reflect In this aspect,the clause is analyzed as Processes through the grammar of the clauses Forthe sub-system Attitude of Appraisal, which shows the experience of thespeakers/writers to the things, Clause as Representation can be applied tojudge its realizations Below are some main points of Clause asRepresentation which is worthy of our consideration.

Usually, the framework of a process, as Halliday [14] points out, consistspotentially of three components: (1) Process, (2) Participants in the processand (3) Circumstances associated with the process These components liebehind the grammatical distinction of different word classes which isprobably universal among human languages as expressed in the followingtable adapted from Halliday [9, p.102]

Table 2.4 Typical functions of group and phrase classes

(1) Process

(2) Participant

(3) Circumstance

verbal groupnominal groupadverbial group or preposition phraseThe point may be explicit by the Figure 2.3 below

The lion chased the tourist lazily through the

bushParticipant Process Participant Circumstanc

prepositionphrase

Figure 2.3 Components of a process

However, components of a process may vary in different types ofprocess A process of a clause is typically recognized by the verbal groupincluded Therefore, with a variety of verb types, we have variouscorrespondent processes By and large, clauses are likely to be recognized asone of the following processes

Material processes, processes of “doing” and “happening”, express thenotion that some entity “does” something in active structures or somethingmay be ‘done” or “happen” to some other entity in passive ones Primaryelements included in the process are Actor, Process and Goal as illustratedbelow

The lion Catch the tourist The tourist was caught by the lion

Figure 2.4 Material process in active and passive clause

Mental processes, processes of “sensing”, are concerned with ourexperience of the world of our own consciousness They denote to our feeling,thinking or perceiving Main elements in the Mental processes include Senser– the conscious being that is feeling, thinking or seeing , Phenomenon- what

is felt, thought or seen and Phenomenon which constitute the principle types as Perception (seeing, hearing, etc.), Affection (liking, fearing etc.),Cognition (thinking, knowing, understanding, etc.) and Volition (wanting,