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Nuclear Energy Seventh Edition Nuclear Energy An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes Seventh Edition Raymond L Murray Keith E Holbert AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Acquiring Editor: Joe Hayton Editorial Project Manager: Chelsea T Johnston Project Manager: Punithavathy Govindaradjane Designer: Matthew Limbert Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 GB, UK Seventh Edition, 2015 Sixth Edition, 2009 Fifth Edition, 2001 Fourth Edition, 1993 Third Edition, 1988 Copyright # 2015 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods or professional practices, may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information or methods described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Murray, Raymond LeRoy, 1920Nuclear energy : an introduction to the concepts, systems, and applications of nuclear processes / Raymond L Murray, Keith E Holbert – Seventh edition pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-12-416654-7 (alk paper) Nuclear engineering Nuclear energy I Holbert, Keith E II Title TK9145.M87 2014 621.48–dc23 2013039295 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-416654-7 For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications visit our website at store.elsevier.com Printed and bound in United States of America 14 15 16 17 18 10 About the Authors Raymond L Murray (Ph.D., University of Tennessee, 1950) was a long-time faculty member in the Department of Nuclear Engineering of North Carolina State University Professor Murray studied under J Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California at Berkeley In the Manhattan Project of World War II, he contributed to the uranium isotope separation process at Berkeley and Oak Ridge In the early 1950s, he helped found the first university nuclear engineering program and the first university nuclear reactor During his 30 years of teaching and research in reactor analysis at North Carolina State, he taught many of our leaders in universities and industry throughout the world He was the author of textbooks in physics and nuclear technology and the recipient of a number of awards, including the Eugene P Wigner Reactor Physicist Award of the American Nuclear Society in 1994 He was a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a Fellow of the American Nuclear Society, and a member of several honorary, scientific, and engineering societies After retirement from the university, Dr Murray was a consultant on criticality for the Three Mile Island Recovery Program, served as chairman of the North Carolina Radiation Protection Commission, and served as chairman of the North Carolina Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Authority He provided an annual lecture at MIT for the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations xv xvi About the Authors Keith E Holbert (Ph.D., University of Tennessee, 1989) is presently an Associate Professor in the School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering at Arizona State University His research expertise is in the area of instrumentation and system diagnostics including radiation effects on sensors Dr Holbert has performed tests on safety-related systems in more than a dozen nuclear power plants in the United States He has published more than 100 journal and conference papers, a textbook, and holds one patent Dr Holbert is a registered professional (nuclear) engineer He is a member of the American Nuclear Society and a Senior Member of the IEEE Dr Holbert holds a Guest Scientist affiliation with Los Alamos National Laboratory As the Director of the Nuclear Power Generation Program at ASU, Professor Holbert teaches undergraduate and graduate engineering courses on electric power generation (from all forms of energy), nuclear reactor theory and design, nuclear power plant controls and diagnostics, reactor safety analysis, and health physics and radiation measurements Dr Holbert has been the recipient of multiple teaching awards Keith is a Christian, who ascribes to the doctrine that God has entrusted humanity with good stewardship of His creation Preface Professor Raymond L Murray (1920–2011) authored six editions of this textbook until his death Standing on the shoulders of his work, I have humbly attempted to expand the coverage and depth of the material while keeping with its original intent As stated in the preface to the first edition (1975), the book “is designed for use by anyone who wishes to know about the role of nuclear energy in our society or to learn nuclear concepts for use in professional work.” The continued hope is that the book will benefit both (future) nuclear professionals and interested members of the public For the first time in recent memory, the United States is projected to be energy independent by 2040, largely due to increased domestic production of petroleum and natural gas However, by many accounts, humanity stands at a crossroads, with self-inflicted stresses due to population growth and anthropogenic climate change Simultaneously, the quality of life is enhanced through the availability of economic energy sources Trends show electricity being increasingly tapped as the end-use energy form Another challenge is the competitive collaboration between two critical resources—the energy-water nexus Nuclear reactors are planned that combat global warming, conserve nuclear fuel, support desalination, and produce hydrogen for transportation The construction and plans for new nuclear power plants continue worldwide despite the events at Fukushima in 2011 In what is called a nuclear revival, many utilities in the United States have applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for license extension and approval for new reactor construction Besides nuclear power generation, associated technologies are utilized in a variety of applications including nuclear medicine and smoke detectors Furthermore, since the terrorist attacks of 2001, radiation detectors have been installed at ports of entry worldwide to intercept illicit shipments of nuclear materials Like politics and religion, the subject of nuclear energy generates heated debate in certain circles Hence, a purpose of this book must be to bring factual information to the discussion Topics that seem to generate the most concern inevitably include the persistent nuclear waste issue, nuclear power plant safety, radiation, and atomic weapons Therefore, the authors are compelled to devote coverage to these (sometimes controversial) areas Those familiar with earlier editions will quickly realize that the ordering of chapters in the last twothirds of the textbook has changed noticeably Part I retains its focus on foundational nuclear concepts Part II is now devoted to topics concerning radiation and its generation, effects, and utilization; whereas Part III is aligned to nuclear power generation Besides changes to the organizational structure, significant amounts of up-to-date nuclear data have been added (e.g., see Appendix A), thereby increasing the utility of this book as a reference Student learning is enhanced by performing calculations and analyses on nuclear quantities This edition provides Exercises, solvable by handheld calculator, with final answers given in Appendix B In addition, MATLAB programs and Excel spreadsheets for the solution of computer exercises in the text can be downloaded from http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780124166547/ Persons providing valuable ideas and information are recognized at appropriate places in the book The author welcomes any constructive comments and corrections to the text (holbert@asu.edu) Keith E Holbert Tempe, Arizona, 2013 xvii PART Basic concepts I In the study of the practical applications of nuclear energy we must consider the properties of individual particles of matter—their “microscopic” features—as well as the character of matter in its ordinary form, a “macroscopic” (large-scale) view Examples of the small-scale properties are masses of atoms and nuclear particles, their effective sizes for interaction with each other, and the number of particles in a certain volume The combined behavior of large numbers of individual particles is expressed in terms of properties such as mass density, charge density, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and elastic constants We continually seek consistency between the microscopic and macroscopic views Since all processes involve interactions of particles, it is necessary to develop a background understanding of the basic physical facts and principles that govern such interactions In Part I we shall examine the concept of energy, describe the models of atomic and nuclear structure, discuss radioactivity and nuclear reactions in general, review the ways radiation reacts with matter, and concentrate on two important nuclear processes: fission and fusion CHAPTER Energy CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 Forces and Energy 1.2 Units of Measure 1.3 Thermal Energy 1.4 Radiant Energy 1.5 The Equivalence of Matter and Energy .9 1.6 Energy and the World .11 1.7 Summary .11 1.8 Exercises .12 1.9 Computer Exercise 13 References 13 Further Reading 14 Our material world is composed of many substances distinguished by their chemical, mechanical, and electrical properties They are found in nature in various physical states—the familiar solid, liquid, and gas, along with the ionic plasma However, the apparent diversity of kinds and forms of material is reduced by the knowledge that there are only a little more than 100 distinct chemical elements and that the chemical and physical features of substances depend merely on the strength of force bonds between atoms In turn, the distinctions between the elements of nature arise from the number and arrangement of basic particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons At both the atomic and nuclear levels, the structure of elements is determined by internal forces and energy 1.1 FORCES AND ENERGY A limited number of basic forces exist: gravitational, electrostatic, electromagnetic, and nuclear Associated with each of these is the ability to work Thus, energy in different forms may be stored, released, transformed, transferred, and “used” in both natural processes and man-made devices It is often convenient to view nature in terms of only two basic entities: particles and energy Even this distinction can be removed, because we know that matter can be converted into energy and vice versa Let us review some principles of physics needed for the study of the release of nuclear energy and its conversion into thermal and electrical forms We recall that if a constant force F is applied to an object to move it a distance s, the amount of work W done is the product W ¼ Fs As a simple example, we pick up a book from the floor and place it on a table Our muscles provide the means to lift against the force of gravity on the book We have done work on the object, which now possesses stored energy (potential energy), because it could work if allowed to fall back to the original level Now a force F acting on a CHAPTER Energy mass m provides an acceleration a, given by Newton’s law F ¼ ma Starting from rest, the object gains a speed v, and at any instant has energy of motion (kinetic energy) in amount EK ¼ mv2 ð1:1Þ For objects falling under the force of gravity, we find that the potential energy is reduced as the kinetic energy increases, but the sum of the two energy types remains constant This is an example of the principle of conservation of energy Let us apply this principle to a practical situation and perform some illustrative calculations As we know, falling water provides one primary source for generating electrical energy In a hydroelectric plant, river water is collected by a dam and allowed to fall through a considerable height h, known as the head The potential energy of water is thus converted into kinetic energy The water is directed to strike the blades of a hydraulic turbine, which turns an electric generator The potential energy of a mass m located at the top of a dam is EP ¼ Fh, being the work done to place it there The force is the weight F ¼ mg, where g is the acceleration of gravity Thus, the potential energy is Ep ¼ mgh ð1:2Þ EXAMPLE 1.1 Find the velocity of water descending through a dam with a 50 m head Ignoring friction, the potential energy in kinetic form would appear at the bottom, that is, EP ¼ EK Using gravitational acceleration at the Earth’s surface* g0 ¼ 9.81 m/s2, the water speed would be rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi 2EK 2EP 2mg0 h pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi v¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 2ð9:81 m=s2 Þð50 mÞ ¼ 31:3 m=s m m m Energy takes on various forms, classified according to the type of force that is acting The water in the hydroelectric plant experiences the force of gravity, and thus gravitational energy is involved It is transformed into mechanical energy of rotation in the turbine, which is then converted to electrical energy by the generator At the terminals of the generator, there is an electrical potential difference, which provides the force to move charged particles (electrons) through the network of the electrical supply system The electrical energy may then be converted into mechanical energy as in motors, into light energy as in light bulbs, into thermal energy as in electrically heated homes, or into chemical energy as in a storage battery The automobile also provides familiar examples of energy transformations The burning of gasoline releases the chemical energy of the fuel in the form of heat, part of which is converted to energy of *The standard acceleration of gravity is 9.80665 m/s2 For discussion and simple illustrative purposes, such numbers are rounded off to a few significant digits Only when accuracy is important will more figures or decimals be used The principal source of physical constants, conversion factors, and nuclear properties is the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Haynes et al., 2011) 1.2 Units of measure motion of mechanical parts, while the rest is transferred to the atmosphere and highway The vehicle’s alternator provides electricity for control and lighting In each of these examples, energy is changed from one form to another but is not destroyed The conversion of heat to other forms of energy is governed by two laws, the first and second laws of thermodynamics The first law states that energy is conserved; the second specifies inherent limits on the efficiency of the energy conversion Energy can be classified according to the primary source We have already noted two sources of energy: falling water and the burning of the chemical fuel gasoline, which is derived from petroleum, one of the main fossil fuels To these we can add solar energy; the energy from winds, tides, or the sea motion; and heat from within the Earth Finally, we have energy from nuclear reactions (i.e., the “burning” of nuclear fuel) 1.2 UNITS OF MEASURE For many purposes, we use the metric system of units, more precisely designated as SI or Syste`me Internationale In this system (see NIST in the chapter’s references), the base units are the kilogram (kg) for mass, the meter (m) for length, the second (s) for time, the mole (mol) for amount of substance, the ampere (A) for electric current, the kelvin (K) for thermodynamic temperature, and the candela (cd) for luminous intensity Table 1.1 summarizes these SI base units and important derived quantities Table 1.1 SI Base and Derived Quantities and Units Quantity Unit Unit Symbol Unit Dimension(s) Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity Frequency Force Pressure Energy, work, heat Power Electric charge Electric potential Electric capacitance Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Absorbed dose Dose equivalent Activity meter kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela hertz newton pascal joule watt coulomb volt farad weber tesla gray sievert becquerel m kg s A K mol cd Hz N Pa J W C V F Wb T Gy Sv Bq 1/s kg Á m/s2 ¼ J/m N/m2 ¼ kg/(m Á s2) N Á m ¼ kg Á m2/s2 J/s ¼ kg Á m2/s3 AÁs J/C ¼ W/A ¼ kg Á m2/(s3 Á A) C/V VÁs Wb/m2 J/kg J/kg 1/s 536 Index Electrical power (Continued) nuclear share of, 446f production, 281–283 Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI), 375 Electricite´ de France (EdF), 444–447 Electromagnetic energy, 7–8 Electromagnetic fields (EMF), 149 Electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 501 Electromagnetic spectrum, 9f Electron capture (EC), 33, 35 Electron cyclotron radiofrequency (ECRF), 483 Electrons acceleration of, 104–105 energy levels, in hydrogen, 21f heavy charged particles and, 76–77 heavy ions with, 75f interaction processes, 72 as light charged particles, 73 mass of, 24–25, 129b monoenergetic, 74 orbits, 19–20, 74 pair production with positrons, 81–82 positron pairing with, 35 in radioactive decay, 33 recoil, 184–185 recoil energy of, 79b rest energy of, 11 shared, in water, 21f speed of, 124b, 129b structure, of elements, 20 Electronvolt (eV), Electrostatic forces, 103–104 Electrostatic generator See Van de Graaff accelerator Electrostatic repulsion, 25 Electroweak force, 132 Elementary cascade, 247 Elements, 15–16 electronic structure of, 20 periodic table of, 16f transuranic, 110 EM program See Environmental Management program Emergency classification levels, 355t Emergency core cooling system (ECCS), 356–359, 357f, 363 EMF See Electromagnetic fields EMP See Electromagnetic pulse Endothermic reactions, 50–52 Energy, 3–5 See also specific energy types balance, of reactors, 283f of beta particles, 74–75, 75f binding, 25–28, 26f conservation, 50–52 conservation of, 47 considerations, in fission, 90–92 equivalence with matter of, 9–11 from exothermic reactions, 51b from fission, 93b, 94, 94t from fusion reactions, 102–103, 102b, 105f for ion pairs, 140 monoenergetic electron, 74 neutron, 292 from nuclear explosives, 500–501 from nuclear fuels, 97 recoil, 79b recoverable, 97–98 rest, of electron, 11 thermal, 6–7 threshold, in nuclear reactions, 51t of translational motion, 6–7 from Uranium-235, 97b usage, 11 to water, 10f world use of, 435–439, 436t, 437f yield, 11 Energy Loan Guarantee Fund, 434 Energy loss charged particle, 72f from neutron scattering, 63f nuclear, 72 radiative, 72 Energy Policy Act of 1992, 434 Energy Policy Act of 2005, 310, 434 Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 114 Energy resolution, 187–188 Energy-absorption coefficients, 155–156, 155f, 521t Enrichment nuclear fuel, 252t of uranium, 250–253 of uranium-235, 498, 498t Enterprise, 382, 382f ENTOMB, 420 Environment mercury in, 209 protection of, 438 radionuclides in, 165 Environmental Management (EM) program, 419 Environmental movement, 117, 432–433 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 165, 411 EPA See Environmental Protection Agency EPIX See Equipment Performance Information Exchange EPR See European Power Reactor; Evolutionary Power Reactor EPRI See Electrical Power Research Institute Equilibrium secular, 39, 40–41, 40f transient, 39 Equipment Performance Information Exchange (EPIX), 367 Index ERDA See Energy Research and Development Administration ESBWR See Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor Ethyl bromide, 231 Ethylene dibromide (EDB), 224 European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), 130–131, 132 European Power Reactor (EPR), 444–447 eV See Electronvolt Evaporation, 133 Event trees, 359–361, 359f Evolutionary Power Reactor (EPR), 306–307 Excitation, 72, 73 Excitation energy, 91f Exclusion area, 359 Exothermic reactions, 50, 51b Experimental Breeder Reactor, 116, 464 Exponential peeling, 42–43 F Far East, 448–449 Faraday’s law of induction, 128–129 Fast breeder reactors, 464–466 Fast fission factor, 265, 267–268, 324, 325 Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF), 464 Fat Man, 496–497, 497f Fault trees, 359–361 FBI See Federal Bureau of Investigations FDA See Food and Drug Administration Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), 410 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 354, 362 FEL See Free electron laser FEMA See Federal Emergency Management Agency Fermi, Enrico, 110, 111–112, 197, 495–496 Fermi I reactor, 464 Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), 131 Ferromagnetic materials, 233 FESAC See Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee FFTF See Fast Flux Test Facility Fick’s law of diffusion, 66–67, 316 50 Years of Victory, 384 Film boiling, 280 First World Congress on Food Irradiation, 228 Fission, 60–62, 89, 90f, 96, 110 atom consumption in, 97–98 byproducts of, 92–97 chambers, 183 cross sections, 91f, 95t energy considerations, 90–92 energy from, 93b, 94, 94t explosives, 496–497 fragments, 89, 92, 93 neutron spectrum, 95f neutrons from, 92t, 460f products, 93–94, 341–342 radiative capturing and, 95–96 spontaneous, 92, 99t ternary, 93 yield, 93f, 341, 422t Fissionable, 91 Flibe, 483 Flow decay, 200f Flow rate, 198–199, 199b, 199f Fluorine-18, 202–203 Flux, 54 critical heat, 280 dose calculation and, 155–156 Faraday’s law of induction and, 128–129 gamma ray, 156b neutron, 269–270, 340f radiation, 156t sinusoidal, 318f unattenuated photon, 82 uncollided, 161 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 227, 227t Food irradiation, 224–228, 224t, 226f, 227t, 228f Foodborne illness, 224 Force-on-force exercises, 374–375 Forecasts, 427, 428, 431, 432 Four factor formula, 265–267 in LWR fuel, 324f parameters, 267–269 4p geometry, 178 France, 444–447 Free electron laser (FEL), 132 Fuel, 293 See also Mixed oxide fuel; Spent fuel burnup, 342–346 after burnup, 402f cells, 452 chemical, 387 consumption, 345f costs, 253t cycle, 343, 395–397 electrical power by, 428f energy from, 97 enrichment, 252t for fusion reactions, 483 heterogeneous, 324, 324f, 325 integrity, 311, 353 nuclear compared to chemical, 11 properties, 293t reactivity, 343–344 rods, 278–280, 297–298 zones, 346f Fuel assemblies, 297–298 BWR, 302f loading pattern, 343f 537 538 Index Fuel assemblies (Continued) PWR, 299f spent, 401 Fuel element conduction, 274–276 convection, 274–276 temperature distribution in, 275f Fukushima Daiichi, 351, 370–372, 371f, 434, 448 Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission, 372 Full width at half maximum (FWHM), 187–188 Fundamental physics, 233–234 Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee (FESAC), 491 Fusion reactions, 101–102 comparison of, 477–478 concepts, 488–489 cross sections for, 103f electrostatic forces and, 103–104 energy from, 102–103, 102b, 105f fuel for, 483 laser, 485f, 486f nuclear forces and, 103–104 prospects for, 489–491 reaction rates for, 478f reactivity of, 477 Fusion reactors, requirements for, 479–481 FWHM See Full width at half maximum G Gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), 338 Galileo spacecraft, 389 Gamma rays, attenuation of, 82 cross sections, 80f electron recoil from, 184–185 flux, 156b in food irradiation, 224–225, 226f interaction with matter of, 78–83 positron-electron pairing and, 35 radiography, 211 shielding, 160–161 spectroscopy, 206–207, 206f sterilization, 229 GAO See Government Accountability Office Gas centrifuge, 248–250, 249f Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GT-MHR), 310 Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR), 309 Gas-cooled reactor (GCR), 304–305, 311f Gaseous diffusion cascade, 247f Gaseous diffusion plant, 248f Gaseous diffusion separator, 244–248, 245f Gases, 17–18 Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, 142 GCR See Gas-cooled reactor Gd2O3 See Gadolinium oxide Geiger-Mueller (GM) counter, 162–163, 180–181, 214 General Atomics, 305, 487 General Electric Company, 116, 306, 371f, 403–404, 431 General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS), 389 Generation IV International Forum (GIF), 309 Generation time, 334–335 Genetics, 229 Geologic emplacement, 407f, 411f Geological exploration, 210 Geometric buckling, 263–264, 264t, 317, 322 Germany, 447 GFR See Gas-cooled fast reactor GI tract See Gastrointestinal tract GIF See Generation IV International Forum Global climate change, 434, 440–443 GM counter See Geiger-Mueller counter Gnome test, 500–501, 500f Goiaˆnia, Brazil, 351 Government Accountability Office (GAO), 193, 418–419 GPHS See General Purpose Heat Source Graphite, as moderator, 66, 111–112, 292, 305, 309–310, 369f Gravity, 4np, Gray (Gy), 142 Greenhouse effect, 440–443, 441f Greenhouse gases, 441, 443f Groves, Leslie, 111 GT-MHR See Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor Gy See Gray H H See Dose equivalent Hadron calorimeters, 192 Half-life, 32, 34t, 35, 42–44 biological, 164–165 effective, 141, 169–170, 199–200 of intermediate isotopes, 96–97 of neutrons, 33 of Uranium-238, 42 Hardin, Garrett, 439 Hazard analysis, radiation, 146f Health Physics Society (HPS), 353–354 Heat decay, 358f exchangers, 282f removal, from reactor channel, 280f specific, 6, 18 transfer coefficient, 276 transmission, 273–274 waste, 283–287 Heavy water, 255t, 292, 294, 303, 508 Heisenberg, Werner, 111 Index Heliothis, 231 Helium-3, 102–103, 214–215, 390, 488 Helium coolant, 292, 294, 305, 309, 310, 311f HEU See Highly enriched uranium Higgs boson, 132 High Flux Beam Reactor, 235 High temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), 276–277, 294, 305 High-level waste (HLW), 395, 397 Highly enriched uranium (HEU), 253, 504–505 High-pressure injection system, 356–358, 357f High-voltage machines, 125–126 Hiroshima, 112, 496 HLW See High-level waste Hohlraums, 486 Holes, 187 Homogeneous aqueous reactors, 115–116 Hormesis, 146 HPS See Health Physics Society HRV14, 235–236 HTGR See High temperature gas-cooled reactor Human Genome Project, 200 Hussein, Saddam, 507 Huygens probe, 389 Hydraulic fracturing, 428 Hydrogen atom, 19–20, 19f atomic weight of, 25 economy, 451–453 electron levels in, 21f electron orbits of, 20f generation, 451, 452 isotopes of, 23f as moderator, 65 production, 286 propellant, 385 storage, 452 Hydrogen bomb, 102, 479, 502 Hydrogen processing unit, 311f Hydrogen-3 See Tritium Hydropower, 4, I IAEA See International Atomic Energy Agency IC See Isolation condenser I&C systems See Instrumentation and control systems ICBMs See Intercontinental ballistic missiles ICC See Innovative Confinement Concepts ICF See Inertial confinement fusion ICGFI See International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation ICRP See International Commission on Radiological Protection 539 IDCOR See Industry Degraded Core Rulemaking Ideal gas law, 17–18 IEA See International Energy Agency IEEE See Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IFR See Integral Fast Reactor Ignition temperature, 104–105, 477–478, 479 Impurity production, 84–85 Independent Technology Review Group (ITRG), 310–311 India, 449 Indirectly ionizing radiation, 83 Individual Plant Examination (IPE), 366 Induction accelerators, 128–129 See also Betatrons Industry Degraded Core Rulemaking (IDCOR), 364 Inertial confinement fusion (ICF), 479, 484–488, 487f INES See International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale INF See Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty Infinite slab geometry, 318f Innovative Confinement Concepts (ICC), 491 INPO See Institute of Nuclear Power Operations Insect control, 230–231 Inspections, 506–508 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 353–354 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), 118, 364, 367–368 Instrumentation and control (I&C) systems, 296 Instrumentation systems, 340 Insurance, 362 Integral Fast Reactor (IFR), 467–469, 472 Integral pressurized water reactor (iPWR), 307–308, 308f Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), 502 Interferometry, 234 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 442 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF), 504 Internal conversion, 35 Internal exposure, 163–165 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 114–115, 356 desalination and, 451 inspections, 506–508 NPT and, 503 weapons material and, 193 International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), 145, 154–155 International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), 228 International Energy Agency (IEA), 427 International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES), 351 International radiation hazard symbol, 154f Interplanetary spacecraft, 381 Interstitial brachytherapy, 222 Iodine, 164–165, 201 Iodine-131, 201 Ion exchange, 414 540 Index Ionization, 72, 73, 140 chamber, 179–180 indirect, 83 potential, 80–81 Ionizing radiation, 72–73, 84 Ions, 72 in cyclotrons, 128 engines, 391–392 heavy, 75f, 76f, 77b pairs, 72, 140 IPCC See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPE See Individual Plant Examination iPWR See Integral pressurized water reactor Iran, 449 Iraq, 507 Isolation condenser (IC), 371–372 Isotopes, 16–17, 22–23 See also Radioisotopes barium, 93–94 consumption, 462–464 conversion ratio of, 460–461 decay constant and, 36–37 fissile, 96 fissionable, 91–92 of hydrogen, 23f intermediate, 96–97 plutonium, 463f positron emission and, 34–35 production, 462–464 radioactive, 34t separation of, 248, 253–255, 496 stable, 198 storage of, 153–154 ITER, 490–491 ITRG See Independent Technology Review Group J Japan, 145, 448 Japan Torus-60, 484 JCAE See Joint Committee on Atomic Energy JET See Joint European Torus Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE), 113 Joint European Torus (JET), 483 Joliot, Fre´de´ric, 110 K Kelvin (K), 5–6 Kemeny Commission, 364 KI See Potassium iodide Kinetic energy in endothermic reactions, 50–51 momentum conservation and, 52–53 temperature and, 6–7 Krypton, 93 Kyoto Protocol, 441, 442 L Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE), 487 Lady Godiva, 259–260, 260f l See Decay constant LANL See Los Alamos National Laboratory Large Electron Positron (LEP), 130–131 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 132 Laser fusion reactions, 485f, 486f Laser isotope separation, 253–255 Lasers, 22 Lattice configurations, 323f Lawrence, Ernest, 110, 112, 127–128 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), 486 Lawson criterion, 479, 480 Lead, 40–41, 80f, 160–161, 205, 521t Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), 309, 472 Leakage, 259, 319–320, 413–414 LEP See Large Electron Positron Leptons, 131-132 LET See Linear energy transfer Lethargy, 65 LEU See Low-enrichment uranium LFR See Lead-cooled fast reactor LHC See Large Hadron Collider License Termination Plan, 420 Licensing extension of, 435 of reactors, 354 rules, 296 LiD See Lithium deuteride Light atoms and, 19–22 frequency of, speed of, Light water reactors (LWRs), 148, 297–303, 496 comparison, 303t construction, 298f four-factor formula in, 324f graphite-moderated, 369f Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), 503 The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al.), 439 Linear accelerator (LINAC), 127, 127f Linear energy transfer (LET), 77, 140 Linear no-threshold (LNT), 145–146 Liquid drop model, 27–28 Liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR), 294, 464, 465t, 466f Lithium deuteride (LiD), 500 Little Boy, 496–497, 497f LLNL See Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Index LLRWPA See Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act LLW See Low-level waste LMFBR See Liquid metal fast breeder reactor LNT See Linear no-threshold LOCA See Loss of coolant accident LOFT See Loss of flow tests Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), 112, 115, 412–413, 487 Loss of coolant accident (LOCA), 356 Loss of flow tests (LOFT), 359 Low-enrichment uranium (LEU), 253, 504–505 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (LLRWPA), 415–417, 418–419 Low-level waste (LLW), 398, 413–419 collection, 415f concentration of, 416f interstate disposal of, 417f streams, 416t Low-pressure injection pumps, 356–358, 357f LTBT See Limited Test Ban Treaty LWRs See Light water reactors M MAbs See Monoclonal antibodies MAD See Mutual assured destruction Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF), 479, 481–484, 487f Magnetic fields, 125f Magnetic forces, 123–124 Magnetic induction, 125f Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 203 Maintenance Rule, 355–356 Manhattan Project, 111–112 Mars mission, 390–391 rovers, 388 terraforming of, 392 Mass atomic, 15–16 defect, 25–26 effect, 26 relativistic, 9–10 rest, 9–10, 25 Mass attenuation coefficients, 82, 155f, 160t, 521t Mass spectrograph, 243–244, 244f Mass-energy, 50, 101 Material buckling, 316, 322 Material unaccounted for (MUF), 505–506 Materials, 71 See also Radioactive materials attenuation coefficients of, 82–83 balance, 399t byproduct, 113 ferromagnetic, 233 541 fertile, 96, 459 fissile, 91–92 heavy charged particles and, 75–78 for neutron detectors, 184f radiation damage to, 85, 292–293 significant quantities of, 507t structural, 293 transuranic, 345 weapons, 193 Materials Testing Reactor, 115 Matter conversion of photons to, 81–82 equivalence with energy of, 9–11 gamma-ray interactions with, 78–83 Maximum permissible concentration (MPC), 164 Maxwellian distribution, 18, 18f, 65 MCA See Multichannel analyzer MCF See Magnetic confinement fusion MDS Nordion, 198, 224–225 Meadows, Donella, 439 Mean free path (mfp), 56–57, 57b, 64, 64b Mean life (t), 37, 38 MED See Multieffect distillation Medical imaging, 202–203 Medical supply sterilization, 228–229 Medical treatments, 221–224 Meiosis, 139–140 Membranes, 139–140 Mercury, environmental, 209 Methane (CH4), 441 mfp See Mean free path Microwaves, 483 Migration area, 322–323 Mill tailings, 166, 396, 398 Mining, 166, 469–471, 470t Mirror machines, 482 MIRV See Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle Mitosis, 139–140 Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel, 306–307, 404–405, 465, 505, 509 Moderating power, 268 Moderators, 65, 66t, 292, 309–310 for neutrons, 64–65 thermal expansion of, 336–337 Moisture gauges, 214–215, 216 Molecular speeds, 18f Molten salt reactor (MSR), 309, 468–469, 468f Molybdenum-99, 201 Momentum conservation of, 47, 52–53 linear, 52 Monitored retrievable storage (MRS), 410 MONJU, 448, 464 Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), 223 542 Index Monte Carlo approach, 54–55, 262 MOX fuel See Mixed oxide fuel MPC See Maximum permissible concentration MRI See Magnetic resonance imaging MRS See Monitored retrievable storage MSF See Multistage flash distillation MSR See Molten salt reactor MUF See Material unaccounted for Multichannel analyzer (MCA), 191–192 Multieffect distillation (MED), 449–451, 450f Multigroup diffusion theory, 326–328 Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV), 502 Multiplication factor, 260–261, 265–267, 321–322, 324, 325–326, 331–333 Multistage flash distillation (MSF), 449 Muons, 489 Mutations, crop, 229–230 Mutsu, 384 Mutual assured destruction (MAD), 502 N N See Neutron number N2O See Nitrous oxide NAA See Neutron activation analysis Nagasaki, 112, 495–496 NARM See Naturally occurring and accelerator produced radioactive material NAS See National Academy of Sciences National Academies, 146–147 National Academy for Nuclear Training, 367–368 National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 509 National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 224 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), 145–146, 147, 154–155 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 165 National Ignition Facility (NIF), 486 National Nuclear Accrediting Board, 367–368 National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA), 505 National Reactor Testing Station, 115 National Research Council, 146–147 National Synchrotron Light Source, 132 Natural gas, 428 Natural-circulation evaporator, 416f Naturally occurring and accelerator produced radioactive material (NARM), 398 Naturally-occurring radioactive materials (NORM), 398 Nautilus, 381, 382 Naval propulsion, 381–384, 383f NCRP See National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements NEPA See National Environmental Policy Act; Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft Neptunium-239, 404–405 NERVA See Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application Neutral particle injection, 482 Neutrino detectors, 192 Neutrinos, 33, 94 Neutron activation analysis (NAA), 206–210 Neutron bomb, 501 Neutron detectors, 182–183, 184f Neutron diffusion equation, 316 Neutron gas, 55 Neutron number (N), 23 Neutron reactions, 83–84 Neutron ship effect, 193 Neutron fission spectrum, 94, 95f Neutron transmutation doping (NTD), 232–233 Neutrons, 22–23 See also Delayed neutrons absorption, 91f, 315–316 atomic number versus, 31–32 attenuation of, 57f, 159 in biological studies, 234–235 cross sections, 58–63, 59t cycle, 263f, 266f, 267f diffraction of, 233–234 emission, 33, 92b energy, 292 Fermi age of, 65, 66t, 320–321 from fission, 92t, 460f flux, 269–270, 340f in fundamental physics, 233–234 half-life of, 33 histories, 262f in inducing nuclear reactions, 48–49 lifetime, 333 mass of, 24–25 migration, 63–67, 66f moderators for, 64–65 penetration, 57f population growth of, 331–332 prompt, 92t, 334–335 radiation damage to, 83 radiography, 212–213, 212f reaction hierarchy, 61f reflectors, 319 rest mass of, 25 scattering, 63f shielding, 159–160 slow, 110 thermal, 65 Nevada Weapons Testing Grounds, 410 New Horizons, 390 New Production Reactor, 508 Newton’s law, 3–4 Next-Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP), 310, 434 Index NGNP See Next-Generation Nuclear Plant NGOs See Nongovernmental organizations NIF See National Ignition Facility 9/11 Commission, 375 Nitrogen, 61 Nitrous oxide (N2O), 441 NNSA See National Nuclear Safety Administration NNWS See Nonnuclear weapons states Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 440 Nonleakage probability, 263–264, 333 Nonnuclear weapons states (NNWS), 503 Nonproliferation, 505–506, 506f Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 114, 503 NORM See Naturally-occurring radioactive materials NPT See Non-Proliferation Treaty NRC See Nuclear Regulatory Commission NSSS See Nuclear steam supply system NTD See Neutron transmutation doping Nuclear emulsion track detectors, 192 Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA), 384 Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application (NERVA), 386, 386f Nuclear explosives, 496–502 distance-yield conditions for, 501t energy from, 500–501 radiation effect from, 501 Nuclear forces, 31–32, 103–104 Nuclear fuel See Fuel NUCLEAR NETWORK, 367 Nuclear News, 111–112 Nuclear physics, rise of, 109–110 Nuclear plants See also Reactors construction time of, 430f costs of, 429t decommissioning of, 420–421 economics, 296–297, 428–430 installation of, 116 longevity of, 435 Nuclear power controversy over, 117–118 future sources of, 427 hazards of, 117 international, 444–449, 445t nuclear weapons and, 117, 495–496 public acceptance of, 118 renaissance, 434–435 stagnation, 431–434 Nuclear reactions, 47 by charged particles, 133f equation form of, 47–48 general, 49f inducing, 48–49 rates, 53–56 543 threshold energy, 51t transmutation by, 48f Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 114, 118, 254–255, 354–356 lethal dose and, 114 License Termination Plan, 420 Maintenance Rule, 355–356 QA and, 354 Regulatory Guide, 167–169 safety goals, 373 10CFR20, 154f tests of readiness and, 362 Nuclear security, 374–375 Nuclear stability, 31–33, 32f Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 291 Nuclear structure, 22–23, 24f Nuclear war, prevention of, 502–505 Nuclear warheads, 502 Nuclear Waste Fund, 409–410 Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA), 400–401, 409, 410 Nuclear weapons, 509–510 development of, 111–113 nuclear power and, 117, 495–496 reprocessing and, 406 safeguards, 505–506 strategic, 502 tactical, 502 Nuclear weapons states (NWS), 503 Nuclear winter, 501–502 Nuclear-thermal rocket system, 385f Nucleate boiling, 280 Nuclei (biological), 139–140 Nucleons, 22–23 binding energy per, 26f, 27–28 conservation of, 47 radius of, 25 Nucleus compound, 49 heavy charged particles and, 76 heavy ions with, 76f masses of, 23–25 pair production near, 81f radius of, 19 sizes of, 23–25 Number density, 17, 62 NWPA See Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 NWS See Nuclear weapons states O Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 112, 113, 115, 134, 234 Obama, Barack, 412 Occupational dose, 144t, 147 544 Index OCRWM See Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management (OCRWM), 409 Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, 356 Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, 354 Oil boycott of 1973, 432, 439 hydrogen economy and, 451 uncertainty of, 434 Oklo phenomenon, 270 O&M expenses See Operating and maintenance expenses OMEGA, 490 Operating and maintenance (O&M) expenses, 252–253, 296–297, 373–374, 428–429 Operator error, 364 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 112 Organs critical, 164 radiation weighting factors, 170t relative risk to, 170 Over moderated, 323–324, 369–370 Owner-controlled area, 374–375 Oxygen, 7, 61, 222 P Pa See Protactinium Pair annihilation, 81f Pair production, 78, 81–82, 81f Parallelepiped reactors, 264t, 318f, 319t Particle accelerators, 123, 124f Particle attenuation, 56–58 Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator (PBFA), 487 Particle view, of radiation, 7–8 Particles See also specific particle types collisions, 54f in random motion, 55f Pasternak, Alan, 418–419 Pathogen reduction, 229 PBFA See Particle Beam Fusion Accelerator PBMR See Pebble Bed Modular Reactor p/d See Pitch-to-diameter ratio Pearl Harbor, 111 Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR), 310 PEMFC See Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell Periodic table, 16f Personnel dosimetry, 162–163, 185–186, 185f Pesticide investigation, 209 PET See Positron emission tomography Petroleum exploration, 216 processing, 209 PGNAA See Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis Phase topography, 234 Phosphors, 184, 186f Phosphorus-32, 198, 200, 201 Photoelectric effect, 80–81, 81f Photo-electrons, 80–81 Photonic emissions, 74 Photons attenuation of, 82–83, 159 buildup factor, 161f collisions, 82 conversion to matter of, 81–82 lasers and, 22 unattenuated, 82 Physical protection zones, 374–375, 374f Physiological effects, 140–141 Pile, 111–112 Pinch effect, 481 Pioneer 10, 388 Pitch-to-diameter ratio (p/d), 323–324 Pits, 509–510 Pituitary glands, 222–223 Planck’s constant, 19 Plasma heating of, 482 stability of, 483 thermonuclear reactions in, 104–105 Plasma confinement, 482f Plutonium, 293 disposal, 509, 510 extraction from spent fuel, 509 isotopes, 463f in nuclear weapons, 509–510 mines, 467, 507 production reactors, 495–496 recycling of, 465 vitrification of, 509 Plutonium and uranium recovery by extraction (PUREX), 404, 404f, 405f Plutonium-238, 387–388 Plutonium-239, 96, 111 Poisons, 298–299 burnable, 338 fission product, 341–342 Pollution air, 442 thermal, 284 Polonium-210, 38 Polyethylene, 231f Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), 452 Polymerization, 231 Population, world, 437t, 438f Population growth, of neutrons, 331–332 Index Positron emission tomography (PET), 202–203, 203f Positrons, 35 electron pairing with, 35 emission, 33, 34–35 as light charged particles, 73 pair production with electrons, 81–82 Potassium iodide (KI), 164–165 Potassium-40, 33, 205–206 Potential energy, 3–4 Power, See also specific types of power density, 301–303 effect of temperature on, 338f radioisotopic, 387–390 Power thyristors, 232–233 PRA See Probabilistic risk assessment Pressure vessel, 297–298 See also Reactor pressure vessel Pressurized thermal shock (PTS), 435 Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 115, 276–277, 293 containment, 357f core layout, 320f development of, 381 fuel assembly, 299f RPV, 300f steam generation in, 281–282 system flow diagram, 301f TMI, 363f Pressurizer, 299–301 Price-Anderson Act, 362, 434 PRISM, 467 Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), 306, 355–356, 359–362, 360f Project Prometheus, 391–392 Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), 208, 208f Propellants, 385 Protactinium (Pa), 33 Protected area, 374–375 Protection policies, 154–155 Protective measures, 153–155 Proton recoil method, 183 Protons, 24–25, 62–63 PTS See Pressurized thermal shock Public health, 438, 440 Public opinion, 433–434 Public utilities commissions (PUCs), 433 Pulse height analysis, 190–191, 191f Pulsed photonuclear neutron detector, 192 PUREX See Plutonium and uranium recovery by extraction PWR See Pressurized water reactor Q QA See Quality assurance QC See Quality control QF See Quality factor Q value, 50 Quality assurance (QA), 354 Quality control (QC), 354 Quality factor (QF), 142, 142t Quantum numbers, 19–20, 81 Quarks, 131–132 R Radiant energy, 7–9 Radiation, 7–8, 71 See also specific radiation types annual dose of, 143 background, 44 damage, 83, 84–85, 292–293 effects, 84–85, 171f, 501 exposure, 144–148 flux, 156t hazard analysis, 146f hazard symbol, 154f as heat transmission, 273 losses, 104–105 measurement of, 43f, 177 physiological effects of, 140–141 quality factors, 142t sickness, 141, 370 solar, 148–149 standards, 169–172 terrorism and, 149–150 Radiation, Science, Health (RSH), 145–146 Radiation chemistry, 231–232 Radiation detectors See also specific detector types advanced, 192 characteristics, 178–179 counterterrorism and, 192–193 demands of, 177–178 efficiency of, 178 energy resolution of, 187–188 laboratory, 179f portable, 162–163 semiconductor, 188 solid state, 187–188, 187f survey, 179f Radiation equivalent man (rem), 142–143 Radiation gauges, 213–216, 213f, 215f Radiation transport computer codes, 54–55 Radiative capture, 59–62, 95–96 Radioactive chains, 38–42 Radioactive clouds, 156–157 Radioactive decay, 32, 32t, 33–35, 36f, 93–94 Radioactive materials dilution, 153–154 dispersal of, 153–154 distance from, 153–154 545 546 Index Radioactive materials (Continued) internal exposure to, 163–165 isolation of, 153–154 restricted access to, 153–154 retention of, 153–154 time of exposure to, 153–154 transfer of, 167 transportation of, 401–403 Radiofrequency (RF) generator, 483 Radiography, 210–213, 212f Radioimmunoassay, 204, 223 Radioisotope heating units (RHUs), 388 Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), 387, 388f, 388t Radioisotopes, 33 activity of, 37 anthropogenic, 165 cosmogenic, 165 detection of, 197 primordial, 165 sources of, 198 tracer techniques, 198–201 Radioisotopic power, 387–390 Radiological dispersal device (RDD), 149 Radiolysis, 85, 225, 292–293, 419 Radiometric dating, 204–206 Radionuclide generator, 201 Radionuclides, 38 buildup and decay of, 38, 39f disposal of, 408–409 elimination rate of, 141–142 in environment, 165 in humans, 149 limits in drinking water, 166t in medical treatment, 222t serial decay chains of, 40–42 Radiopharmaceuticals, 201–202, 201t Radium, 109–110 Radium-226, 201 Radius of gyration, 124 Radius of motion, 124 Radon, 166–167, 398 Rad, 142 Random motion, 55f Range, 77–78, 78b Rasmussen, Norman, 365–366 Rasmussen Report See Reactor Safety Study RBMK design, 368–369, 369f RBS See Reactor building spray RCIC See Reactor core isolation cooling RCS See Reactor coolant system R&D See Research and development RDD See Radiological dispersal device Reaction rate, 53–56, 479 Reactivity feedback, 336–337, 337f, 352–353 Reactor building spray (RBS), 357f Reactor channel heat removal, 280f Reactor control, 338–341, 339f, 345f Reactor coolant system (RCS), 299–301, 362–363 Reactor core isolation cooling (RCIC), 371–372, 371f Reactor cores, 297–298, 365f See also Emergency core cooling system Reactor pressure vessel (RPV), 299–301, 300f Reactor Safety Study, 359–361, 364 Reactors, 269–270, 293–296, 294t See also Nuclear plants; specific reactor types arrangement of, 293 bare, 319t criticality, 321–323 decay heat, 358f energy balance, 283f fast, 262–264, 263f fuel zones, 346f generation II, 303–305 generation III, 305–307 generation IV, 309–311 heterogeneous, 323–325, 323f homogeneous aqueous, 115–116 ICF, 487f kinetics, 333–336 licensing of, 354 MCF, 487f natural, 270 for naval propulsion, 381–384 operating parameters, 353 over-moderated, 323–324 parallelepiped, 318f period, 333 plutonium production, 495–496 purpose of, 292 R&D, 115–117 scram of, 340 space, 384–386 structural materials for, 293 supercritical, 259–260 temperature distribution along axis of, 277f temperature distribution through, 276–280 types of, 291–293 water demands of, 284–286 worldwide, 295t Reagan, Ronald, 504 Recoverable energy, 97–98 Recycling breeding and, 471–472 of plutonium, 465 R&D, 472 Red Book, 469 Index Reflectors, 298–299, 319 Regulations annual dose, 143 radiation exposure, 144–148 risk-informed, 362 Regulatory Guides, 355 Relativity, theory of, 9–11 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), 131–132 Release limits, 165 rem See Radiation equivalent man Removal cross section, 159 Reprocessing, 404–413, 472, 503 Reproduction factor, 95–96, 96b, 262–263, 269, 460t Research and development (R&D), 113 reactor, 115–117 recycling, 472 Resonance, 58 Resonance escape probability, 265, 268, 324, 325 Resonance integral, 268 Reynolds number, 483 RF generator See Radiofrequency generator Rheumatoid arthritis, 223 RHIC See Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Rhodes, Richard, 498–499 RHUs See Radioisotope heating units Ribosomes, 234–235, 235f Risk informed regulations, 362 reasonable, 373 relative, 170 Rock salt, 409 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 109–110 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 111 Rover project, 386 RPV See Reactor pressure vessel RSH See Radiation, Science, Health RTG See Radioisotope thermoelectric generator Ruby, for lasers, 22 Russia, 447–448, 504–505 Rutherford, Ernest, 48, 110 S Safeguards, 115 Safety assurance of, 352–354 considerations, 352 engineered, 352, 356 goals, 373 inherent, 352 passive, 352 philosophy of, 372–374 public, 438 547 SAFSTOR, 420 SAL See Sterility assurance level Salmonella, 224 SALP See Systematic Assessment of Licensee Performance SALT See Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Sarcophagus, 370 Savannah, 384 Savannah River Plant, 508 Scattering angles, 64 cross sections, 60f elastic, 55–56, 59–62, 64 inelastic, 55–56, 59–60 neutron, 63f photon-electron, 79–80, 79f Scintillation counters, 184–185, 184f Scram, 121, 340 Screwworm fly, 230 SCWR See Supercritical-water-cooled reactor SDI See Strategic Defense Initiative Seawolf, 382 Second (s), 5–6 Secular equilibrium, 39, 40–41, 40f SEE-IN See Significant Event Evaluation and Information Network SEI See Space Exploration Initiative Self-shielding, 325 Semiconductors, 187 radiation detectors, 188 transmutation doping of, 232 Separation factors, 246–247, 250 Separation of isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX), 254–255 Separative work units (SWU), 252–253 Serial decay chains, 40–42, 41f SERs See Significant Event Reports Sewage treatment systems, 229 SFR See Sodium-cooled fast reactor Shell model, of electronic structure of elements, 20 Shielding, 153–154 See also Self-shielding effects of, 157–163 gamma ray, 160–161 neutron, 159–160 Shippingport reactor vessel, 115f SI See Syste`me Internationale SiC See Silicon carbide Sievert (Sv), 142–143 Significant Event Evaluation and Information Network (SEE-IN), 367 Significant Event Reports (SERs), 367 Significant Operating Experience Reports (SOERs), 367 Silent Spring (Carson), 439 SILEX See Separation of isotopes by laser excitation 548 Index Silicon, 187 Silicon carbide (SiC), 192 SILVA, 253 Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 202–203 Single-channel analyzer, 191–192 Sinusoidal power profile, 278f SIT See Sterile insect technique SLAC See Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Slow neutron processes, 110 Small modular reactor (SMR), 307–309, 308f SMR See Small modular reactor SNAP See Systems for Nuclear Auxilary Power SNAP-27, 388t SNS See Spallation Neutron Source Sodium-22, 34–35 Sodium-24, 198 Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), 309, 472 SOERs See Significant Operating Experience Reports Soluble poison, 298–299 SORT See Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty Source terms, 364 South Korea, 448 Soviet Union, 447–448 Space Exploration Initiative (SEI), 390 Spallation, 133–134 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS), 134, 234 Specific heat, 6, 18, 293t Specific impulse, 386 Specific inventory, 462 Specific power, 301–303 SPECT See Single photon emission computed tomography Spectroscopy gamma-ray, 206–207, 206f setup, 192f Spent fuel, 397 assemblies, 401 components of, 496 geologic emplacement of, 411f plutonium extraction from, 509 pool, 400f radioactivity of, 408f reprocessing of, 404–413, 503 shipping casks, 403f storage, 399–401 transportation of, 401–403 Spitzer, Lyman, 491 Spontaneous fission, 92, 99t Sputnik, 390 SR See Synchrotron radiation SSC See Structures, systems, and components; Superconducting supercollider Stanford, George, 467 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), 127 START See Strategic Arms Reduction Talks Station blackout, 371 Statistics, of counting, 188–190 Steam generation, 281–283, 282f Stellarator, 482 Sterigenics International, 226f Sterile insect technique (SIT), 230, 231 Sterility assurance level (SAL), 229 Sterilization, 228–229 Stiff systems, 336 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), 503, 504 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 504 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 504 Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty (SORT), 504 “Strategic Plan for Building New Nuclear Power Plants”, 305 Stripping reaction, 133 Strontium-90, 419 Structures, systems, and components (SSC), 355–356 Sulfur-35, 200 Superconducting supercollider (SSC), 132 Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR), 309 Superphe´nix, 464 SureBeam Corporation, 228 Surry Nuclear Station, 365–366, 366f Sustainable development, 439–440 Sv See Sievert SWU See Separative work units Synchrotron radiation (SR), 132 Synchrotrons, 130–131, 130f, 235–236 Systematic Assessment of Licensee Performance (SALP), 354–355 Syste`me Internationale (SI), 5–6, 5t Systems for Nuclear Auxilary Power (SNAP), 384–385, 387 T t See Mean life T See Tritium Tails, 250, 396–397 Tampers, 496–497 Tank level measurement, 213f Tax credits, 434 TBP See Tributyl phosphate Technetium-99m, 201 Technology, 440 Temperature of coolant, 277 effect of, on power, 338f ignition, 104–105 kinetic energy and, 6–7 Temperature distribution along axis of reactor, 277f Index in fuel element, 275f through reactors, 276–280 sinusoidal power profile and, 278f 10CFR See Code of Federal Regulations: 10 Energy Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 308–309, 434, 508 Terraforming, 392 Terrorism, 149–150 Tests of readiness, 362 Tevatron, 131 Textile manufacturing, 209 TFTR See Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor Thermal conductivity, 274, 293t Thermal disadvantage factor, 325 Thermal efficiency, 282–283, 296 Thermal energy, 6–7 Thermal expansion, 336–337 Thermal pollution, 284 Thermal reactors criticality of, 265–267 neutron cycle in, 266f parameters, 265–267 Thermal utilization, 265, 268–269, 324, 325 Thermoelectric generators, 381 Thermoluminescence, 205 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), 162–163, 185–187 Thermonuclear explosives, 496–497, 499f Thermonuclear reactions, 102, 104–105, 477–478, 498 Thomas Jefferson Accelerator Laboratory, 130–131 Thomson, Joseph J., 109–110 Three Mile Island (TMI), 351, 362–366 public opinion and, 433 PWR, 363f reactor core, 365f Thyroid, 164–165 Tissue energy-absorption coefficients for, 155f mass attenuation coefficients for, 155f radiosensitivity of, 163 relative risk to, 170 weighting factors, 170t TLD See Thermoluminescent dosimeter TMI See Three Mile Island Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR), 483 Tokamaks, 482, 483–484 Tomography, 202–203 Tracer techniques, 198–201 “The Tragedy of the Commons” (Hardin), 439 Transient equilibrium, 39 Translational motion, 6–7 Transmutation, 47–50 doping, of semiconductors, 232 by nuclear reactions, 48f Transport mean free path, 64, 64b 549 Transportation, 401–403 Transuranic wastes (TRU), 397–398, 419 Trefoil, 154f Tributyl phosphate (TBP), 404 Tritium (T), 22–23, 33 binding energy for, 26 dissociation of, 27f in fusion reactions, 102–103 mass defect of, 26 production, 49, 508 Triton, 382 TRU See Transuranic wastes Tsetse fly, 231 Tuff, 409 TVA See Tennessee Valley Authority Two-group theory, 326–327, 326f Two-phase flow conditions, 280 U UF6 See Uranium hexafluoride Ultrasound, 222 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, Ulysses, 389 UN See United Nations Under moderated, 323–324 Union Carbide Corporation, 113 Unique radiolytic products (URP), 225 United Kingdom, 447 United Nations (UN), 114 Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation, 372 Security Council, 507 sustainable development and, 439 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 227 United States Enrichment Corporation (USEC), 248 United States Geological Survey (USGS), 410 Units of measure, 5–6 UO2 See Uranium dioxide Uranium See also Highly enriched uranium; Low-enrichment uranium composition of, 293 conversion, 396–397 demand for, 469, 470t density of, 17 dilution of, 504–505 distribution, 469 enrichment, 250–253 mining, 469–471, 470t in nuclear weapons, 509–510 radioactive decay of, 33 resources, 469–471, 470t tampers, 496–497 yellowcake, 396 550 Index Uranium dioxide (UO2), 115 Uranium hexafluoride (UF6), 245–246 Uranium-233, 96 Uranium-235, 243 abundance ratio, 245f in burners, 461 calutron process and, 112 cross sections for, 265f delayed neutrons from, 334t depletion of, 462–463 detection, 193 energy from, 97b enrichment, 498, 498t fission fragments from, 93 in fission process, 89 fission products from, 93–94 reaction rate of, 56 reproduction factor for, 96b Uranium-238 cross sections for, 60–62, 61f detection, 193 half-life of, 42 mining of, 166 serial decay chain, 41, 41f URENCO USA facility, 250 UREXþ process, 406 URP See Unique radiolytic products USDA See United States Department of Agriculture USEC See United States Enrichment Corporation USGS See United States Geological Survey Used fuel See Spent fuel UV radiation See Ultraviolet radiation V disposal, 407–408 heat, 283–287 irradiation of, 412–413 isolation, 407f nondefense, 397 products, storage of, 153–154 repository design, 408 transuranic, 397–398, 419 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), 419 Water demands, 284–286 density of, 17 drinking, 165, 166t energy to, 10f heating of, 8–9 heavy, 255t leaks, 413–414 molecular weight of, 17 purification of, 414, 415f saturated, 281f shared electrons in, 21f specific heat for, vapor, 441 Watergate affair, 117 Watson, James E., Jr., 153 Watt (W), Watts Bar reactor, 508 Wave mechanics, 233 Wave view, of radiation, 7–8 Weapons material, 193 Western Europe, 444–447 Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 115, 306 WIPP See Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Wood polymerization, 231 Work, 3–4 World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO), 368, 370 World War II, 111, 244, 495–496 Van Allen radiation belts, 62–63 Van de Graaff accelerator, 125, 126f Venn diagrams, 361 Very high temperature reactor (VHTR), 309, 310, 311, 311f Vietnam War, 117, 432–433 Viking mission, 389 Vital area, 374–375 Voltage multiplier See Cockcroft-Walton machine Voyager, 389 X W Y W See Watt WANO See World Association of Nuclear Operators WASH-1400 See Reactor Safety Study Waste See also High-level waste; Low-level waste BRC, 398 classification, 397–398 coal, 398 Xenon-135, 341 X-rays, 8, 210 production of, 73, 210f synchrotron, 235–236 Yellowcake, 396 Yucca Mountain, 410, 411–412 Z Z See Atomic number Zirc-water reaction, 352 [...]... finding the velocity of a relativistic particle given its kinetic energy and rest mass 1.18 Graph the percentage error in the kinetic energy computed from the classic mechanics expression as compared to the full relativistic formula as a function of the fraction of the speed of light (v/c) 1.9 COMPUTER EXERCISE 1.A Properties of particles moving at high velocities are related in a complicated way according... 1991 Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis John Wiley & Sons Covers many of the topics of this book in greater length Encyclopedia Britannica online www.britannica.com Brief articles are free; full articles require paid membership Halliday, D., Walker, J., Resnick, R.E., 2007 Fundamentals of Physics Extended, seventh ed John Wiley & Sons Textbook for college science and engineering students