SEVENTH EDITION The bestselling Elliott and Quinn series of law textbooks includes reliable and concise texts on Criminal Law, Contract Law, Tort Law and the English Legal System The authors draw on their extensive experience to bring an unbeatable combination of authority, readability and clarity to this series of student-friendly texts Written in a lively and engaging style, each book: ● explains the relevant law logically and clearly ● helps students to succeed in assessments and improve their legal skills ● looks at the context of law-making and its future direction This text is supported by mylawchamber which includes: For students: regular case and legislation updates, web-links, interactive self-test questions, key term flashcards and a glossary For lecturers: a testbank of multiple choice questions that can be used to assess students’ progress All located at: www.mylawchamber.co.uk/elliottquinntort Tort law is a wide-ranging and often complex subject, which can be difficult to grasp for the newcomer Elliott and Quinn’s Tort Law clarifies the essential concepts behind the law, making it easier for you to understand and apply the legal rules The book sets each tort in its social context, so that you can easily understand when and why claims might be brought, and then offers a clear, systematic and detailed explanation of the rules relating to each tort Each chapter also includes discussion of problems with the current law, helping you to develop a critical and analytical approach Through reference to topical cases and issues, the authors show that tort law is interesting and relevant to today’s society A N Catherine Elliott & Frances Quinn Tort Law Tort Law C AS E R SEVENTH EDITION V I G AT O POWERED BY C AS E NEW TO THIS EDITION ● Leading case boxes help you identify and remember key cases and R N A V I G AT O POWERED BY Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/casenavigator for unique online support that helps improve case reading and analysis skills in tort law The LexisNexis element of Case Navigator is only available to those who currently subscribe to LexisNexis Butterworths services Catherine Elliott is a qualified Barrister and Lecturer in Law at City University She has extensive experience of teaching law Frances Quinn is an award-winning journalist, with a particular interest and experience in law remember ● Law in the news boxes help to put legal concepts into context and improve understanding ● Analysis and explanation of the impact of numerous, recently decided cases including: • Rothwell v Chemical and Insulating Co Ltd on damage in negligence • Daw v Intel Corporation on workplace stress • Burstein v Associated Newspapers on defamation • A v Hoare on limitation periods • Corr v IBC on causation • Van Colle v Chief Constable of Hertfordshire on police liability to crime victims • Mosley v News Group Ltd on privacy Elliott & Quinn ABOUT THE AUTHORS rulings ● Chapter introductions identify core themes and concepts to SEV EN TH EDITION Tort Law Catherine Elliott & Frances Quinn www.pearson-books.com Cover © Getty Images CVR_ELLI9338_07_SE_CVR.indd Elliott & Quinn Series 30/4/09 07:26:08 A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Tort Law Page i A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page ii J^[;bb_ejj Gk_ddI[h_[i \ehj^[X[ijijWhj_dbWm I]^hgZcdlcZYVji]dgiZVbYgVldci]Z^gZmiZch^kZZmeZg^ZcXZid Wg^c\VcjcWZViVWaZhZaZXi^dcd[iZmihi]Viegdk^YZidiVaXaVg^indci]Z XdgZVgZVhd[aVl# I]Z:aa^diiFj^ccHZg^Zh^hhjeedgiZYWnbnaVlX]VbWZgi]Vi ^cXajYZhgZ\jaVgjeYViZhidi]ZaVlVcYVgVc\Zd[gZhdjgXZh[gdb ^ciZgVXi^kZfjZhi^dch!ZmVbVYk^XZVcYlZWa^c`h![dghijYZcihidjhZ i]gdj\]djii]Z^gXdjghZ# ;dg[jgi]Zg^c[dgbVi^dcdgiddgYZg i]ZhZWdd`h!eaZVhZk^h^i/ mmm$f[Whied[Z$Ye$ka%bWm A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 7th edition 11:12 AM Page iii Tort Law Catherine Elliott and Frances Quinn A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page iv Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk First published 1996 Second edition published 1999 Third edition published 2001 Fourth edition published 2003 Fifth edition published 2005 Sixth edition published 2007 Seventh edition published 2009 © Pearson Education Limited 1996, 2009 The rights of Catherine Elliott and Frances Quinn to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (HMSO) and the Queens’ Printer for Scotland Law Commission Reports are reproduced under the terms of the Click-use Licence All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners ISBN: 978-1-4058-9933-8 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Elliott, Catherine, 1966– Tort law / Catherine Elliott and Frances Quinn – 7th ed p cm Includes index ISBN 978-1-4058-9933-8 (pbk.) Torts–England I Quinn, Frances II Title KD1949.E44 2009 346.4203—dc22 2009003486 10 13 12 11 10 09 Typeset in 9.5/13pt Stone Sans by 35 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Henry Ling Ltd, Dorchester, Dorset The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page v Brief contents Guided tour Preface Table of cases Tables of statutes, statutory instruments and European legislation 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Tort law: an introduction Negligence Employers’ liability Occupiers’ liability Product liability Breach of statutory duty Deceit Defamation Privacy Nuisance The rule in Rylands v Fletcher Trespass Liability for animals Joint and several liability Vicarious liability Remedies in tort Appendix: Answering examination questions Glossary Index xiv xvii xix xxxiii 17 146 161 179 204 216 225 263 280 305 317 353 366 372 391 418 423 429 v A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page vi A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page vii Contents Guided tour Preface Table of cases Tables of statutes, statutory instruments and European legislation Tort law: an introduction xiv xvii xix xxxiii Comparing tort with other legal wrongs The role of policy Tort and the requirement of fault Reasons for a requirement of fault Arguments against a requirement of fault Alternative methods of compensation for personal injury Reform of the tort system 12 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 14 14 15 16 Negligence 17 The duty of care Development of the duty of care Duties of care: the Caparo test Duties of care: pure economic loss Duties of care: psychiatric injury or ‘nervous shock’ Duties of care: omissions Duties of care: liability for the acts of third parties Duties of care: special groups 18 19 23 27 42 59 61 64 Breach of a duty of care The standard of reasonableness 82 83 Damage 96 Causation The ‘but for’ test Multiple causes Intervening events 99 99 101 107 vii A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page viii Contents Remoteness of damage The tests for remoteness Proving negligence 109 109 114 Defences Contributory negligence Volenti non fit injuria (consent) Illegality Statutory authority Inapplicable defences 116 116 119 123 125 125 Time limits Personal injury cases Reform of limitation periods 126 128 131 Criticisms of negligence law Compensating victims of harm Marking fault Deterring carelessness Spreading risk Individualism and negligence An economic solution? 132 132 134 135 136 136 137 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 137 140 143 144 Employers’ liability viii 146 The employer’s personal duty Types of harm The scope of the employer’s duty Defences 147 151 156 158 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 158 159 160 160 Occupiers’ liability 161 Who is an occupier? What must they occupy? Liability to visitors: Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 Defences under the 1957 Act Liability to trespassers: Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984 Defences under the 1984 Act 162 163 163 168 170 174 Answering questions Summary of Chapter 176 177 A01_ELLI9338_07_SE_FM.QXD 4/28/09 11:12 AM Page ix Contents Reading list Reading on the Internet Product liability 178 178 179 Product liability in contract Product liability in tort The Consumer Protection Act 1987 Other remedies for defective products 180 182 188 199 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 200 201 203 203 Breach of statutory duty 204 Scope of the tort Elements of the tort Defences Problems with statutory torts Breach of EU legislation 205 209 212 212 213 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 213 213 214 214 Deceit 216 Elements of the tort 217 Answering questions Summary of Chapter Reading list Reading on the Internet 222 223 224 224 Defamation 225 Elements of defamation Parties to a defamation action Defences Procedural issues Remedies for defamation Issues in defamation 226 234 235 250 250 253 Answering questions Summary of Chapter 257 258 ix Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 430 Index causation (continued) consumer protection 197 deceit 221 intervening events 55, 107–9 loss of a chance cases 103 –4 mesothelioma 105–7 multiple causes 101–7 multiple tortfeasors 104–7 negligence 99–109 product liability 184 Rylands v Fletcher 310 slander 233 chance cases, loss of 103–4, 222, 399 charitable payments and damages 404–5 children abuse 73–5, 76–7, 81, 206, 380 animals 356, 359 birth of 96–8, 191 consumer protection 190, 192–3 contributory negligence 118–19 disabled 97–8 education 73, 74, 75–6, 206, 210 fatal accidents and damages 405 –6 horseplay 122–3, 322 nuisance, private 289–90, 291 occupiers’ liability 162–3, 166–7, 168, 170, 171, 174 organ retention after death 335 over 18 and bereavement damages 411 parental authority 328 privacy 269–70 sports 122 standard of care due to 93 standard of care required of 84, 118–19 trespassers 170, 171, 174 churches 170 civil partners 405 430 clamping 337, 338, 346–7 clinical negligence see medical negligence coastguard services 71 collateral negligence 385 company prospectus 218, 219 –20 compensation see damages compensation culture 4, 95, 133 conditional fee agreements 133, 250, 255 condoms 191 confidence, breach of 264–8 defences 271–4 remedies 274–6 consent (volenti non fit injuria) 119–23 animals 360, 361 clamping 337, 346–7 confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 272 conversion 339 defamation 235 employers’ liability 158 occupiers’ liability 169, 174 product liability 186 Rylands v Fletcher 311 statutory duty, breach of 212 trespass to goods 337 trespass to the person 326–7 trespassers 174 consumer credit 199 consumer protection 188–9, 198, 199, 315 blood for transfusion 190, 191–2, 196 damage 193 defects 190–3 defences 193–6 development risks defence 194–6, 198 evaluation of 196–8 limitation periods 196 products covered 189–90 strict liability 188, 193, 196–8 contracts assumption of responsibility 60 economic loss, pure 28 fencing 361 licences 344 negligent misstatement and 39, 41 occupiers’ liability: contractual rights of entry 168 product liability 180–2, 199 proximity, relationship of 62 release of joint tortfeasor 369 third parties 180–1, 182 time limits 39, 41 torts and breaches of 2–3, 28, 39–40, 41 unfair terms 121, 169–70, 175 contribution from joint tortfeasor 369–70 contributory negligence 116 –17 Animals Act 1971 360, 361 children 118–19 consumer protection 193 drunkenness 61 employers’ liability 150, 157, 158 occupiers’ liability 168, 169, 174 product liability 186, 193 reduction of damages 119, 150, 394 Rylands v Fletcher 311 seatbelts 117, 119 smoking 118, 119 standard of care 117–19 statutory duty, breach of 212 trespass to land 174 trespass to the person 327 conversion 334, 337–9 defences 339 goods 335, 338 remedies 340 remoteness of damage 340 costs 8, 134 conditional fee agreements 133, 250, 255 contemptuous damages 406 defamation 247, 250, 255 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 431 Index costs (continued ) joint tortfeasors 369 nominal damages 406 payments into court 247 counselling service 153, 154 crime 12 assault 319 compensation for victims of 1, 9–10, 329 convictions as evidence 114 defence of illegality 123–4 public nuisance 281 safety rules 200 self-defence 327 torts distinguished from trespass 345, 347 vicarious liability and 379–83 critical legal theory 136–7 Crown immunity 81 damage asbestos: pleural plaques 99 birth of child 96–8 consumer protection 193 contract, breach of 181 date of occurrence 126–8 deceit 220–1 defamation 233–4 distress damage feasant 346–7 latent 127–8 negligence 96–9, 142 nuisance, private 282, 286, 296 nuisance, public 299 occupiers’ liability 170, 176 product liability in tort 183 –4 remoteness see remoteness of damage Rylands v Fletcher 310 special 392 statutory duty, breach of 211 to property: dust deposit 96 trespass to goods 336 trespassers 176 Wilkinson v Downton, tort in 330–1 see also economic loss, pure; personal injuries damages 392 aggravated 407 alternative methods of compensation 8–12 Animals Act 1971 361 benevolence exception 404 –5 bereavement 13, 56–7, 405, 406, 411 calculating future losses 399–401, 406 calculating the loss 393–5 compensatory 392–6, 409 confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 275 contemptuous 406 contract, breach of 181 contribution from joint tortfeasor 369–70 contributory negligence 119, 150, 394 conversion 340 criticism of negligence law 132–5 deceit 221–2 defamation 236, 247, 249, 250–2, 254, 408, 409, 411 discount rate 400–1 disproportionate to fault 8, 410 earnings, loss of 108, 398–401, 404, 406 exemplary 407–10, 411 false imprisonment 324 fatal accidents 405–6 future losses, calculation of 399–401, 406 general 392, 399 in lieu of injunction 413– 14 loss of a chance 104, 222, 399 lump sums 399–401, 402, 403, 410 malice mesothelioma 107 mitigation 222, 396 nominal 406 non-compensatory 406–10 non-pecuniary losses 392–3, 396, 401–2, 405, 406, 411 nuisance, private 287, 296, 410 nuisance, public 300 over-compensation, prevention of 395–6, 400, 405 payment, alternative methods of 402–3, 410 pecuniary losses 392, 393–6, 397–401, 405 periodical payments 402–3 personal injury 397–406 problems with 132–5, 410 –11 provisional 402, 403 set-offs 403–5 sick pay 404 social security benefits 404, 406 special 340, 392 summary 415–17 tax 404 tortfeasor, benefits provided by 405 trespass to goods 334, 335 trespass to the person 324, 329 death fatal accidents and damages 405– limitation periods 131 deceit 217–22, 223 knowledge or recklessness 219 defamation 226 absolute privilege 237–8, 258 animals 354 apology 247 costs 247, 250, 255 damage, proof of 233–4 damages 236, 247, 249, 250–2, 254, 408, 409, 411 defamatory statements 227–30 defences 235–50, 259–61 distributors and printers 249–50, 255–6 431 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 432 Index defamation (continued ) elements of 226–34 exemplary damages 408, 409, 411 fair comment 236–7 groups 231–2 injunctions 252–3, 255, 413 innocent dissemination 249–50 issues in 253–7 justification 235–6 libel 226, 233, 234, 253–4 malice 5, 237, 238, 246–7, 257 negligence and 40 offer of amends 248–9 parties 234–5 procedural issues 250 publication 232–3 qualified privilege 238–47, 248, 256, 260 remedies 236, 247, 249, 250–3, 254–5, 408, 409, 411, 413 repetition of 233 slander 226, 233, 234, 253 –4 summary 258–61 time limits 253 defective equipment at work 148–9, 155 scope of employer’s duty 156–7 defective premises 41 materials, defects in 190 remoteness of damage 112 defective products see product liability defences act of God 312–13 act of stranger 312, 313 Animals Act 1971 359–61 common benefit 311, 313 confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 271–4 consumer protection 193– contributory negligence see contributory negligence conversion 339 432 defamation 235–50, 259 – 61 default of the claimant 311 employers’ liability 150, 157, 158 illegality 60, 123–4 inevitable accident 126, 328 innocent dissemination 249–50 jus tertii 337, 339, 344–5 justification by law 344 licence 344 mistake 126 necessity 125–6, 323, 336–7, 345 negligence 116–26, 143 nuisance, private 291–5 nuisance, public 300 occupiers’ liability 168–70, 174 –5 parental authority 328 Rylands v Fletcher, rule in 311–13 self-defence 327 statutory authority 125, 291–2, 300, 311–12, 313, 327–8, 336 statutory duty, breach of 212 trespass to goods 336–7 trespass to land 344–5 trespass to the person 326– trespassers, ejection of 328 volenti non fit injuria see consent deterrence 6, 7–8, 13, 106, 135– direct consequence test 109, 110, 340, 362 disability 97–8, 117 disclaimers 30–1, 33, 34–5, 121 occupiers’ liability 169–70, 175 discrimination 212, 408 distress damage feasant 346 –7 dogs 354, 355, 357–8, 359, 360, 361–2 drunkenness 91, 124 duty of care 18–19, 140–1 ambulance services 71–2 armed forces 72 breach of see breach of duty of care Caparo test 21–2, 23–7 coastguard services 71 development of 19–22 employers’ liability 147 fire services as special group 69 –71 future for special-group immunities 78–82 justice and reasonableness 25 –7 local authorities as special group 72–8, 80–2 neighbour principle 19–20 nervous shock see psychiatric injury occupiers’ liability 163, 170 –1 omissions 59–61 police as special group 65–9 proximity 24–5 psychiatric injury see psychiatric injury public bodies as special group 72–8, 80–2 pure economic loss see economic loss reasonable foreseeability 23–4, 46, 47 special-group immunities 64– 82 striking out applications 22, 56, 78–80, 81–2 third parties, liability for acts of 61–4 trespassers 170–1 two-stage test 20–1 visitors 163 economic loss, pure 27, 97, 140 contract, breach of 181 current position 30, 183, 184 development of law 28–30 employers’ liability 155–6 employment references 39–40, 155 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 433 Index economic loss, pure (continued) harassment 332 Hedley Byrne principles 30–40, 156 negligent misstatement and contract 39, 41 occupiers’ liability 170 policy 28 problems with law on 40–1 eggshell skull rule 47, 112–13, 134 emergencies contributory negligence 118 rescuers 49, 50–1, 57, 123 standard of care 92, 118 employee status, tests for 373 –6 employers’ liability 147 asbestos 90, 99, 105–7, 111, 118, 119 bullying 148, 154 causation 101–2, 105–7, 108 –9 common practice in industry 92–3, 150 competent staff 147–8 contributory negligence 150, 157, 158 counselling service 153, 154 defences 150, 157, 158 duty of care 108, 147–50, 156 –8 economic loss 155–6 equipment, adequate 148–9, 155, 156–7 harassment by colleagues/bosses 148 insurance 9, 106, 107, 135 intervening events 108 lifting 150 non-delegable duty 157–8 police officers 148, 157–8 practical jokes 147 psychiatric injury 49, 52–4, 55–6, 151–5, 156, 333 remoteness of damage 111 research on damages 133 safe place to work 149 safe system of working 149–50, 157–8 scope of duty 108, 156–8 statutory duty, breach of 207, 208, 210–11, 211 stress 55–6, 151–5, 333 summary 159–60 types of harm 151–6 victimisation 148 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 120, 158, 212 see also health and safety; vicarious liability employment references 39–40, 155 equipment employers’ liability for defective 148–9, 155 scope of employer’s duty 156 –7 errors of judgement 118 European Convention on Human Rights art 2: life, right to 68–9 art 3: inhuman and degrading treatment 76 art 6: fair trial 68, 78–9, 80 –1 art 8: private and family life 76, 77, 265, 266, 268, 269, 291, 297–8 art 10: freedom of expression 226, 231, 237, 252–3, 256, 265, 268, 275, 333 European Union 188, 189, 195 breach of EU legislation 213 ex turpi causa (illegality) 60, 123– exclusion clauses/of duty 30–1, 33, 34–5, 121 occupiers’ liability 169–70, 175 trespassers 175 explain, duty of professionals to 88–9 expression, freedom of 226, 231, 234–5, 237–8, 239, 243 conditional fee agreements 255 harassment 333 injunctions 252–3, 255, 413 printers and distributors 255– privacy 265, 268, 270–1, 275 restrictions on press freedom 256–7 fair trials 68, 78–9, 80–1 false imprisonment 323–6, 327, 349 farming see agriculture fault, requirement of 4–6 arguments against 7–8, 187 economic effects of liability 134 –5 nuisance, private 286–7 reasons for 6–7 fencing 361 fire services 94 creation of a risk 61 psychiatric injury 52–3 visitors: occupiers’ liability 164, 167 flooding private nuisance 282, 283, 288, 292–3 Rylands v Fletcher 306, 307, 311–13 foreseeability test, reasonable duty of care 23 –4, 46, 47 remoteness of damage 109, 110–14, 286, 287, 311, 336, 340 freedom of expression see expression, freedom of genetically modified crops 345 harassment 331–4 employers’ liability 148 nuisance, private 289, 290 privacy 271 vicarious liability 154, 333, 384 hazardous activities and statute 315 see also consumer protection health and safety 148, 156, 207, 209, 210–11 changes in knowledge 89–90, 126 433 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 434 Index health and safety (continued ) see also employers’ liability; vicarious liability Hedley Byrne principles 28–31 claimants not known to defendant 33–4 contract and negligent misstatement 39, 41 deceit, comparison with 217, 221 disclaimers 34–5 employers’ liability 156 employment references 39 –40 pension planning 38–9 reliance by claimant 35–6 special relationship 31–2 voluntary assumption of responsibility 32–3 ‘wills’ cases 36–9 Highway Code 116 highways 342, 358–9, 361 horseplay 122–3, 322 horseracing 93 human rights see European Convention on Human Rights hunting 341–2, 347 illegality 60, 123–4 illness and standard of care 84 independent contractors 373 employer’s personal duty 147 joint tortfeasor with employer 385 nuisance, private 288 occupiers’ liability 147, 167–8, 385 independent liability 367 individualism and negligence 136–7 inevitable accident 126, 328 informants, police 62, 66–7 information, misuse of private see privacy inhuman and degrading treatment 76 injunctions 412, 417 confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 274–5 434 damages in lieu 413–14 defamation 252–3, 255, 413 interlocutory/interim 252–3, 255, 412–13 private nuisance 286–7, 295– public nuisance 300 insurance 95 agency workers 376 animals 362 defamation and legal costs 255 driving and illness 84 fault 6, 7, 135 fire services 71 mesothelioma 106, 107 motorists 84, 121 out-of-court settlements 134 pay-outs and damages 404–5, 406 Pearson Commission 12, 13 product liability 197 reinsurance 394–5 spreading risk 136 types of vicarious liability 384, 386 intention 4–5 Internet service providers defamation 232–3, 249–50 intervening events 55, 107–9, 114 joint and several liability 186, 367–71, 373 juries defamation 250, 251, 254 jus tertii 337, 339, 344–5 justiciability 73, 75, 188 knowledge actual 128 constructive 128, 129 consumer protection and changes in 194–6, 198 deceit 219 negligence and changes in 89–90, 136–7, 198 reasonable grounds to believe 171 time limits: latent damage 127– time limits: personal injury 128 –30 laissez faire policy latent damage time limits 127–8, 196 legal aid 250 leisure centres 170 licences 344 life, right to 68–9 limitation periods see time limits livestock 335, 338, 341, 360–1 dogs killing or injuring 361–2 local authorities defamation 234–5 defence of statutory authority 125 duty of care 72–8, 80–2 private nuisance 289 standard of care 87 statutory nuisance 281 malice defamation 5, 237, 238, 246–7, 257 private nuisance 5, 285–6, 287 malicious falsehood 265 mandatory injunctions 412 market system 135 medical negligence 10–11 causation 99–101, 102–4, 107– individualism and 136–7 insurance 135 mistake as defence 126 res ipsa loquitur 115 standard of care 85–8, 89, 90, 126, 133–4 time limits 130, 131 medical treatment 321, 322, 326, 329 mental capacity to consent 120 –1 mesne profits 346 mesothelioma 90, 105–7, 112 mistake defence of 126 errors of judgement 118 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 435 Index misuse of private information see privacy motivation Motor Insurers’ Bureau multiple causes 101–7 multiple tortfeasors 104–7 necessity, defence of 125–6, 323, 336–7, 345 negligence 18 act of stranger 312 animals 354 causation 99–109 criticisms of law 132–7, 186 –8 damage 96–9 defences 116–26 duty of care see duty of care economic formula 137 exemplary damages not available 410 independent contractors and collateral 385 individualism and 136–7 land 346 medical see medical negligence nuisance and 290 policy and Compensation Act 2006 product liability 182–8, 199 remoteness of damage 109–16 Rylands v Fletcher and 313, 314 standard of care see standard of care state of mind summary 140–3 time limits 39, 126–32, 143, 328 trespass to goods and 336 trespass to land 344 trespass to the person and 318, 321, 322, 324 negligent misstatements 28–31 claimants not known to defendant 33–4 contract and 39, 41 deceit compared with 217, 221 disclaimers 34–5 employers’ liability 156 employment references 39– 40 pension planning 38–9 reliance by claimant 35–6 special relationship 31–2 voluntary assumption of responsibility 32–3 ‘wills’ cases 36–9 nervous shock see psychiatric injury NHS complaints system 10 –11 no-fault scheme 7, 11–12 non-pecuniary loss 11, 13 novus actus interveniens 55, 107–9, 114 nuisance private see private nuisance public 281, 298–300 statutory 281 occupiers’ liability 162 calling, persons exercising a 167 children 162–3, 166–7, 168, 170, 171, 174 contractual rights of entry 168 contributory negligence 168, 169, 174 damage 170, 176 defences 168–70, 174–5 definition of occupier 162–3 duty of care 163, 170–1 exclusion clauses 169–70, 175 independent contractors 147, 167–8, 385 insurance premises, occupiers of 163 standard of care 164–8, 172– summary 177–8 trespassers 124, 170–6 visitors 147, 163–70 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 169, 174 walkers and ramblers 164, 172 warnings 165, 169, 172, 173, 175 ombudsman 74 omissions 59–61, 141, 338–9 trespass ab initio 343 Osman warnings 69 out-of-court settlements 7–8, 89, 134, 369 parental authority 328 partnerships 380 pension schemes 9, 38–9, 155 disability pensions 404–5 personal injuries alternative methods of compensation 8–12 contract, breach of 181 damages 397–406 deceit 219, 221 occupiers’ liability 170, 176 product liability 183, 193, 197–8 time limits 128–31, 132, 196, 328 –9 trespass and negligence 329 Wilkinson v Downton, tort in 330–1 planning permission 285, 292 police aggravated damages 407 assumption of responsibility 60 –1 creating a risk of danger for 63–4, 123 deaths in custody 59–60, 118, 120–1 dogs 357 exemplary damages 408, 409 harassment by colleagues 148 Human Rights Act 68–9 informants 62, 66–7 occupiers’ liability 171 psychiatric injury 50–2, 155 safe system of working 157–8 435 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 436 Index police (continued) seized/damaged/stolen goods and conversion 339 special-group immunity 65–9, 78–9 stress 155 third parties, liability for acts of 62–3 trespass ab initio 343 trespass to goods 336 trespass to land 343, 344, 345 trespass to the person 329 vicarious liability for criminal acts by 381, 382–3 visitors: occupiers’ liability 164 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 123 policy, role of 3–4, 20 causation 100–1 duty of care 20, 28 duty of care: special-group immunities 64–5, 66, 67, 68, 71, 73, 74, 79–80 economic loss 28 nuisance, private 296 Rylands v Fletcher, rule in 310–11 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 123 political parties 235 practical jokes 147 prescription 293, 300 prisoners damage caused by escaped 63 duty of care to 59–60 false imprisonment 324, 325–6, 327 health care 100 suicide 59–60, 118, 120–1 visitors 266 privacy 264 background 264–5 current law 265–8 defences 271–4 freedom of expression versus 270–1 436 misuse of private information 266, 268–71 public interest test 273–4 reasonable expectation of 268 –70 remedies 274 –6 summary 277–8 private and family life (art ECHR) 76, 77, 265, 266, 268, 269 nuisance, private 291, 297–8 private nuisance 281, 346 abatement 296 animals 354 care and skill 294 claimants 289–91, 296–7, 298 ‘coming to the nuisance’ 294 –5 creator of 287 damage 282, 286, 296 damages 287, 296, 410 defences 291–3 defences, inapplicable 293 –5 defendants 287–9 differences between public and 300 elements 281–7 fault 286–7 human rights and 291, 297–8 indirect interference 281–3 injunctions 286–7, 295–6 malice 5, 285–6, 287 negligence and 290 occupier 288 owners 288–9 prescription 293 problems with 296–8 public interest 292, 293–4, 295–6, 297–8 reasonable foreseeability 286, 287 remedies 295–6 Rylands v Fletcher and 313 statutory authority 291–2 statutory remedies, alternative 292–3 summary 302–3 television reception 282, 296 time limits 128 trespass 288, 341 unreasonableness 283–6 view, obstruction of 282, 296 privity of contract 180–1, 182 product liability 180, 199 Consumer Credit Act 1974 199 Consumer Protection Act 1987 188 –99 contract 180 –2, 199 negligence 182–8, 199 safety regulations 199–200 strict liability summary 201–3 professional negligence remoteness of damage 112 standard of care 76, 85–90, 126 profits, account of 276 prohibitory injunctions 412 proportionality 270–1 protective equipment and clothing 148, 150, 157 proximity armed forces 72 duty of care: acts of third parties 62–3, 65, 67 duty of care: relationship of 24 –5 fire services 70–1 psychiatric injury: secondary victims 47, 54–5, 58 psychiatric injury 140–1 causation 102 employers’ liability 55–6, 151–5, 156, 333 nature of 42–3 primary victims 43–5 remoteness of damage 111 Wilkinson v Downton, tort in 330 –1 psychiatric injury (secondary victims) 45–8, 134–5, 141 bystanders 54 class of person 49–54 employees 49, 52–4, 55–6, 155 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 437 Index psychiatric injury (secondary victims) (continued ) nature and cause of 48–9, 58 not caused by accidents 55 –6 problems with law 57–8 proximity 47, 54–5, 58 reform 59 relatives and friends 49–50, 57 rescuers 49, 50–1, 57, 123 statutory award for bereavement 56–7 unwitting agents 49, 53–4 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 123 public bodies defamation 234–5 defence of statutory authority 125 disclosure of information: public interest 274 duty of care 72–8, 80–2 public inquiries 12 public interest confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 273–4 defamation see absolute privilege; qualified privilege expression see expression, freedom of planning decisions 292 private nuisance 292, 293–4, 295–6, 297–8 public nuisance 281, 298–300, 303 public rights of way 164 punishment pure economic loss see economic loss, pure qualified privilege 238, 248, 256, 260 common law 240–1 malice 238, 246–7 neutral reportage 245–6 Reynolds defence 241–5, 246, 247 statute 238–40 race discrimination 212, 408 ramblers and walkers 164, 172 re-entry 345 reasonableness changes over time 229–30 duty of care: justice and 25–7, 72–7 duty of care: reasonable foreseeability 23–4, 46, 47 duty of care, development of 19–22 Hedley Byrne: reasonable reliance 31, 35–6 knowledge injury significant 129–30 parental authority 328 privacy, expectation of 268–70 private nuisance 282–7 re-entry 345 remoteness: reasonable foreseeability test 109, 110–14, 286, 287, 311, 336, 340 self-defence 327 standard of care see standard of care trespassers, ejection of 328 unfair contract terms: disclaimers and exclusions 121 referees, sports 85, 122 references, employment 39–40, 155 reform of tort system 12–13 reinsurance 394–5 remedies abatement of nuisance 296 account of profits 276 Animals Act 1971 361–2 damages see damages distress damage feasant 346 –7 injunctions 252–3, 255, 274–5, 295–6, 300, 412–14, 417 land, action for recovery of 346 livestock, sale of 361 mesne profits 346 re-entry 345 remoteness of damage 109, 142 Animals Act 1971 362 conversion 340 direct consequence test 109, 110, 340, 362 eggshell skull rule 47, 112–13, 134 intervening events 114 negligence 109–16 nuisance, private 286–7 proving negligence 114–16 reasonable foreseeability test 109, 110–14, 286, 287, 311, 336, 340 Rylands v Fletcher 308, 311 trespass to goods 336 res ipsa loquitur 114 –16 rescuers 49, 50–1, 57, 123 rights of way private 282 public 164 road accidents animals 358–9 breach of duty of care 8, 82, 83, 84 contributory negligence 116–17, 118 criminal offences Highway Code 116 insurance 9, 11, 84, 135 local authorities 73, 74 no-fault schemes 11–12 passengers 121–2 Pearson Commission 12–13 proving negligence 115 seatbelts 117, 119 special characteristics of defendant 84 standard of care 8, 82, 83, 84 statutory duty, breach of 207–8, 210 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 121–2 rugby 122, 381–2 Rylands v Fletcher, rule in 306, 346 claimants 310 437 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 438 Index Rylands v Fletcher, rule in (continued) damage 310 damages 410 dangerous things 309 defences 311–13 elements of 306–10 escape 310 negligence and 313, 314 non-natural use of land 307–9, 310–11 nuisance and 313 role of 314–15 statutory regulation 314, 315 strict liability 5, 306, 310–11, 314 summary 315–16 trespass to land and 314, 346 seatbelts 117, 119 self-defence 327 servitudes 282 sex discrimination 212, 408 sexual abuse 380 sexual assault 328–9 sick pay 404 smoking and contributory negligence 118, 119 social security system 8–9, 12, 13, 136, 197–8 damages and 404, 406 solicitors causation 101 conditional fee agreements 133, 250, 255 date of occurrence of damage 127 standard of care 88 ‘wills’ cases 36–8 special funds 11 sports boxing 120, 326, 327 golf 165 horseracing 93 negligence 85, 93, 120, 122–3 referees 85, 122 rugby 122, 381–2 standard of care 85, 93 438 trespass to the person 326 –7 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 120, 122–3, 326 –7 spouses 405 squatters 346 standard of care 82–3, 95, 141–2 benefits of risk, potential 94 –5 children 84, 93, 118–19 claimant, special characteristics of 90–1 common practice 92–3 contributory negligence 117–19 defendant, special characteristics of 84–90 deterring carelessness 135–6 employers’ liability 147–58 illness 84 medical treatment 85–8, 89, 90, 126, 133–4 objective 8, 82–3 obviousness of risk 93 occupiers’ liability 164–8, 172– policy and Compensation Act 2006 practicality of protection 91–2 product liability 184–6 professionals and special skills 85–90, 126 reasonableness 83–95 size of risk 91 trespassers 172–4 visitors 164–8 statutory authority as a defence 125, 291–2, 300, 311–12, 313, 327–8 trespass to goods and police 336 statutory duty, breach of 205 defences 212 elements of 209–12 EU legislation, breach of 213 policy and Compensation Act 2006 problems with 212 public sewers 293 safety regulations 199–200 scope of tort 205–9 strict liability 5, 210 summary 213–14 time limits 128 vicarious liability 384 statutory nuisance 281 statutory power and right to compensation 74 stress employers’ liability 55–6, 151–5, 333 strict liability aircraft, civilian 340 Animals Act 1971 356, 357, 359 arguments against 197–8 arguments for 187 burden of proof 7, 197 consumer protection 188, 193, 196–8 defamation 231 false imprisonment 325 non-delegable duties 385 nuisance, private 286–7 Rylands v Fletcher 5, 306, 310–11, 314 state of mind 5–6 statutory duty, breach of 5, 210 strip-searches 266, 331 surveyors 29–30, 41, 392–3 tacit rules 123 tampons and toxic shock syndrome (TSS) 192 taxation 404 television reception 282, 296 third parties causation and 104 contracts and rights of 180–1, 182 jus tertii defence 337, 339, 344 –5 liability for acts of 61–4 nuisance caused by 288 time limits 126 consumer protection 196 contracts 39, 41 contributions 370 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 439 Index time limits (continued ) date damage occurred 126 –8 defamation 253 latent damage 127–8, 196 negligence 39, 126–32, 143, 328 nuisance 128 personal injury 128–31, 132, 196, 328–9 reform 131–2 statutory duty, breach of 128 trespass to the person 128, 131, 328–9 trespass to goods 318, 334 defences 336–7 elements 334–6 negligence and 336 summary 350–1 trespass to land 318 ab initio 343 –4 abatement of nuisance 296 animal, trespasser injured by 360 by relation 343 continuing 343 criminal offence 345, 347 defences 344–5 ejection of trespassers 328 elements 340–2, 344 highways 342 negligence 344 nuisance and 288, 296, 341 nuisance caused by trespassers 288 occupiers’ liability and trespassers 124, 170–6 ramblers and walkers 164, 172 remedies 345–7 Rylands v Fletcher and 314, 346 summary 351 trespass to the person 318, 325 animals 355 assault 318–20, 349, 355 assault without battery 320 battery 320–3, 326, 349, 355 defences 326–8 false imprisonment 323–6, 349 medical treatment 321, 322, 326, 329 negligence and 318, 321, 322, 324 role of 329 sexual assault 328–9 summary 349–50 time limits 128, 131, 328 –9 unfair contract terms 121, 169–70, 175 unmarried partners 405 valuations 35, 117, 393–4 vicarious liability 147, 185, 373 agency workers 375–6 casual workers 375 in the course of employment 377–84 criminal acts 379–83 employee status, tests for 373– employer’s indemnity 384 express prohibition 378–9 ‘frolics of their own’ 383–4 harassment 154, 333, 384 independent contractors 373, 385 joint 368, 377 loan of an employee 376– nightclub bouncer 382 nuisance, private 288 partnerships 380 reasons for imposition of 385– statutory duty, breach of 384 summary 388–9 victimisation 148 view, obstruction of 282, 296 visitors 147 definition of 163–4 occupiers’ liability 164–70 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 119 –23 animals 360, 361 clamping 337, 346–7 confidence, breach of/misuse of private information 272 conversion 339 defamation 235 employers’ liability 158 occupiers’ liability 169, 174 product liability 186 Rylands v Fletcher 311 statutory duty, breach of 212 trespass to goods 337 trespass to the person 326–7 trespassers 174 walkers and ramblers 164, 172 warnings animals 360 causation 100–1 clamping 337, 338 consumer protection 190, 191, 192 conversion 338 guard dogs 360 occupiers’ liability 165, 169, 172, 173, 175 product liability in tort 186 protective equipment 148 statutory duty, breach of 208, 210 stress and employee 152, 153, 154 trespass to goods 337 volenti non fit injuria (consent) 121 Wednesbury unreasonableness 74 welfare provision see social security system Wilkinson v Downton, tort in 329–30, 334, 350 elements 330–1 wills 36–8 439 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 440 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 441 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 442 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:06 AM Page 443 Z03_ELLI9338_07_SE_IDX.QXD 4/28/09 9:07 AM Page 444