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NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH PROGRESS SERIES COLOR PERCEPTION: PHYSIOLOGY, PROCESSES AND ANALYSIS No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH PROGRESS SERIES Current Advances in Sleep Biology Marcos G Frank (Editor) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-508-4 Dendritic Spines: Biochemistry, Modeling and Properties Louis R Baylog (Editor) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-460-5 Relationship between Automatic and Controlled Processes of Attention and Leading to Complex Thinking Rosa Angela Fabio 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-810-8 Neurochemistry: Molecular Aspects, Cellular Aspects and Clinical Applications Anacleto Paỗos and Silvio Nogueira (Editors) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-831-3 Sleep Deprivation: Causes, Effects and Treatment Pedr Fulke and Sior Vaughan (Editors) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-974-7 Color Perception: Physiology, Processes and Analysis Darius Skusevich and Petras Matikas (Editors) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60876-077-0 NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH PROGRESS SERIES COLOR PERCEPTION: PHYSIOLOGY, PROCESSES AND ANALYSIS DARIUS SKUSEVICH AND PETRAS MATIKAS EDITORS Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York Copyright © 2010 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA ISBN: 978-1-61761-866-6 (Ebook) Available upon request Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York CONTENTS Preface Chapter vii Cortical and Subcortical Processing of Color: A Dual Processing Model of Visual Inputs Hitoshi Sasaki Chapter Color: Ontological Status and Epistemic Role Anna Storozhuk 51 Chapter The Biological Significance of Colour Perception Birgitta Dresp-Langley and Keith Langley 89 Chapter Individual Differences in Colour Vision M.I Suero, P.J Pardo, A.L Pérez Chapter Color-Sensitive Neurons in the Visual Cortex: An Interactive View of the Visual System Maria C Romero, Ana F Vicente, Maria A Bermudez and Francisco Gonzalez 125 161 Chapter Is Colour Composition Phenomenal? Vivian Mizrahi Chapter Color Image Restoration and the Application to Color Photo Denoising Lei He 203 Color in Psychological Research: Toward a Systematic Method of Measurement Roger Feltman and Andrew Elliot 225 Chapter Chapter Color in Aquaculture: An Importance of Carotenoids Pigments in Aquaculture of Salmon and Echinoderms Pavel A Zadorozhny, Marianna V Kalinina, Eugene V Yakush and Eugene E Borisovets 185 239 vi Chapter 10 Contents Black Enough?: Needed Examination of Skin Color among Corporate America Matthew S Harrison and Wendy Reynolds-Dobbs 253 Short Comm Color In Weightlessness Conditions: “µgOrienting” Project Irene Lia Schlacht, Matthias Rưtting and Melchiorre Masali 261 Short Comm WIUD Experiment: Colors and Visual Stimuli for Outer Space Habitability Irene Lia Schlacht, Matthias Rötting and Melchiorre Masali 265 Index 269 PREFACE There is no color without light, nor is there color perception without a sensory organ and brain to process visual input This book discusses the complex impact of color action on the organism It is shown that the perception of color depends on the action of irritants on other sensor systems and, vice versa, the action of color may exert exciting or inhibiting influence on the perception of sounds or smells The mechanism of increasing realism of colored images is also discussed, as well as the epistemic role of color Furthermore, this book examines whether there exist very large individual differences in the perception of color, and if so how these differences manifest themselves Other chapters in this book discuss the role of visual processing in the regulation of adaptive behaviors, a review of image denoising, and the role of color in psychological functioning (i.e., the unconscious associations people have with color that could act as possible confounds) Chapter - In order to investigate a possible role of visual processing in regulation of adaptive behaviors, two behavioral experiments using color stimulus were performed In the first experiment, hemispheric asymmetry of color processing was investigated by measuring reaction time to a stimulus presented either in the left or the right visual field responded by ipsilateral hand The simple reaction time was shorter to a color stimulus presented in the right hemisphere in the right-handed participants, while no hemispheric asymmetry was found in color discrimination reaction time without verbal cues In the second experiment, a modulatory effect of color on sensory-motor interaction was investigated using a prepulse modulation task Amplitude of a startle eyeblink response elicited by an air-puff to the cornea was significantly inhibited by a shortly (100 ms) preceding color prepulse A different amount of the inhibition was induced by different color prepulses Yellow was more effective as compared to a blue prepulse Although the exact neuronal pathways underlying the prepulse inhibition of the corneal blink response is not determined, a top-down pathway from the cortex to the brainstem nuclei via the amygdala seems to be involved in the sensory-motor interaction The descending pathway seems to play a role in modulation of the startle responses From these findings combined with other studies, a dual processing hypothesis of visual inputs will be proposed, where physical features of the stimulus are processed in the cerebral cortex with consciousness, while the psychological and biological meanings are processed mainly in the limbic system without consciousness Traditionally, it was thought that these two processes are in series, while in the present model these processes are in parallel, in addition to the serial processing Visual inputs are conveyed to the limbic system via the indirect cortical and the direct subcortical pathways The cortical pathway further viii Darius Skusevich and Petras Matikas divided into two routs; one is from the inferotemporal cortex and the other is from the posterior parietal association cortex through the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus Chapter - There are two basic approaches to studying color: one of them considers the issue of the physical reasons of color, the other investigates color perception According to the first, color is not an objective physical entity; the second approach has many experimental evidences of color influence on human organism, for example, changes of the emotional condition, blood pressure, accuracy of perception, etc The considered question can be formulated as follows: how color, being a sign without a referent, can make a real impact on the organism? A working hypothesis is that color is a non-conventional objective sign This hypothesis will be subjected to critical analysis from the point of view of psychology of development in order to ascertain whether the sign properties of color are innate or are formed by the influence of culture Another topic is a role of color in the world cognition This question was usually considered from the point of view of direct influence on the increase of the visual recognition accuracy We will investigate a question of indirect influence of color by means of pre-setting of the nervous system to perception; this is possible thanks to the system character of perception Chapter - There is no colour without light, nor is there colour perception without a sensory organ and a brain to process visual input This chapter first reviews how the colour of objects is produced Most commonly, this depends on so-called pigments, the molecular nature of which provokes strong absorption of part of the incident light falling on an object Colour can also be produced by optical phenomena such as refraction, dispersion, interference or diffraction from ordered structures within objects A wide variety of photonic microstructures are known in the living world and specific examples will be described in mammals, birds, fish and insects Some of these structures reflect light in the near ultraviolet spectral region, particularly pertinent for certain birds, insects and fish which are sensitive to these wavelengths A detailed account of a particularly elaborate structure present in the king penguin beak will be given to illustrate the extent to which evolutionary pressure leads to the elaboration of such structures to satisfy specific needs of birds or animals Subsequently, the perception of colour in man and animals and its biological significance is dealt with For man, this will include a discussion of the symbolic meaning of different colours In many species, especially birds, the colours of plumage and parts of the skin have an important survival function Such biological colourations may fulfil the role of ornaments that determine mate choice and reproduction of the species, or signal good health, allowing individuals to secure and maintain territorial dominance Colour perception may also have an underlying survival function in man, but more complex explanations are needed to relate perception to such a function The colour of an object in the visual field is known to determine the way in which humans perceive relations between objects and their background, particularly which objects appear nearer This suggests that colour perception is important in processing information about the physical structure of the world The colour red plays an important role in this process, since it drives mechanisms of visual selection which attract attention to, or away from, objects in the visual field Psychophysical studies of colour perception in both animals and man help to understand these complex processes Finally, colour perception in man may contribute either to rewarding psychological sensations of warmth, comfort and safety or to aversive sensations of coldness and discomfort, sensations which can strongly influence individuals in their daily social interactions 272 Index conduction, 32, 46, 66 cone photoreceptors, 109 confidence, 63, 116, 145 configuration, 39, 165, 242, 263, 267 conflict, 126 confusion, 82, 131, 132, 133 Congress, 264, 268 connectivity, 109, 164 conscious perception, 38 consciousness, 1, 2, 35, 39, 42, 63, 66, 67, 71, 84, 87, 258 consensus, 15, 189, 190 consent, 4, 23 constraints, 106, 114, 123, 186, 188, 198, 199, 202, 206, 223 consumers, 239, 241 consumption, 243, 248 continuity, 52, 67, 74, 75, 79, 81, 85, 208 contrast sensitivity, 175 control, 4, 10, 25, 38, 47, 49, 55, 72, 73, 78, 93, 143, 205, 211, 213, 214, 226, 228, 229, 231, 232, 236, 244 convergence, 46, 47, 219, 220 conversion, 208 conviction, 79 copper, 94 coral, 107, 122, 196 coral reefs, 107, 196 corn, 244 cornea, 1, 23, 24, 28, 29, 102 corneal reflex, 27, 28, 29, 31, 41, 43, 45 corporations, 254 correlation, 11, 43, 155, 167, 176, 190, 239, 241, 247, 267 correlation analysis, 11 cortex, 1, 2, 3, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 78, 105, 141, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183 cortical neurons, 38 cortical processing, 47 coupling, 223 CRC, 119, 252 creativity, 231 crime, 229, 259 critical analysis, 51, 226 criticism, x, 68, 71, 77, 225, 228 cross-cultural, 187, 188, 198 CRT, 4, 5, 8, 13, 17, 19, 23, 30 crustaceans, 94, 101, 113, 240 crystal structure, 118 crystalline, 96, 263 crystals, 90, 95, 97, 104, 123 cues, 1, 17, 18, 20, 21, 30, 85, 114, 119, 176, 183, 236 cultivation, 240, 241, 244, 248 cultural factors, 106 culture, 51, 116, 200, 201, 227, 245, 249, 251 customer preferences, 247 customers, 239, 240, 247 cuticle, 96, 119 Cybernetics, 175 cycles, 250 cytochrome, 167, 174, 178, 179, 182 cytochrome oxidase, 167, 174, 178, 179, 182 cytoplasm, 69, 94 D dandelion, 82 danger, 34, 35, 69, 116, 230 data analysis, 153 data collection, 187 data set, 139, 153 de novo, 240 death, 116 decisions, 117, 121, 256, 257 decoding, 163 decomposition, 53, 54, 55, 85, 193, 223 deconvolution, 223 decortication, 43 deep-sea, 101 defects, 82 defence, 112, 113, 249 defense, 73, 243 deficit, 40, 42, 170 deficits, 10, 43, 44, 163, 175, 177 definition, 54, 62, 65, 125, 172, 181, 226, 255 degradation, x, 203 degrading, 53 delivery, 23 denoising, x, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224 density, 150, 151, 152, 153, 163, 208 dependent variable, x, 225 depersonalization, 63 deposition, 252 depressed, 38 depression, 38, 41, 44, 45, 230 deprivation, 109 depth perception, 85, 115, 118, 119 derivatives, 93, 95 designers, 199 destruction, 116 detection, 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 21, 31, 43, 47, 82, 106, 132, 180, 221, 223 detritus, 243 Index deviation, 219, 262 dichotomy, 70, 254 diet, 94, 95, 243, 244, 248, 250 dietary, 249, 251 diets, 244, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252 differentiation, 3, 39, 236 diffraction, 83, 89, 95, 144 diffusion, 174, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224 diffusion process, 208, 211, 212, 219, 220, 221, 223 diffusivity, 205 digestion, 249 digital cameras, 204, 205 dimorphism, 140 dinoflagellates, 101, 111 disappointment, 21 discipline, x, 225 discomfort, 90 Discovery, 87, 121 discreteness, 64, 65, 67, 73, 77 discretization, 65 discrimination, 1, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 41, 46, 47, 48, 106, 107, 108, 110, 118, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 182, 236, 257 discrimination learning, 48 discrimination tasks, 108 disorder, 37, 38, 180 dispersion, 89 dissociation, 173 distribution, 42, 55, 59, 117, 118, 119, 128, 129, 162, 164, 183 divergence, 110, 139, 211, 212 diversity, 96, 97, 102, 109, 116, 119, 121, 138, 253, 254 diving, 196 division, 65, 195, 255 dogs, 47 dominance, 2, 3, 10, 11, 44, 47, 48, 50, 89, 126 dopamine, 22, 31, 40, 43, 46, 48, 49 double bonds, 93 draft, 201 dream, 63 drying, 27 DSM, 233 DSM-II, 233 DSM-III, 233 dualism, 63 duplication, 103, 110 duration, 24, 26, 49, 73 dysphoria, 233 Dysregulation, 37, 44 273 E earth, 90, 101, 262, 267 eating, 69 echinoderms, 101 ecological, 107 educational attainment, 255 EEG, 5, 24 egg, 114, 248, 249 elaboration, 89 elderly, 235 election, 175 electric current, 57, 66 electrodes, 5, 24, 171 electroencephalogram, 39 electromagnetic, 52, 54, 80, 85, 90, 102, 125, 226 electromagnetic wave, 52, 54, 90 electromyographic study, 44 electron, 70, 96, 99, 100, 121 electron microscopy, 99 electrons, 93 e-mail, 89 embryo, 141 EMG, 22, 25, 27 emission, 40, 41, 47, 101, 105, 113, 174, 176, 180 emotion, 3, 21, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 81, 234, 235, 237 emotional, 21, 34, 36, 37, 38, 41, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 58, 78, 79, 81, 84, 87, 229, 233, 236 emotional responses, 38, 236 emotional state, 87, 229 emotional stimuli, 21, 34 emotionality, 229 emotions, 21, 79, 81, 116, 234, 235, 236 employees, 229 employers, 254, 256 encoding, 140, 177, 180 endocrine, 33, 78 endocrine glands, 78 endocrine system, 33 energy, 52, 54, 92, 93, 128, 133, 136, 137, 159, 206, 209, 242, 251 England, enlargement, 83 entorhinal cortex, 31, 36, 42, 45 environment, 77, 79, 90, 102, 104, 105, 109, 110, 205, 233, 243, 244, 262, 266 environmental influences, 233 enzymes, 179 EOG, 5, 24, 25, 29, 43 epigenetic, 109 epilepsy, 48, 171 epistemological, 53, 61, 78, 84, 200 274 Index epistemology, 67 epithelial cell, 96 equality, 141, 262 equating, 133, 231, 232, 257 equilibrium, 116, 190 estimating, 197 estimator, 208 ethnic groups, 253 ethnicity, 253 Eurocentric, 256 European Space Agency, 262 European Union, 158 event-related potential, 46 evoked potential, 171 evolution, 33, 37, 44, 81, 82, 95, 107, 109, 122, 123, 200, 202, 207, 222 evolutionary process, 114, 117, 198 excitability, 56, 59, 82 excitation, 42, 52, 54, 55, 59, 74, 77, 80, 84, 126 execution, 78 exoskeleton, 94 experimental condition, exposure, 109, 144, 146, 147, 204, 205, 215, 233, 235 external environment, 105 extinction, 44 extraction, 204 extrapolation, 76, 82, 109 eye, 5, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 40, 42, 48, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 66, 70, 72, 73, 84, 86, 90, 91, 102, 103, 105, 117, 120, 126, 141, 142, 150, 159, 163, 174, 211, 226, 234, 263 eye contact, 21 eye movement, 29, 40, 42, 73 eyeball, 29 eyelid, 24, 29, 40, 47, 48 eyes, 5, 53, 54, 56, 57, 66, 70, 73, 83, 94, 95, 102, 104, 105, 114, 118, 121, 130, 174, 226, 255 F fabric, 233 fabrication, 123 facial expression, 34, 37, 50 facial nerve, 29 factor analysis, 107, 154 factorial, 168 failure, 226, 230, 231 familial, 38 family, x, 101, 108, 110, 203, 253 Far East, 239, 252 farms, 117, 240 fat, 117 fear, 21, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 234, 258 fear response, 38 February, 256 feedback, 164 feeding, 114, 244, 245, 249, 250, 251 feelings, 58, 63, 116, 229, 232, 256 females, 4, 8, 13, 17, 82, 103, 107, 112, 243, 256, 267 femininity, 116 fertility, 107 fertility rate, 107 fibers, 3, 32, 59 fidelity, 207, 208, 212, 219 filament, 126 Filipino, 233 film, 79, 95, 96 filters, 163, 206, 210, 221, 223 fire, 90, 101 fish, 89, 92, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 119, 121, 122, 123, 239, 240, 241, 244, 249 fitness, 112, 250 fixation, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14, 60, 74, 171 flavonoids, 95 flight, 49, 113, 114, 123, 262, 263 flow, 23, 31, 73, 205, 207, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215, 221, 222, 224 fluorescence, 104, 112, 121, 143, 197 fluorescent light, 227 fMRI, 40, 44, 170, 172, 173, 177, 180, 235, 236 focusing, 256 food, 33, 34, 95, 104, 107, 108, 110, 114, 116, 117, 240, 241, 243, 244, 248, 250 food additives, 241 Fourier, 122 Fourier analysis, 122 fovea, 73, 105, 163, 167 Fox, 45, 49, 96, 111, 118, 123 France, 117, 252 fresh water, 101, 248 frontal cortex, 164, 172 fruits, 76, 110 fucoxanthin, 243, 249 functional architecture, 178 functional aspects, 177 functional imaging, 36, 37 functional magnetic resonance imaging, 179, 180, 181 functional MRI, 46, 48 fundus, 36 fungi, 93, 94, 101 Index fusiform, 22, 30, 39, 43, 163, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181 fusion, 143 G Galileo, 76 gametes, 242 gametogenesis, 242, 244, 251 ganglion, 32, 40, 45, 46, 48, 105, 174 garbage, 258 Gaussian, 204, 205, 208, 209, 222, 224 gender, 15, 233, 254 generalization, 76 generation, 123 genes, 70, 101, 103, 107, 109, 110, 123, 140, 141, 142, 159, 180 genetic code, 140 genetics, 120, 125, 141, 180 Georgia, 253 Germany, 261, 263, 264, 265, 268 gestures, 21 Gibbs, 224 glass, 90, 91 glasses, 53 glucose metabolism, 38 glutamate, 22 goal-directed, 236 goals, 172 God, 253 gold, 102 gonads, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251 grades, 239, 241, 245 grants, 173 grasses, 243 gratings, 144, 164, 165, 172, 175, 177, 181 gravity, 262, 265 Greece, 90 Grip strength, 235 group membership, 230 group variance, 146 grouping, 254, 257 groups, 4, 8, 16, 17, 23, 24, 28, 41, 91, 93, 101, 109, 141, 145, 146, 182, 227, 236, 242, 253, 254, 257 growth, 44, 240, 241, 243, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252 guanine, 96, 104 guilty, 229 gut, 242 gymnastics, 263 gyri, 163, 170 275 gyrus, 22, 36, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 176, 180, 181 H H2, 109 habitat, 110, 240, 262 habituation, 24, 25, 26, 27, 73, 108, 233 hallucinations, 170 hamstring, 232 handedness, 11, 45, 49 hands, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 75, 79, 80 happiness, 38, 229 harm, 10, 63, 64, 116 harmful effects, 258 harmony, 10, 63, 64, 116 Harvard, 86, 158, 200 hatchery, 122 health, 42, 89, 99, 116 hearing, 40, 54, 57, 61, 71, 76, 87 hearing loss, 40 heart rate, 60, 230 heat, 93, 102, 204, 215 height, 56 hemisphere, 3, 10, 15, 17, 20, 21, 41, 44, 45, 47, 171 hemispheric asymmetry, 1, 3, 10, 15, 16, 20, 48 hemorrhage, 40 Hessian matrix, 206, 212 heterochromatic, 146, 147, 165, 232 heterogeneity, 123, 253 heterogeneous, 257, 258 heterozygosity, 141 HFP, 232 high density lipoprotein, 252 Hilbert, 194 hippocampal, 2, 43, 48, 49 hippocampus, 172 hiring, 256, 257 holism, 52, 74, 76, 77, 81, 85 holistic, homeostasis, homogenized, 254 homogenous, 257 homology, 31, 163, 170 honesty, 116 hormone, 78, 112, 123 hormones, 78 horse, 103, 114, 118 hospital, 233 hot water, 197 House, 235 hue, 8, 10, 19, 30, 55, 90, 141, 144, 153, 155, 173, 177, 191, 197, 203, 205, 206, 208, 211, 213, 276 Index 214, 221, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 246, 247, 262 human animal, 102, 106, 110, 115, 228 human brain, 2, 33, 34, 44, 49, 171, 176, 177, 182, 183 human cerebral cortex, 175 Human Kinetics, 47 human subjects, 2, 21, 29, 49 humans, 21, 22, 27, 28, 40, 89, 96, 103, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120, 123, 163, 170, 171, 174, 176, 178, 181, 182, 226 hunting, 108 Huntington's disease, 22, 49 hybrids, 140 hydrobionts, 248, 252 hydrogen, 93 hydroquinone, 247 hyperbolic, 175 hypnosis, 59 hypothalamus, 33, 34, 35, 60 hypothesis, 1, 2, 38, 51, 54, 58, 68, 71, 74, 83, 109, 112, 122, 131, 132, 141, 143, 146, 153, 162, 166, 167, 172, 176, 186, 187, 191, 263 hypoxemia, 86 Hypoxia, 56 I IAC, 264, 268 ice, 90, 93 id, 87 identification, 15, 21, 31, 153, 196, 199, 211 identity, 52, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 80, 254 ideology, 253 idiosyncratic, 229 illumination, 23, 30, 56, 57, 86, 87, 101 illusion, 60 image analysis, 118 imagery, 45 images, 43, 55, 67, 75, 78, 79, 80, 84, 168, 171, 176, 181, 203, 204, 205, 207, 215, 216, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 257, 258, 263, 266, 267 imaging, x, 34, 36, 37, 174, 177, 178, 203, 232 immunocompetence, 121 implementation, 138, 206, 222 imprinting, 75, 82 in vivo, 174 inactivation, 142, 175, 179 incidence, 99 independence, 55, 74, 165, 166 independent variable, 220, 227, 232 Indian, 97, 122 indices, 49 individual differences, 125, 157 individual perception, 228 indole, 57, 58 Indonesia, 235 induction, 234 industrial, 244 industry, 199, 229 inertia, 61, 67 infinite, 162 information processing, 3, 33, 40, 176 Information Technology, 203, 234 informed consent, 23 infrared, 104 inheritance, 164 inhibition, 1, 22, 24, 26, 29, 30, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 235 inhibitory, 22, 29, 30, 31, 108 initial state, 208 initiation, injections, 35 innocence, 116 Innovation, 158 insects, 89, 96, 101, 104, 107, 113, 123 instinct, 201 instruments, 70, 92 integration, 15, 38, 40, 61, 75, 176 integrity, 76, 77 intelligence, 257 intentions, 72, 76 interaction, 1, 6, 52, 54, 55, 56, 63, 75, 85, 86, 101, 129, 167, 172, 193, 229, 241 interactions, 2, 48, 90, 95, 102, 106, 108, 115, 166, 182 interdependence, 110, 166 interface, interference, 44, 83, 89, 95, 97, 236 intermedin, 123 International Space Station, 261, 266 internet, 202, 229 interneuron, 29 interpersonal communication, 198 interrelationships, 107 interval, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 17, 23, 24, 25, 30 interview, 144 intraocular, 56, 88, 140, 143, 150, 151, 152, 153 intraocular lens, 143, 150, 152, 153 intraocular pressure, 56, 88 intrinsic, 167 introspection, 189, 191, 192, 193 inventions, 228 inversion, 80, 87, 177 invertebrates, 93, 95, 117, 240, 250, 251 investment, 231 ipsilateral, 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 19, 39 Index irritation, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 78, 80, 81, 84 island, 98 ISO, 204, 208, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220 isolation, 37, 109, 191, 227, 261, 266 isomorphism, 52, 64, 71, 77 isotropic, 204, 214, 215 ISS, 261, 263, 266, 267 Italy, 261, 263, 265, 268 iteration, 219 J Japan, 1, 5, 23, 87, 235, 241, 244, 247, 249, 250, 252 Japanese, 45, 122, 248, 249, 252 jellyfish, 101 jobs, 255, 257 Jordan, 141, 143, 159, 175, 232, 234 judge, 15, 35, 64, 141, 185, 186, 197, 199 judgment, 34, 229 jumping, 103 Jun, 122 justification, 191 juveniles, 112, 248 K keratin, 96, 97, 122 keratinocytes, 99 kernel, 204 kinase, 120 King, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 112, 113, 118 Kuril Islands, 248 L labeling, 35 Laminar, 179 land, 101, 103, 244 language, 11, 17, 21, 43, 46, 62, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 85, 116, 186, 187, 188, 194, 195, 201 language processing, 17 larvae, 240, 242, 243 larval, 249 latency, 25, 27, 30 latent inhibition, 48 laterality, 40, 42 lattice, 97, 99 lattices, 96 law, 64, 66, 96, 99, 147 laws, 95, 128 LCDs, 157 learning, x, 3, 47, 107, 108, 172, 199, 220, 222, 226 left hemisphere, 3, 4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21 left visual field, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20 left-handed, 11, 12, 13, 14, 46 277 left-handers, 11, 12 Leibniz, 64, 86 lens, 53, 143, 150, 152, 153, 257, 263 lenses, 53, 75, 79, 80, 108, 144, 150, 151, 156 lesions, 22, 28, 30, 31, 37, 42, 43, 45, 163, 170, 174, 175, 177, 179, 181, 182 levator, 29 life experiences, 253, 254, 257 life quality, 261 light scattering, 97, 122 likelihood, 34, 232, 258 limbic system, 1, 2, 32, 34, 35, 39 limitations, 126, 204 linear, 83, 127, 128, 130, 131, 153, 154, 156, 163, 204, 211 linear model, 163 lingual, 163, 169, 170 linguistic, 3, 67, 84, 186, 187, 188, 194, 199, 201 linguistics, 185 lipids, 241 lipophilic, 240 lipoprotein, 252 liquid chromatography, 251 liquids, 53 lithography, 96 lobsters, 102 localization, 43, 76, 180 location, 31, 92, 127, 140, 169, 170, 171, 173 locus, 59 logical atomism, 65, 73, 74 London, 41, 46, 47, 48, 85, 86, 87, 118, 173, 174, 177, 178, 183, 248 long-distance, 113 longitudinal study, 49, 258 lopsidedness, 253 losses, 240 love, 116 low-level, 231 luciferase, 101 luciferin, 101 luminescence, 101 luminosity, 141, 144, 146, 147, 148, 153, 263 lutein, 243 lying, 266 M M and A, 122, 123 machines, 90 mackerel, 111 Mackintosh, 10, 48 macroalgae, 239 magnetic, 52, 174 magnetic resonance, 174, 179, 180, 181 278 magnetic resonance imaging, 174, 179, 180, 181 majority group, 255 males, 4, 8, 13, 17, 19, 82, 107, 109, 112, 114, 243, 267 mammals, 89, 93, 96, 101, 102, 103, 119, 121, 163 management, 258 manic, 38 manifold, 84, 207 manipulation, 75, 95, 230 manufacturer, 228 manufacturing, 228 mapping, 116, 174, 182, 207 margarine, 117 market, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247 marketing, 236 markets, 241 Markov, 208, 222 Mars, 66 mask, 110 Massachusetts, 45, 46, 47, 264, 268 masseter, 22, 28 mastery, 189 matrix, 97, 130, 155, 156, 206, 211, 212 maturation, 244, 247, 252 maturation process, 252 MDB, 232 meals, 114 meanings, 1, 2, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 189, 201 measurement, 92, 159, 183, 197, 208, 231 measures, 41, 173, 180, 215, 218, 219 meat, 244 media, 109, 140, 150, 151, 152, 153, 254, 257 medial prefrontal cortex, 31 median, 6, 7, 10, 246 mediators, 78 medication, 144 meditation, 116 melanin, 93, 94, 97, 112, 121 melanophore, 117 melatonin, 117, 123 melt, 110 membranes, 99, 100 memory, 40, 41, 44, 49, 63, 75, 80, 171, 172, 174, 177, 180, 181, 182, 196, 198, 235, 259 men, 141, 144, 145, 146, 256, 258 mental activity, 81 mental image, 74, 78, 84, 85 mental state, 84 mental states, 84 messages, 85, 111 messenger RNA, 44 metabolism, 38, 240, 242, 243, 252 metamorphosis, 122, 242 Index metaphors, 116 mice, 40, 46, 102, 103, 119 microalgae, 240, 244, 250 microenvironment, 241 microgravity, 262, 265, 266 micronutrients, 239 microorganisms, 240 microscope, 69, 70 microspheres, 95, 119 microstructures, 89, 93, 97, 99, 100, 112, 118, 123 microtubule, 122 migration, 93, 122 milk, 194 mimicking, 107 mind-body, 52, 63, 74, 77 Ministry of Education, 39 Minnesota, 86 minorities, 257 minority, 256 mirror, 52, 73, 189 misconceptions, 61 misleading, x, 225 missions, 262 MIT, 46, 47, 48, 49, 87, 201, 202, 264, 268 mitochondria, 69 mixing, 53, 54, 63, 64, 91, 125, 132, 191, 194, 197, 198, 199 MMS, 261, 265, 267 modalities, 38, 48, 56, 75, 76, 84 modality, 2, 38, 49, 73, 74, 75, 78 model system, 109 modeling, 211, 223 models, 106, 147, 156, 207, 208, 211, 222, 226, 227 modern society, 82 modernity, 116 modulation, 1, 21, 36, 38, 43, 44, 49, 50, 165, 170 modules, 263 molecular mechanisms, 111 molecules, 92, 93, 95, 241 money, 230 monkeys, 31, 32, 36, 43, 44, 103, 107, 119, 120, 122, 163, 174, 177, 180 monochromatic light, 55, 108, 109, 129, 190 monochromator, 144 mood, 37, 38, 41, 45, 79, 93, 236, 237 mood disorder, 37, 38, 41 Moon, 67, 76 morbidity, 230 morphological, 40 mosaic, 108 Moscow, 87, 249 motion, x, 32, 39, 81, 105, 106, 111, 161, 162, 164, 165, 167, 173, 175, 176, 181, 203, 215, 222 Index motivation, 204 motor activity, 71, 74, 84 motor control, motor skills, 43 motor system, 82 motor task, 83, 233 motors, 120 mouse, 22, 40, 103, 119, 120 mouth, 97, 119 movement, 5, 6, 29, 40, 44, 69, 73, 77, 82, 92, 179, 181, 262, 263 MRI, 46, 48, 173 MSP, 108 multidisciplinary, 162 multiplicity, 112, 197 muscle, 27, 29, 74, 77 muscles, 22, 25, 28, 29, 40 muscular tissue, 239, 240, 241, 252 mushrooms, 94 music, 3, 46 mutant, 40 N naming, 187, 188, 189, 190, 195, 198, 201, 234, 236 nanometers, 226, 241 nanostructures, 97, 123 NAS, 159 NASA, 262, 264, 265, 266 National Academy of Sciences, 45, 49, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 183, 201 National Research Council, 85 National Science Foundation, 185 natural, 54, 62, 71, 82, 93, 94, 101, 118, 123, 172, 186, 196, 198, 227, 239, 240, 243, 244, 245, 252 natural habitats, 244 natural selection, 82 Nb, 213 NCS, 92 neck, 98, 123 negative mood, 45 nematode, 121 neocortex, 2, 37, 170 neon, 113, 120 nerve, 27, 29, 45, 46, 47, 66, 86, 126 nerves, 59, 60, 66, 86 nervous system, 33, 34, 39, 43, 51, 52, 58, 59, 73, 78, 80, 81, 83, 87 network, 164, 168, 180 neural crest, 93 neural mechanisms, 10, 180, 182 neural network, 168 neural systems, 174, 177 279 neuroanatomy, 47, 177, 181 neurobiology, 43, 120 neuroimaging, 161 neurons, 16, 22, 30, 31, 38, 43, 45, 78, 102, 118, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 169, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182 neuropathological, 41 neurophysiology, 188 neuropsychology, 232 neuroscience, 125, 172 neurosurgery, 39 neurotransmitters, 78 New Jersey, 117 New World, 103, 119, 120, 122 New York, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 85, 86, 87, 88, 120, 158, 159, 160, 174, 177, 182, 200, 201, 235, 237, 249, 258 New Zealand, 247 Newton, 2, 45, 52, 53, 54, 83, 87, 90 Newtonian, 83 Newtonian theory, 83 next generation, 114 nitrogen, 93 noise, x, 57, 203, 204, 206, 207, 210, 211, 213, 215, 216, 220, 221 non-human, 102, 106, 110, 15, 170, 171, 181, 228 non-human primates, 171, 181 non-uniform, 59 non-uniformity, 59 nonverbal, 235 Noradrenaline, 117 normal, 2, 4, 8, 10, 11, 17, 22, 27, 29, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 67, 75, 80, 84, 107, 127, 129, 130, 131, 140, 141, 142, 153, 158, 180, 186, 190, 204, 206, 215, 233, 236, 257, 262 normal conditions, 84 normalization, 155, 156 North America, 234 nose, 255 NRC, 159 nuclear, 38, 69 nuclei, 1, 34, 35, 36, 44, 45 nucleus, 1, 21, 22, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 42, 45, 50, 105, 173, 174, 180, 200 null hypothesis, 146 numerical analysis, 223 nutrient, 240, 249 nutrients, 242 O object recognition, x, 106, 168, 170, 203 objective reality, 67, 71 objectivity, 74 280 Index observations, 54, 55, 69, 70, 77, 83, 108, 114, 115, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172, 176, 213, 263 occipital lobe, 2, 28 occipito-temporal, 22, 180, 181 octopus, 94 oculomotor, 29 oculomotor nerve, 29 offshore, 108 oil, 58 olfactory, 46 ommatidium, 104 oogenesis, 242 operator, 204 opponent process theory, 126, 128, 190 opposition, 254 opsin, 103, 107, 109, 140 optic nerve, 3, 47, 105, 126 optical, 89, 90, 95, 97, 105, 118, 140, 143, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 203 optical density, 140, 150, 151, 153, 156 optical properties, 97 optics, 53, 54, 85, 86, 87, 88, 105 optimism, 116 optimization, 205, 206, 239, 241 oral, 82 organ, 60, 78, 89, 90, 196 organelle, 118, 120 organic compounds, 93 organism, 2, 33, 34, 35, 51, 52, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 74, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 90, 92, 101, 243 organoleptic, 245 orientation, 31, 52, 61, 62, 67, 77, 81, 83, 96, 161, 164, 166, 167, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 178, 181, 182, 183, 205, 206, 213, 214, 221, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267 orientation discrimination, 175 oscillation, 53 oscillations, 163, 175, 176 osmotic, 111 ovaries, 240, 252 ownership, 183 oxygen, 56, 93, 95, 101 P Pacific, 239 pain, 66 paints, 199, 257 palpebral, 42 parabolic, 262, 263 Paracentrotus lividus, 242, 245, 250, 251 parallelism, 163, 194 parameter, 142, 168, 210, 219, 220 parasite, 121 parasympathetic, 58, 60 parentage, 255 Parietal, 165 Paris, 87, 157, 158, 159, 160 partial differential equations, 205 particles, 54, 63, 83, 96, 126 partition, 116, 187 passive, 52, 66, 67, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82 pathogenesis, 37 pathways, 1, 3, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 48, 78, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181 patients, 10, 15, 37, 47, 49, 63, 79, 163, 170, 171 patterning, 119 Pavlovian, 46 Pavlovian conditioning, 46 PCP, 44 PD, 117 PDE’s, 223 PDEs, 205, 207, 208, 221, 223 peer, x, 225 peer review, x, 225 penguins, 120 perceptions, 55, 58, 74, 75, 81, 187, 255, 256, 257 periodic, 97 periodicity, 213 permit, 106 personal life, 58 personality, 227, 228, 229, 233, 235 personality research, 229 personality test, 229 PET, 40, 43, 45, 174, 176, 177, 178 PFC, 168 phagocytic, 243 phenomenology, 190, 192, 195, 197, 199, 200 phenotype, 141 phenotypic, 255 Philadelphia, 86 philosophers, 51, 52, 53, 61, 66, 85, 185, 186, 192 philosophical, 52, 61, 67, 69, 71, 73, 77, 86, 185, 186, 199 philosophy, 52, 61, 62, 63, 67, 71, 77, 84, 180, 185, 186 photochemical, 126 photon, 93, 101 photonic, 89, 95, 97, 118, 123 photonic crystals, 97, 123 photons, 55, 93, 105, 141, 150, 155 photoreceptors, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 114, 118, 129, 163 phototaxis, 106 phylogenetic, 114 phylogeny, 121 Index physical attractiveness, 259 physical mechanisms, 97 physical properties, 52 physicalism, 67 physicists, 126 physics, 74, 95, 125, 185, 187, 193 physiological, 2, 28, 45, 56, 61, 73, 85, 86, 87, 88, 102, 105, 106, 107, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 140, 240, 262, 263, 266 physiological factors, 140 physiologists, 52, 126 physiology, 44, 49, 87, 109, 125, 173, 174, 179, 185, 227, 263 pig, 42, 103 pigments, 55, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 102, 103, 106, 109, 110, 112, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 129, 140, 141, 143, 153, 174, 180, 194, 239, 240, 241, 242, 245, 247, 248, 251 pilots, 80, 84 pitch, 56 plankton, 111 plants, 82, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 114, 240, 244, 250 plasma membrane, 99 plasticity, 40, 48, 109, 122 platelets, 96 Plato, 62 play, 1, 36, 37, 77, 78, 105, 109, 111, 115, 170, 198, 199, 227, 243, 246, 254, 256 pleasure, 21 polarity, 91, 167 polarized light, 104 politics, 254 pollination, 114 pollinators, 114 pollutants, 244 polymers, 93 polymorphism, 122 polymorphisms, 140 polystyrene, 95 poor, 103, 196 population, 125, 138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 150, 168, 190, 244 population group, 141 porphyrins, 93 positive correlation, 255 positron, 40, 41, 47, 174, 176, 180 positron emission tomography, 40, 41, 47, 174, 176, 180 posture, 92, 266 power, 70, 90, 100, 116, 144, 254 PPI, 22, 23, 25, 30 praxis, 42 predators, 33, 104, 110, 111, 120 281 predicate, 79 preference, x, 225, 227, 228, 233, 235, 236, 250, 253, 255, 257 preferential treatment, 254, 255, 256 prefrontal cortex, 31, 34, 37, 38, 42, 180 prejudice, 258 press, 6, 8, 17, 18, 19, 120 pressure, 51, 56, 60, 81, 88, 89, 97, 102, 104 primaries, 129, 130, 131, 187 primary visual cortex, 31, 35, 36, 37, 163, 167, 174, 177 primate, 102, 107, 115, 120, 163, 166, 169, 170, 173, 174, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182 primates, 103, 163, 165 principal component analysis, 154, 155, 156 printing, 199, 231 processing stages, 172 production, 38, 97, 101, 239, 241, 248, 250, 251, 252 profit, 227 program, 5, 23, 44, 81, 82, 158, 232, 267 programming, 232 propagation, 114, 223 proposition, 65, 207 prosopagnosia, 39, 170, 179 proteins, 101, 240, 241, 249 protocol, 68, 73 psychiatric disorders, 22 psychological well-being, 259 psychology, x, 51, 63, 120, 125, 174, 185, 188, 226, 227, 232, 233, 236 psychopathology, 227 psychophysics, 106 psychophysiology, 48 Psychosomatic, 44 public, 229, 231 pupil, 62 pupils, 60 pyramidal, pyrimidine, 95 Q quanta, 129 quantum, 67, 93, 129, 130 quantum mechanics, 67 quantum theory, 93 quartile, 246 questioning, 72 questionnaire, 229, 236 quinine, 95 quinolinic acid, 31 R race, 188, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259 282 Index racial groups, 254 racism, 254 radiation, 54, 80, 101, 125, 141, 150, 226, 258 radius, 220 rain, 90, 113 rain forest, 113 Raman, 96, 122 random, 5, 17, 19, 23, 141, 142, 171, 222, 267 randomness, 146 range, 34, 54, 57, 67, 90, 92, 97, 99, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110, 113, 114, 118, 149, 155, 164, 189, 210, 219, 220, 226, 262 rat, 31, 32, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 103 ratings, 236 rationalist, 68 rats, 22, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38, 40, 42, 46, 102, 103, 119 Rayleigh, 96, 143, 146 reaction time, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 39, 43, 44, 267 reactivity, 182 reading, 229 realism, 51, 52, 65, 67, 77, 79, 80, 81, 84 reality, 52, 60, 63, 64, 65, 67, 71, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 187, 190, 196, 230 reasoning, 63, 79 reception, 42 receptive field, 32, 161, 163, 174, 175, 179, 180 receptor agonist, 40 receptors, 22, 31, 40, 76, 79, 102, 103, 123, 128, 129, 130, 166, 263 recognition, x, 3, 37, 38, 39, 49, 50, 51, 81, 82, 106, 146, 161, 168, 170, 177, 181, 196, 203, 234 recollection, 58, 75 recombination, 187 reconcile, 105 reconstruction, 204 recovery, 27, 49, 224 recycling, 143 red light, 57, 80, 81, 101, 104, 145 redistribution, 110, 112 redness, 196, 239 reef, 104, 108, 114, 121, 122 reefs, 107, 196 reflection, 53, 64, 65, 71, 77, 95, 116, 118, 122, 128 reflexes, 28, 33, 35, 41, 44, 46, 74 refractive index, 99 regional, 180 regression, 224 regression method, 224 regular, 108, 172 regulation, 1, 33, 34, 49, 78, 111, 117, 119, 122, 249 reinforcement, 46 rejection, 117 relationship, 40, 109, 114, 153, 179, 208, 239, 247, 250, 254, 263, 267 relativity, 72, 122 relaxation, 29, 224 relevance, 47, 170, 267 reliability, 71, 179, 262 replication, 229 reproduction, 89, 243, 244, 249, 250, 251 reptiles, 94, 96, 101, 104, 110 reputation, 103 reserves, 207 resistance, 248 resolution, 3, 5, 11, 23, 32, 55, 67, 71, 105, 174, 219 resources, 172, 242 respiration, 81 restaurant, 229 restaurants, 114 restructuring, 60 retail, 229 retention, 42 retina, 3, 24, 31, 40, 42, 43, 46, 52, 54, 55, 56, 60, 77, 80, 85, 91, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109, 118, 126, 128, 141, 142, 143, 161, 174, 263 revolt, 116 rewards, 108 Reynolds, 162, 180, 224, 253 rhodopsin, 85, 105, 129 rhythm, 262 right hemisphere, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 42, 48 right visual field, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 43 right-handers, 12 rings, 94, 95 ripeness, 81 robustness, 23 rodent, 119, 123 rodents, 31, 32, 102, 103 rods, 97, 103, 104, 105, 118, 128, 129, 263 roentgen, 69 rotations, 154 Royal Society, 86, 174, 183 Russia, 51, 239, 244 Russian, 46, 52, 59, 60, 77, 80, 239, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 263, 267 rust, 241 S saccadic eye movement, 73 sadness, 45, 116 safety, 90 salaries, 255, 256 salmon, 94, 117, 239, 240, 241, 245, 247, 251, 252 Index salt, 205 sample, 143, 144, 145, 146 satellite, x, 203 satisfaction, 236, 256 saturation, 8, 19, 23, 24, 90, 92, 141, 153, 197, 201, 203, 205, 208, 211, 214, 215, 221, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 262, 263 scaling, 132, 133, 134, 135, 152, 154, 155 scatter, 96 scattering, 95, 97, 122 schizophrenia, 22, 43 school, 105, 113 schooling, 255 scientific community, 186, 189 scientific knowledge, 68 scientific method, 68 scores, 11 sea urchin, 95, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252 seals, 103 search, 71, 82, 123, 227, 239, 241 searching, 62, 71, 170, 219, 220 seashells, 118 seaweed, 243 secret, 233, 257 seeds, 110 segmentation, x, 203, 207, 209, 211, 222, 223 segregation, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172, 179, 183 selecting, 72, 162, 219 selective attention, 43, 177 selectivity, 121, 164, 165, 167, 168, 170, 173, 178, 182 Self, 49, 87 self-efficacy, 259 self-esteem, 258, 259 self-identity, 80 self-regulation, 49 semantic, 186, 234, 235, 236 semantics, 65, 67 sensation, 2, 54, 55, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 84, 86, 87, 91, 116, 126, 127, 187, 191, 231, 234, 235 sensations, 52, 54, 55, 57, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 87, 90, 117, 127 sense organs, 52, 56, 58, 59, 61, 67, 70, 71, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 84 sensing, 52, 55, 60 sensitivity, 31, 41, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 78, 82, 84, 85, 87, 104, 105, 108, 109, 118, 119, 128, 129, 130, 133, 137, 140, 152, 153, 167, 169, 170, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 204, 206, 210, 262, 263 sensitization, 47, 87 283 sensors, 105 sensory modalities, 38 sensory perceptions, 38 sentences, 65, 73, 77 separation, 31, 99, 126 series, 1, 35, 58, 126, 130 serine, 142 sex, 45, 140, 141, 145, 146, 243 sex differences, 141 sexual behavior, 33 sexual orientation, 233 shade, 185, 193, 195, 197, 198, 199 shape, 23, 41, 92, 100, 110, 115, 125, 161, 162, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 178, 179, 181, 182, 192, 234, 255, 267 shares, 211 shock, 66, 206, 210, 221, 223, 234 shortage, 56 short-term, 109, 181 shrimp, 102, 118 sign, 51 signaling, 122, 123, 171 signalling, 107, 110, 111, 113, 114, 118, 119, 120, 121, 235 signals, 24, 31, 36, 38, 56, 59, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81, 84, 85, 90, 105, 106, 111, 113, 114, 118, 119, 122, 126, 127, 133, 141, 163, 166, 167, 168, 175, 206 similarity, 190, 197, 200, 257 sites, 113, 123 skeletal muscle, 29 skills, 43, 69, 262 skin, 29, 66, 73, 89, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 111, 122, 123, 196, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259 slavery, 255 slaves, 255 Smithsonian Institution, 200 smokers, 231 smoking, 231, 233 smoothing, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210, 213, 214, 221, 222, 223 snakes, 102 social anxiety, 233 social behavior, 21 social capital, 258 social construct, 254 social group, 236 social situations, 256 socioeconomic status, 254, 255, 258 sodium, 244 software, 145, 205, 215, 221, 262 soil, 116 solid state, 93 284 somatosensory, 46, 78 sorting, 215, 218 sounds, 57, 59, 60 Spain, 125, 161 spatial, 8, 32, 44, 74, 75, 76, 77, 83, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 170, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 182, 208 spatial frequency, 164, 165, 172, 176 spatial information, 161 spatial location, 173 spatial processing, 162 spatiotemporal, 31 spawning, 113, 252 specialization, 12, 44, 47, 50, 181, 183 speciation, 109 species, 21, 22, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247 specific surface, 107 specificity, 198 spectrophotometric, 102, 108 spectrophotometry, 98, 228 spectrum, 39, 57, 90, 91, 93, 98, 99, 102, 104, 126, 127, 128, 130, 133, 146, 147, 149, 150, 153, 155, 187, 189, 190, 198, 199, 226, 240, 241, 262 speculation, 90, 105 speech, 85, 186 speed, 15, 41, 54, 174, 204, 215 sperm, 121 spinal cord, 33 spines, 242 spiritual, 116 sports, 236 SPSS, 145 stability, 66, 116, 251 stages, 72, 78, 109, 126, 141, 144, 162, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 172, 183, 242 standard deviation, 145, 207, 218 standard error, 145 standards, x, 225, 228 starch, 244, 251 stars, 66, 101 statistical analysis, 245 statistics, 204, 207, 257 stereotypes, 257 stereotypical, 29 stereotyping, 230 sternocleidomastoid, 22, 28 stimulant, 54 Stimuli, 265 stochastic, 140 Index Stochastic, 224 storage, 239, 241, 244 strategies, 113, 123, 163, 198 stratification, 254, 255, 258 streams, 31, 32, 35, 162, 164, 166, 175, 179 strength, 168, 172, 190, 208, 213, 214, 230, 235 stress, 93, 111, 121 striatum, 37 students, 4, 8, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 81, 144, 234, 259, 262, 263 subcortical structures, 2, 78 subgroups, 144, 145 subjective, 52, 54, 73, 105, 108, 115, 126, 205, 226 subjective experience, 54 substances, 38, 57, 63, 78, 101, 128 suffering, 82, 144, 171 sugar, 57 sulphur, 107 summer, 244, 252 sunlight, 104 superimposition, 27 superiority, 2, 3, 16, 17, 45 supply, 114 suppression, 50, 81 surface layer, 92 surgeons, 72 surprise, 21, 254 survival, 33, 89, 102, 110, 113, 114, 240, 242, 243, 249, 252 switching, 236 Switzerland, 185 symbols, 263, 265, 266 symmetry, 41 sympathetic nervous system, 60 symptom, 63 synapses, 28 synchronous, 163 syndrome, 63 syntactic, 46, 86 syntax, 67 synthesis, 76, 77, 78 T talent, 256 tanks, 250 target stimuli, 12 targets, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 82, 110 task performance, 235 taste, 38, 46, 57, 58, 240, 241, 243, 244 taxis, 33 teaching, 144 television, 114, 203, 254 TEM, 121 Index temperature, 33, 85, 93, 186, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 243, 248, 249, 250 temporal, 2, 3, 15, 32, 36, 40, 43, 50, 113, 141, 161, 163, 170, 172, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182 temporal lobe, 43, 172, 180 tension, 81 territorial, 89, 112, 113, 122 territory, 114 thalamus, 1, 31, 35, 37, 41, 45, 78 thinking, 52, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 76, 77, 85, 187 threatening, 110, 253 three-dimensional, 67, 75, 76, 110, 156, 245, 247 thresholds, 56, 57, 59, 60, 180 time resolution, 3, 11 tincture, 66 tissue, 97, 99, 112, 240, 246 title, 254 tobacco, 60 tomato, 76 top-down, 1, 35, 36 topographic, 182 tracking, x, 73, 203 trade, 239, 244 tradition, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 73, 84, 85, 187, 188 traffic, 82, 114 training, 84, 108, 121, 194 traits, 95 trans, 86, 200 transactions, 183 transducer, 105 transfer, 3, 78 transformation, 84, 85, 131, 132, 177, 194, 204, 242 transition, 64, 92, 109 translation, 59, 60, 65, 69, 77, 80 transmission, 99, 100, 119, 121 transmits, 36 transplantation, 47 transport, 38, 118, 120, 123 traps, 104 tremor, 234 trial, 5, 8, 9, 13, 19, 24, 26, 27, 44 tribes, 82, 116 trichromatic theory, 126, 127, 128 trigeminal, 22, 27, 29 tropical rain forests, 110 trout, 102, 250, 251 tungsten, 92 turbulence, 256 turtles, 93, 104 two-dimensional, 67, 75, 180 tyrosine, 94 285 U ultrastructure, 123 ultra-thin, 96 ultraviolet, 89, 96, 97, 99, 104, 107, 110, 111, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 150 uncertainty, 84 unconscious perception, 38, 48 undergraduate, 4, 8, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22 uniform, 5, 8, 13, 17, 19, 164, 165, 175 United States, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 183 universality, 187, 198, 200 universe, 63, 196 updating, 213 urine, 110 UV, 96, 97, 99, 102, 103, 104, 108, 112, 114, 118, 120, 121, 122, 258 UV light, 97, 108 V vacation, 253 Valencia, 158 validation, 205, 262 validity, x, 7, 49, 64, 127, 141, 225, 229 values, 34, 90, 91, 108, 129, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 228, 232, 236, 247 variability, 4, 153, 154, 172, 247 variables, x, 10, 43, 143, 153, 154, 155, 156, 226, 231 variance, 6, 154, 155, 156 variation, 21, 103, 107, 150, 153, 155, 206, 219, 221, 222, 223, 231, 234, 253 vector, 156, 193, 205, 206, 210, 215, 221, 222, 224 vehicles, 122 velocity, 32, 43, 55, 207 Venus, 66 vertebrates, 96, 102, 104, 117, 242 vertebrobasilar, 178 vesicles, 93, 94, 96 vestibular system, 60, 263, 266 Victoria, 248 vignette, 229 virtual reality, 230 virtual world, 230 viscosity, 196 visible, 53, 56, 75, 76, 79, 90, 91, 93, 98, 99, 110, 112, 116, 119, 141, 144, 146, 147, 149, 155, 196, 226, 262 visual acuity, 86 visual area, 22, 41, 161, 162, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171, 173, 175, 179, 181, 182 286 Index visual attention, 170, 175 visual environment, 106, 109, 116 visual field, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 16, 19, 41, 75, 80, 89, 115, 142, 147 visual images, 181 visual perception, 38, 47, 48, 75, 86, 105, 110, 116, 125, 179, 205, 208, 215, 262 visual processing, 1, 35, 162, 174, 176, 180, 182 visual stimuli, 5, 7, 10, 23, 39, 43, 44, 73, 143, 261, 262, 266 visual stimulus, 2, 28, 31, 36, 37, 43, 73, 161 visual system, 2, 35, 38, 47, 49, 90, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 115, 126, 128, 139, 147, 150, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 174, 176, 178, 181, 182, 188, 189 visualization, 246 Visual-spatial, 45 visuospatial, 3, 174, 180 vitamin A, 242, 249 vitamin E, 249 vitamins, 242, 243, 251 vocabulary, 190 voice, 72 wear, 117, 121 web, 197, 235, 264, 268 web pages, 235 well-being, 259, 262, 266 western culture, 254 wildlife, 104 wind, 90 women, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 256, 258 word recognition, 234 work environment, 229 workers, 96, 106, 143, 155, 242 workforce, 257 working memory, 49, 174, 177, 182 workload, 49 workplace, 254, 255, 256, 257 workspace, 236 World War, 84 worms, 101, 113 X X chromosome, 141, 142 xanthophyll, 243 X-rays, 118 W water, 90, 93, 101, 103, 104, 111, 116, 196, 197, 198, 199, 240, 250 wavelengths, 44, 53, 80, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109, 117, 121, 122, 139, 143, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 163, 165, 183 wavelet, 204, 222 Y yield, 157, 227, 241, 251 young adults, 43 Z zebrafish, 120