Quick study academic chemistry 600dpi

, I H TI = 1.01 N = 94 SYMBOL 9.01 11 ~ATOMC H NUMBER U II II No '"= WEIGHT 22.99 24.31 II = Of II = C 10.8 12.01 K 21 22 Cr Mn Fe 50.94 5200 54.94 55.85 42 43 47.88 37 38 3' 40 55 56 41 28 Co NI 58.93 58.69 45 Cu ., 63.55 28.09 31 Zn Go 32 15 10 P S 19.00 17 18 CI 30.97 32.07 33 35.45 39.95 3S 3S 34 Ge As 72.61 74.92 78.96 Br Se d:< y Z 65.39 69.72 At 54 95.94 97.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.29 , 74 Re 70 Os 77 Ir 79 78 80 Au PI 81 TI Hg 82 Pb Sb Te I d, as 84 83 Bi At Po - , (} ­ y' -O -"" 92.91 Cd Sn 53 52 9122 W In 51 83.80 88.91 73 Ag SO 4' 79.90 Tc To *x y.x d,y 20.18 Mo 72 Pd 26 98 30 16.00 10 F 14.01 4.00 Nb Hf Rh 29 Si N d -subshell orbitals Zr 57 Ru 27 AI • -.-­ Y la' 'fI Cs = 26 V 44.96 8762 25 24 Ti 40.08 85 47 23 Sc 39 10 Rb , 13 ATOMIC 1.008 20 B 12 19 I PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS ~x dy7 132.91 137.32 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.2 19020 192.22 19508 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 208.98 20999 222.02 114 110 111 117 118 87 104 lOS 106 107 108 109 110 112 113 115 8& 89 I Ac' Fr Rf 223 02 226.03 227.03 58 Ce Pr 60 Nd Db Bh Sg Hs MI 261 262 263 262 265 01 02 03 64 os Pm Sm Eu Tb Gd 266 Dy Os Uut lAsL 1W4 lAse.1"'" 281 272 07 Ho 277 O• Er Tm Doc i"" 284 289 70 71 Yb lu 140.12 140.91 144.24 14491 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 16250 16493 16726 168.93 17304 174.97 90 91 Po Th 92 '3 Np U 94 Pu 95 97 '0 Am Cm Bk 98 Cf 23204 231.04 238.05 23705 24406 243.06 247CJ1 24707 251 Es =al 101 100 Fm 102 Md No uU~I' 288 25710 25810 2&1.10 WIll ~5 2h ,,, " 289 293 subshell orbital 27 2K p - subshe/I orbitals ~~ 30 11 S- 12 33 34 v. _ 103 lr ~ " 22 23 24 Z Y~ r·l x s ATOMIC STRUCTURE A tomk Number, Z : # or protons in the nucleus: lor neutral a tom Z = # or e leclrol1 S; lor all ion ol' c harge -q Z fq cleclrons; for calion of charge +q Z-q electrons M ass Number,A: A= Z + N the number of nc utrons in the nuc leus Isotupes: Atol11s with the isotopes; any same Z , dinerent A An clement can have a !lumber sample contains a number of isotopes; in practical work, lise the aver­ ~ J\1ass Number or Atomic \Veight (\vc:ightcd average natural isotopes Ii)r a given element) or or n: principle L: angular mome nt um (orbital shape) m ,: magnet ic (orb ita l d irect ion) m : ci ectron spin For each 11 the possible values arc O I n-l; lor eac h I the po sible m , va lues arc -I .0 +/: n\ has two possible values : + II, and - '/, (spi n up spin down) Each val ue or n de notes a " shell" in th e al omic slruc­ ture : each I denotes a subs hcl l s-orbital : I =0 I type d-orb ita l: =2 types p-ur bita l: = types f-orbital: = lyres Cl.: l'illlll NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY N uclear reactions alter the nucleus: part ides ejected or absorbed Balance charge and mass-energy Energy (E) changes to mass (m) il,lIows Ihe Einstein Equatiun: E = mc' Nuclide Symbol: For clement X nuclei is symbolized by ", X or X-A (eg Deuterium ; H or H-2) Types uf processes: Transmutatiun: New clements made li'om particle collisions Fusion (small atol11s com bine): H-I + H-2 - > He-3 Fission (large atom splils): n +U-235 => Ba-145 + Kr-91 + n Radioactive decay: 0; decay (He nucleus): U-23S ==> a -I Th-234 ~ decay (energetic electron): 1-131 ==> Xc-131 + ~ 'Ydeca)' (photon): Accompanied by a,~ Characteri7-Cd by half-life: Time for halfofthc nuclei to decay r I [ First ton,zation Potential vs Z [ ! ~~~ g> H ~ iIi I Br to t5 2025 30 3540 Atomic Number ''',,'' i, ,,, n I ~ 15 ttt ,I-t-7 -~7'_c: 10 r1~-+_r~ A4 65 66 67 hX Pr I'rast.:odymiliin \Id ('m I\! l!Od \' 1l111 1111 ~ 1l1 S:IIll ~lriLlIn I"u I urnpillHl l id Ci adliliniuril rb TL'rhiul1\ Dy Iii, Eo- Iltllmium l)rU I1l~'lhI L!lll J) ys pn)~iurn I rbi Unl 69 70 71 Tm ItlX,lJ Thli lilllll Yh YllL'rhiUlI1 L li I II" 17.1.0 175.11 17X" Lulclillill 7.1 74 7, 71> Ta IX1l ~ Tanl allllll W IUS T Ullg si L' 11 Rc ~ /{hi:l1IUIl1 o~ 19(}.1 OSlllium 77 II' \92.2 \95.1 \9 7.0 Jridillin n 7X 1', 7Y XO Au ~I Il g rl r'b J1i 2UI).6 204.4 207.2 20 Y 209 210 l1ali li mll PlaLilllllll (.u ld Nlcn.:ury Th:lllil lin Lead Ui~mul11 PUI Olliulll ~ -('2' - TYPES OF MATTER - • ", Chemical Formulae Cation symbol followcd by anion Subscripts denote relative composition Enclose polyatomic ions or molecules in parentheses MEASUREMENT Be UNITS Mol~cular Formula: Discrete molecule Empirical Formula: Relative molar ratio of elements rnass: Kilug ramlkg) = 1,000 g 2.2tJ46 po und I~ngth: Meter (111) = ItJO em - l tJ93 yard = 10 '" A time: Sec ond ( s ); temperature: Ke lvin (K ) T(K) = T( "C ) + 273 15 T(,' F ) = "I" T ("C) 32 for solids or molecules formation: Elements to compound; C + H, => CH, combination (synthesis): substances ">rIn a-new substance Na + CI , = > NaL'1 ox idation~reduction: Oxidation states change (sec expanded section pg 3) acid-base neutralization: Form water and a salt (sec expanded section pg 4) decomposition: I substance yields or more substances HgO = > fig + displacement: Elcnlent displaces another cicment from a compound; Zn , HCI => H, + Znel , double displacement or metathesis: F:xchangc anions tonn precipitate: NaC I (aq) + AgNO,(aq) => AgCI(ppt) f NaNO,(aq) combustion: Exothermic reaeiion with oxygen: C + , => CO, PHYSICAL PROCESSES melting (s = > I): (j'ecz ing (I = > s) (at I atm normalmclting point "T " ) evaporating (I : : ;.> g)~ condensation (g => I) III (at all11, normal boiling point " T,,"') sublimati o n (s = > g) solution formation = mixing 01' gases liquids or solids distilla tion: Separate mixture hy selective Liquid Solid evaporati on _ trip le p oint:· s I g in § equilibrium ·'T." ~ , Q) Gas "apor pressul-e: Thc " partial pressure of the :2 gas in equilibrium,t w ith liquid (depe nds on temperature ): eq ual s I atm at "T h " Monatomic Cations Alkali metal (+1); alkaline earth (+2) Boiling water _mJ: j.QQ"j:'; - - - ­ -­ Transition metal: Valence varies, give the valence in the name and formula: "ous" or "ic" ending Roman numerals are less confusing more general ferrous Fe (II) ferric Fe (III) Body temp Room temp Freezing water _ge~c _ ;)l'~ J2e:C _ ;;>Q.' ~ -­ -­ - -­ stannic Sn (IV) plumbic Pb (IV) cupric eu ( II) mercuric Hg (II) stannous, Sn (II) plumbous Pb (II) cuprous eu (I) mercurous Hg (I) @Polyatomic cations ammonium , NH + hydronium H,O+; active f(lI'Ill @ @ 8) oxide nitride N 1' °'- Prefixes : tera T (10 12 ) kilo k (10 ' ) micro ~I ( Itt" , phosphide P ]' arsenide, As , Br~ iodide I Acids: hydro -fiuoric, - chloric ·bromic -iodie Polyatomic anions (& respective acids) 8) acetate, C,HP', nitrate NO.; nitrite NO, hypochloritc ClO­ chlorite CIO,' chlorate CIQ,' perchlorate ClO; cyanide eN' acetic acid, C,H,O, lIitric acid HNO, nitmlls acid HNO, inpach/ul'Olis acid, HCIO chlorolls acid HClO, ch/"ric acid HClO, perch/oric acid, HC/O, hvdrocv{/Ilic acid HeN ./i)rmed h.\' hases ill \l'ater hydroxide OH ' bicarhonate or hydrogen carbonate, Anion cation names derived from clement na mes Orga ni c: Separate namin g sy s­ tem m ega M ( 10") millim(I() ' ) "ico p (1 0' '' ) A Electronic P roperties: dihydrogen phosphate H,P0; permanganate M nO; @ carbonate cot sulfate, SO," sulfite, SO , , @ phosphate, di pulf mo m en t (~.): Positio n o f the molec ular l.!icctrt1 n ul!n­ sity relative to the cenll:r ~)r l1la~s: im parts part ial l:hargc to thc molecule: /1= for symmetric (II ,) , > for asy mnu'tric : carhonic acid, fi, CO, SII/fill'ic ocid, if, SO, slI/fimJl(s {/cid H,SO, chmlllic acid, ff,O-o, O+H _ Cl e­ pola rizability: Tcndclll:y of l:h:clron c10UlJ to distol1 fmm equi­ librium due to external ckc lro~ talics : inl' reaSl'S with atom size B Intermolec ular (be twee n m olecules) s,ot ' po.," - p/IO.' phoric acid, H,PO, @ silicate SiO, ,~ R = R.J I4.1 n1Ole" K ' (Io ren c rgy ca lculati o n) R = 0.082 I atm mol e" K ' ( for gas pr"pe rty ealclliatinn ) Avogadro'S Numher: N, 6.021 x 10" mo le " Boltzmann constant: k Rf N, U RI , In " J Illolcl'ulc-' K·' E lementary cha rg" of the el,'ctron e : 1,(,02 x I (J ,,' C Faraday C onstant I : c h"r~c o f N c !cct runs Mass of a proton m : 1.6 73, 10 ," ku M ass of a neutron, m,,: 1.675 \ III 27 'kg Mass of an electron m : 110 \ 10 " h! Planck's Constant, h: (~.62(, x 10 " I s ­ Speed of light in a vacuum, c: 97 ~ \ Ill' m s·' CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS H C O,~ bi s ulfate or hydrogen sul l'a te HSO; biphosphatc or hydrogen phosphate HPO/' dichromate C r,07 , thiosulfate (thio: S subsl tor atom) disulfide S, , Che mical Names Sta n with the "cation" name, 1l,lIowed by "anion": use pre­ fixes to cl arify any ambiguity ~iga (; ( j(J") centi c (1 ") nano n (10-") " Fi nd the whole-numbe r coeffici e nts which give the same amoun t or each e (cment on each s ide of the equa tion NOMENCLATURE Kelvin hydride H halides: fluoride F' chloride C I ' bromide chromate C rO, , perox ide 0, ,~ Remem ber: Always c hee , your work I Make SLlre that the same number of cach type of atom and the same to tal charge are o n e ac h side of the equation Ce lsius sulfide S " selenide Se 1- telluride Tc z­ HINTS FOR BALANCING EQUATIONS Iden tify eac h elem e nt involved in the reacti o n Cha nge eoelTicients o nl y not the formulas Apply coc lTici c nts to eac h atom in a polyatom ic ion Dete rm ine the net c harge lor e ach side of the equation: Must be balanced in th e I'inal equation Start w ith th e e lem e nt appearing once on each s ide Nex t focLl s nn the m ore co mpl ex compo und s II' an e leme nt appears in a pure form, leave it to the last step.' It may help to use fraction s to balance th e n convert to integer coefficients n!'te r all elements arc balanced Fina l step make s ure c(Je lTi c ients are the smallest whole numbe rs - 293 K _ _ _ O:C _ - ­ 273 K Fahrenhe it Monatomic anions carbide C silicide Si'" 310 K volume: I iter (l) = 1.0110111 L - 1.0567 quart pressure: Pa scal Pa ( N/I11"): I a tm - 101 325 I'a force : 'l e wton , N (JIm) ; chargc : c·Qulomb l' energy : I o ule • (kg 111 '/ s' ) = ~3 901 ca lo ri e of acid in water @ _~;;>: c -· 373 K _ ,i/icic ucid H,SiO, Londo n Forces ( DiSI)Cr sion): t\t1 radion o r Ind uced-dipole tnOT1l em~ ; stronger fll r ll1C.wc polarl/ub1c ~pccies: nCl!OU nb 1;:'11' liquc:faction of g0 _ _7-£>.r ~ +++ + A diagram of MOs gi ves energy level s *2s for electrons in the molecule As for AOs, each MO can have at most c1ec- G2s trons (with paired spi n) The bond order is given by (# of bonding electron pairs) ­ ( # of antibonding electron rairs) .g2 S, p, d and f AOs can mix or hybridize to form equiv­ alent lone pa irs and bond ing pa irs orb ital s Supports VS EPR model S and p can hybridi Le to sp (2), Sp l (3) or sp' (4 equivalent orbi lal,); d orbitab expand the options to f ive (sp' d For weak base-strong acid titrat ion, pH E- A larger, positive numher is evide nce of a more reactive materiaL Fo 2.87 I, 1.36 Br, 1.09 1, 54 o Metal s : M ' (aq) + x e- => Metal T he positi ve value is evi dence of a less-reactive metal Ag(l) + 0.80 C u(ll) + 34 Pb(") -0.13 Ni(ll) -0.26 Fe( II) -0.45 AI - I Mg -2.37 Na -2 Li -3 04 Zn -0.76 o o o acdatt: c hlori(it: nitrate bromid : fluoride s ulfate carbonate sulfide oxide phosphate hydroxide perchlorate iodide chlorate o chromate alkali llll'lals i.iJl1lll0n iUlll Ca Mg Sr Sa rc, Cu Z n Pb(ll) Hgtl) Ag rSOlu~~e lIlso1 IIlso l Illso1 Insol Illsol form hydrox ­ s insol s inso l insol insol insol ins-ol insol insol insoi ide insol insol insol insol insoi insol Flame test: Characteristic colors of ion in a name: v io let: potass ium , rubidium, cesium blue: copper (aLure), lead, arsenic, selenium g reen: copper (emerald), barium (yellowish) zinc (whitish) ye llow: sod iulll red: lithium (carmine), strontium (seariet), calcium (yellowish) ACID-BASE REACTIONS Self-ion iz ation o r water: H1 OW + HJO+ K" = 1011-IIH,o' = Ixlo- I' at 25"e For all aqueous solutions Ne utral solutio n 10H-1 = IH,O+ I = IxIO-7 pH = -log lII[H , O'I: A measure of acidic stre ngth: Neutral solutions, pH = 7; acidic, pH < 7; bas ic, p H > (eg a 0.01 M so lution o f H, O has a pH of 2) pO H (pOH = - loglu[OH-]) c an be used for basic soluti o ns p H + pOH = 14 Acids (HA ): HA + 1-1 ,0 A- + H, O A- is Iii" coni l/gale "ds" ()/' Ihe acid HA Strong acid total dissociation: HC I HBr, HJ , HClO, H S04 and IINO, Acid equilibrium is desc ribed by K" = [A-][ H,O ]/[I-IA] Weak acids have K « I pK, = -loglII(K,J Common weak acids (p Ky acetic (4 19 ); IIF (4 15); nitrous (3 35): ca rbonic (6.37 ) Lewis acid is a n electro n pai r accepto r B ases (B): MOl OH- + M B + H,o HB + OW HB is the cOl/iI/gale acid oI ,h" hase B Strong base, complete dissociation: NaOH , KOH and Ba(OH)2' Base equilibrium is described by Kb = [OH-][HB]/[B] Weak b ases have Kb « I pKb = -Iog"i Kb) Common weak bases (p K,J NH, (4 75); C N - (4.70) Lewis base is e lectron-pair donor Polyprotic acid: A co mpound wit h mo re tban o ne ionizable proton (eg H,SO"H, PO,) A m photeric s ubs ta nce: A material which can react as an acid at; or a basco Hydrolysis: Water + aqueous ion => ac idic or basie solution by 1C = (sum ofpnx.lud.1.(i\!) - (sull1ofrei.lctant H 3'I') o Reactions to completion: All reactants are converted to products Equilibrium: The reaction reaches a steady state of for· ward and reverse reactions For: aA bB: The equilibrium concentrations of reagents, [At, and [B],." arc constrained by the re lation­ ship: K'G= [Bt,b/[At,"· K,q is a constant, characteristic of the reaction at a given temperature Solubility Product, K,p: Defines the equilibrium between a salt and its aqueous ions; for AX " the equilib­ rium is AX/s) A" (aq) + 2X-(aq), a;"d the K" = lA' -][Xl'; small K,p = low solubility LeChatelier's Principle: The equilibrium shifts in respon se to changes in temperature, pressure or reagent concentration A < = > B; removing B or adding A shilis equilibrium towards the product For increases in pressure, the equilibrium shitts to lower the total pressure (increasing the pressure raiscs the con­ centration) Most rele vant for gas-phase reactions Exothermic reac tion produces heat: ";\ B -t heat" ; lowering the temperature removes heat and shifts e qui­ librium towards the product Rai sing the temperature has thc opposite eflect Endothermic reaction absorbs heat: "Heat + A B"; raising the temperature adds heat and sh ifts equilibrium towards the product Lowering the temperature has the opposite effect E, ) ~ j) ~Tra~tate r'H ®Reactants ~ J~~ Prod~ ® Reaction progress KINETICS Rates of Chemical Process h8 > cC + dO thl' rate usuaily depends on IA] and [13J First-order rate law: Rate - ', fA] "" k,[B] A g raph of " ln[:I vs time" i:- l i llL'ar, tll(.' s lope is the rate-constant k l For a generic reaction: aA half.life~ I I~ : Th : lilll": n: quin::o for th e co ncentra­ tion to decrease by a fact o r ofe t l, O 6~ ' I: c\: Radioactive decay Second-order rate law: Ratc - qAl' or k [B I'­ A graph of ""I I VS time" line,nc slop,· is lh,' ratc­ constant k, Half-life ciwngcs durin g the rc.=action Zero order: Rat e - kll[A]" = kll' The rate is indepe ndent "I' [AJ NOh': IAI"=1 Temperature-dependence of rate consta nh Arrhenius Law: k = A e- I : •K1 Ea is the- activation encrgy (cnergy barrier): a gl"ph of "In(k) \., I r is lincar, !>.Iop.: is -LlI R and the intc.=R"Cpt i, In( A) Kinetics and Thermodynamics A B: K fll = 1/k· ,k is forward-rat,· con, t,lnt and k., is re ve rse-rate Constant CREDITS Author: Mark D Jackson, PhD Artwork: Rich Marino Layout: Rich Marino THERMODYNAMICS The study of the heat and work associated with a physical or chemical process o Types of Processes: Reversible, the system is in a state of equilibrium Spontaneous (irreversible), the system is moving towards a state of equilibrium o Laws of thermodynamics: First Law - conservation of energy, (U): The heat (q) and work (w) associated with a process are interrelated: 60U = q+w Any change in the energy of the system must correspond to the interchange of heat or work with an external surrounding Second Law - entropy, S, is conserved for a reversible process The disorder of the system and thermal surround­ ings must increase for a spontaneous process Third Law - entropy is zero for an ideal crystal at T=O K The system is in its lowest possible energy state and most ordered arrangement o enthalpy (H): AH is the heat absorbed or produced by a process under conditions of constant pressure (normal lab conditions) 6.H0 for endothermic Enthalpies of Formation, 60 H V: The 60H for the synthesis of the compound from standard elemental !orms at 25"C Note: These quantities can be either positive or negative 60H = (sum of product"" H l!) - (sum of reactant ~ H ~ ) o entropy (S): Thermodynamic disorder: LlS is the change in order in a system For s => I or I =~g, 60S is positive (the product in each case has more random motion) Standard entropy, S': The entropy of a compound at 25"C The equilibrium constant K•.•1, and ,L),G arc relatcd by the equation: 60G = -RT In(l":, / EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES OF INORGANIC SALTS Aqueous Solubility: relative to K Note: Hu!se {llICll1lilit:s are 1I1m~IS {)(}\'iti\'l' 60S = (sum of product S") - (sum of rl'actant S") Gibbs Free Energy (G): AG All - Til:; 6oG: The capacity of the system to perfo rm \\ ork 6oG=0 for equilibrium AG: If ~G>O~ the reVerse process is ~ ronIHnt:Ol1s Free energy offormation , ~ (;:' : The Gre,l' the synthesis ofthc compound from standard elemental forms at 2S"C NOTE TO STUDENTS This QuickStudy" guide is an outline of the principles of Chemistry Keep it handy as a quick reference source in the cl assroom, while doing homework and as a memory refresher when rev iewing pri or to exams It is a durable and inexpensive study tool that can be re peatedly referred to during your school years and beyond \11 r i\:hh I"'" I't'O;O:·I'\~d '-.0 I'~rt 01 thi m~~n' ~ l«:I,\lt1Ic \If 1!"· ,,h.n, ~ ptJhh~~l1on lOlL' h ltu>; TNneval S) t~I!1 \\1111,'111 ",ilk" JlCnHI 2002 ! (to.i llarC Il.'-h.lar ITtlI' be rcl'n'du~ :.t "r Inln rnlll~"l.l ill an' f ... standard elemental forms at 2S"C NOTE TO STUDENTS This QuickStudy" guide is an outline of the principles of Chemistry Keep it handy as a quick reference source in the cl assroom, while doing homework... CREDITS Author: Mark D Jackson, PhD Artwork: Rich Marino Layout: Rich Marino THERMODYNAMICS The study of the heat and work associated with a physical or chemical process o Types of Processes:... compound (charge on atom if all "lienee electrons shi n to the more elec tronegat ie atol11) redox chemistry: I.kctr(lils arc exchallged in the reaction : Bal ancinl( Redox Reactions: Tvv" eOl11lllon