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In Defense of Eclecticism and Knowledge Management A cursory glance at the titles in this collection may lead one to categorize it as an “eclectic assembly” about knowledge. Such a label, however, would be hitting it squarely on the head. Isn’t humanity’s collective knowledge an eclectic assemblage, and isn’t a truly learned person a person with knowledge in many disciplines? Traditionally, a “Renaissance person” was an individual with astuteness and familiarity in varied disciplines. A contemporary Renaissance person is an eclectic jackofalltrades. Neither knowledge nor eclecticism is undesirable. The essays in this collection are strung together on the thread of “sharing of knowledge”. Sharing, as in imparting knowledge in a formal classroom setting; sharing as in disseminating information to large populations in a society. Teachers, policy makers, and businesspersons are wrestling with two important issues: one, presenting relevant, timely, and useful information to their users and two, placing the information where the users may reach and access it easily. Assuming that “educated decisions” are in the best interest of people in a society, it is important that users of the knowledge, be it students in a classroom, or public at large, have the choice in deciding the value, worth, and usefulness of a particular piece of information before accepting or discarding it. Broadly speaking, the essays in this collection are about creation, dissemination, and results of knowledge sharing efforts. Such a grouping lends itself to three sections: Theoretical framework around knowledge management, the organization of knowledge for formal instruction, and presenting knowledge in a given society. The opening essay by Rehman lays a broad foundation by describing the purpose, place, and importance of managing and sharing knowledge in formal learning settings. He offers practical approaches to planning and imparting instructions. Simplistic as it may seem, Rehman’s recommendations are grounded in research. His arguments appeal equally to logic and common sense. The two papers in Section II report on a society’s attempt at sharing knowledge with its various publics. Marta Koszko discusses and dissects the use of Quick Response bar codes, their display in public places, and users’ reactions to QR codes, smartphones and technological sophistication necessary to make use of such communication. Marta Koszko questions the relevance of recent technological devices that are supposed to help people communicate more effectively and access information more easily. She describes the early attempts of introducing the Quick Response (QR) codes in Poland. The postal stamp lookalike squares have endless functions from carrying a boarding card to scanning and depositing a check into one’s checking account. One can pay a bill by scanning the QR code on a bill or get directions to a museum by scanning the QR code on a poster at a train station. Koszko argues that while it is an extremely useful technology in providing, sharing, and accessing information, it is of little use for someone who is not about to board a plane or pay a bill or visit a museum. Or if a person does not own a device that can scan a QS code and then perform various functions. For such nonusers, the display of QR codes in public places is an intrusion. Such persons may also feel excluded from the communication that is occurring through this new technology. Are the QR codes to improve communication among the providers and the users or is it to exclude certain people from the communication process. She agrees that if one has a proper device one has the information, without it, one is unable to access certain information. She concludes that for some, these devices may be useful, for others these may be unessential. Monika Chomątowska revisits the question of turning cities into metropolises. Reminiscent of żerman expressionist cinema and Żritz Lang’s landmark silent film Metropolis (1927) that presented a futuristic urban dystopia producing dehumanization, totalitarian control, and environmental disaster leading to cataclysmic decline in society, Chomatowska asserts that in the name of “knowledge economy”, some governments and international organisations are pushing for metropolization as the future of the world. As more and more opportunities are shifted from the rural areas to the cities, the quality of life in the rural areas deteriorates. People migrate to the cities in pursuit of employment, education, and healthcare. Such depopulation of the rural areas and the overpopulation in the cities has widened the gap between metropolises and the countryside creating a visible social exclusion that is afflicting both rural and metropolitan populations, and has produced a social underclass in the rapidly growing cities in Asia, Africa, and South America. Offering examples of transformation of European cities such as Barcelona, Glasgow, and Stockholm, she questions the social and economic benefits of metropolization. Just as expressionistic cinema introduced a new form of conflict man versus city in narrative structure. Chomątowska warns us of the deepening of internal disparities in metropolises, of high unemployment among immigrants, hence creating a poor underclass. The lure of a better life in a big city is giving way to a dual city with rich gated communities near slums where the children of poor immigrants attend the worse schools and the poverty becomes heritable. The newcomers from rural areas often lose their cultural values. The moral standards in metropolises are also different from those in traditional societies– e.g. higher divorce rates, consumeristic lifestyle, placing career above family life, and loose sexual contacts have resulted from the creation of metropolitan cities. Careful knowledge management and communication need to be put in place before cities turn into futuristic nightmares.Three essays in Section III are case studies from classrooms where educators and facilitators are facing the challenges of reconciling with cultural values and social issues. Lyon Rathbun is teaching in a violenceridden town on the border between the US and Mexico where gunfire exchanges between the members of the drug cartel and the law enforcement agencies are everyday occurrences; where innocent bystanders risk getting caught in the crossfire and getting killed. It is not easy to teach grammar when the students are preoccupied with guns, or to the students to pay attention to calculus or chemistry when kidnapping and human trafficking are eminent. In such a challenging classroom, Rathbum teaches literature. In a firstperson style, he describes the challenges he faced and how he overcame these. As a personal account, he tells a moving story of how he has taken the reality of the students lives and made it relevant to literature. His narrative is moving and heartwarming. He has added a new dimension to sharing knowledge by building trust between the learner and the teacher. Silvia Emilia Plăcintar offers a fresh perspective on the real mission of teaching to prepare the students so that they can manage (careers, work, life) on their own. She reports on the findings of a crosscultural study of students from China and Romania. Through observation and self reporting, she explains that reflective thinking is carried out differently by people from different cultures. Simply put, different people think and approach problemsolving differently. She analyzes her findings on dimensions such as individualistic versus collectivist cultures, high context versus lowcontext cultures, and independence versus interdependence. Her observations offer new perspectives on two cultures – Chinese and Romanian. She notes that attitudes towards task completion thought process, and willingness to collaborate and interact differ significantly between the Chinese and Romanian adult learners. Despite their cultural differences, she concludes that interaction with their counterparts from another culture, both groups become aware of the shortcomings in their own perspectives and the need to readjust their thinking and interaction to work productively with others. Her findings are conclusion are yet another reminder that as the “global village” emerges, the need for interdependence becomes selfevident.
1 Knowledge Management and Challenges in Education Editors, Erika Grodzki and Clarinda Calma Editor-in-Chief Sharaf Rehman A publication of International Association of Language, Culture and Politics, Tischner European University, Krakow, Poland Published by Scholars Ink Publications and Jungo Press ISBN: 978-91-87889-09-7 ©Sharaf Rehman Table of Contents Section I In Defense of Eclecticism and Knowledge Management Editors Knowledge Management: Challenges in Curriculum Design amid Knowledge Explosion Sharaf Rehman Section II Acceptance of New Bar Codes (QR codes) in Poland - Not Just yet Marta Koszko 21 Metropolization in the Age of Knowledge Economy: Is it Building Bridges or Building Walls? Monika Chomątowska 34 Section III Piercing the Armor of Indifference: A battle Fought in a classroom Lyon Rathbun 46 Cultural Influences on Reflective Thinking Silvia Emilia Plăcintar 56 Managing Knowledge Technology in an Educational Context Lucyna Wilinkiewicz-Górniak 74 Section IV Cultural Knowledge Gaps (Lacunas): Challenges in Cross-Cultural Advertising Erika Grodzki & Kinga Kowalewska 87 Desirable Personality Traits in Long-Term Partners Sharaf Rehman 100 In Defense of Eclecticism and Knowledge Management A cursory glance at the titles in this collection may lead one to categorize it as an “eclectic assembly” about knowledge Such a label, however, would be hitting it squarely on the head Isn’t humanity’s collective knowledge an eclectic assemblage, and isn’t a truly learned person a person with knowledge in many disciplines? Traditionally, a “Renaissance person” was an individual with astuteness and familiarity in varied disciplines A contemporary Renaissance person is an eclectic jack-of-all-trades Neither knowledge nor eclecticism is undesirable The essays in this collection are strung together on the thread of “sharing of knowledge” Sharing, as in imparting knowledge in a formal classroom setting; sharing as in disseminating information to large populations in a society Teachers, policy makers, and businesspersons are wrestling with two important issues: one, presenting relevant, timely, and useful information to their users and two, placing the information where the users may reach and access it easily Assuming that “educated decisions” are in the best interest of people in a society, it is important that users of the knowledge, be it students in a classroom, or public at large, have the choice in deciding the value, worth, and usefulness of a particular piece of information before accepting or discarding it Broadly speaking, the essays in this collection are about creation, dissemination, and results of knowledge sharing efforts Such a grouping lends itself to three sections: Theoretical framework around knowledge management, the organization of knowledge for formal instruction, and presenting knowledge in a given society The opening essay by Rehman lays a broad foundation by describing the purpose, place, and importance of managing and sharing knowledge in formal learning settings He offers practical approaches to planning and imparting instructions Simplistic as it may seem, Rehman’s recommendations are grounded in research His arguments appeal equally to logic and common sense The two papers in Section II report on a society’s attempt at sharing knowledge with its various publics Marta Koszko discusses and dissects the use of Quick Response bar codes, their display in public places, and users’ reactions to QR codes, smartphones and technological sophistication necessary to make use of such communication Marta Koszko questions the relevance of recent technological devices that are supposed to help people communicate more effectively and access information more easily She describes the early attempts of introducing the Quick Response (QR) codes in Poland The postal stamp look-alike squares have endless functions from carrying a boarding card to scanning and depositing a check into one’s checking account One can pay a bill by scanning the QR code on a bill or get directions to a museum by scanning the QR code on a poster at a train station Koszko argues that while it is an extremely useful technology in providing, sharing, and accessing information, it is of little use for someone who is not about to board a plane or pay a bill or visit a museum Or if a person does not own a device that can scan a QS code and then perform various functions For such non-users, the display of QR codes in public places is an intrusion Such persons may also feel excluded from the communication that is occurring through this new technology Are the QR codes to improve communication among the providers and the users or is it to exclude certain people from the communication process She agrees that if one has a proper device one has the information, without it, one is unable to access certain information She concludes that for some, these devices may be useful, for others these may be unessential Monika Chomątowska revisits the question of turning cities into metropolises Reminiscent of żerman expressionist cinema and Żritz Lang’s landmark silent film Metropolis (1927) that presented a futuristic urban dystopia producing dehumanization, totalitarian control, and environmental disaster leading to cataclysmic decline in society, Chomatowska asserts that in the name of “knowledge economy”, some governments and international organisations are pushing for metropolization as the future of the world As more and more opportunities are shifted from the rural areas to the cities, the quality of life in the rural areas deteriorates People migrate to the cities in pursuit of employment, education, and healthcare Such depopulation of the rural areas and the overpopulation in the cities has widened the gap between metropolises and the countryside creating a visible social exclusion that is afflicting both rural and metropolitan populations, and has produced a social underclass in the rapidly growing cities in Asia, Africa, and South America Offering examples of transformation of European cities such as Barcelona, Glasgow, and Stockholm, she questions the social and economic benefits of metropolization Just as expressionistic cinema introduced a new form of conflict -man versus city- in narrative structure Chomątowska warns us of the deepening of internal disparities in metropolises, of high unemployment among immigrants, hence creating a poor underclass The lure of a better life in a big city is giving way to a dual city with rich gated communities near slums where the children of poor immigrants attend the worse schools and the poverty becomes heritable The newcomers from rural areas often lose their cultural values The moral standards in metropolises are also different from those in traditional societies– e.g higher divorce rates, consumeristic lifestyle, placing career above family life, and loose sexual contacts have resulted from the creation of metropolitan cities Careful knowledge management and communication need to be put in place before cities turn into futuristic nightmares Three essays in Section III are case studies from classrooms where educators and facilitators are facing the challenges of reconciling with cultural values and social issues Lyon Rathbun is teaching in a violence-ridden town on the border between the US and Mexico where gunfire exchanges between the members of the drug cartel and the law enforcement agencies are everyday occurrences; where innocent bystanders risk getting caught in the crossfire and getting killed It is not easy to teach grammar when the students are preoccupied with guns, or to the students to pay attention to calculus or chemistry when kidnapping and human trafficking are eminent In such a challenging classroom, Rathbum teaches literature In a first-person style, he describes the challenges he faced and how he overcame these As a personal account, he tells a moving story of how he has taken the "reality" of the students' lives and made it relevant to literature His narrative is moving and heart-warming He has added a new dimension to sharing knowledge by building trust between the learner and the teacher Silvia Emilia Plăcintar offers a fresh perspective on the real mission of teaching - to prepare the students so that they can manage (careers, work, life) on their own She reports on the findings of a cross-cultural study of students from China and Romania Through observation and selfreporting, she explains that reflective thinking is carried out differently by people from different cultures Simply put, different people think and approach problem-solving differently She analyzes her findings on dimensions such as individualistic versus collectivist cultures, highcontext versus low-context cultures, and independence versus interdependence Her observations offer new perspectives on two cultures – Chinese and Romanian She notes that attitudes towards task completion thought process, and willingness to collaborate and interact differ significantly between the Chinese and Romanian adult learners Despite their cultural differences, she concludes that interaction with their counterparts from another culture, both groups become aware of the shortcomings in their own perspectives and the need to readjust their thinking and interaction to work productively with others Her findings are conclusion are yet another reminder that as the “global village” emerges, the need for interdependence becomes self-evident Lucyna Wilinkiewicz-Górniak focuses on specifics of identifying a need and designing instruction to satisfy that need in a Business program at a university in Poland Although immersed in a theoretical framework, her approach and application are practical and useful to the extent that teachers around the globe may find her method and approach flexible enough to be adaptable in many cultures She notes that many of today’s learners are digital natives while the teachers might still be exploring digital horizons as digital immigrants Still, the two share a common path lighted by the promise of knowledge management – generating, storing and sharing knowledge She also reports on the differences in attitudes and perceptions of teachers and learners She, nevertheless, finds more similarities than differences Her optimistic conclusion: “… technology has become an indispensable element in the educational process” Two essays in Section IV address cultural differences and values Applying the Lacuna theory to international advertising, Erika Grodzki and Kinga Kowalewska, point to the challenges of incorporating cultural values in creating appealing advertisement copy and images Comparing ads for beer in the US and Poland, Grodzki and Kowalewska demonstrate that since different traits and values are seen as important in the two countries, incorporate images and text highlighting these important values in their ads Consequently, American beer ads stress notions of selfreliance, independence, and the outdoors while the Polish ads for beer make references to tradition, strength, and family These authors also caution the reader of the limitations an outsider has when witnessing different cultures Newcomers (visitors, strangers, foreigners) are unable to detect many of the linguistic, behavioral, and ideological idiosyncrasies in a new culture leaving the outsiders at a disadvantage and gaps in their understanding and knowledge of the new culture Their essay is a signpost reminding us that people’s impressions of a foreign culture are far from complete if limited to their own observations and interpretations For a fuller understanding, one needs assistance from the indigenous The final essay by Rehman takes us full circle He describes how knowledge is managed (gathered, evaluated and used) in mate selection For most people, mate selection is a serious matter and people try to obtain as much information as possible about the other person before reaching a selection decision Different cultures place different weights and values on different personality traits in mate selection Some traits such as earning potential, emotional stability, ability to bear children as are seen as more desirable, other traits such as lack of ambition, indecisiveness, and being selfcentered are perceived as less desirable Focusing on the Hispanic-American culture, Rehman argues that three variables play an important role in long-term partner selection These variables are gender, age, and perceived relationship status He concludes that even though most people get married, men and women not look for the same traits in their partners There might be some truth, after all, to the notion that men are from Mars and women are from Venus However, creatures on both planets are desperately grappling for quality information, i.e., the need for knowledge management Editors Section I Knowledge management: Challenges in curriculum design amid knowledge explosion Sharaf Rehman “Information is not knowledge.” - Albert Einstein Abstract This essay focuses on three areas Firstly, it describes the changing role of universities and the faculty, secondly, it defines knowledge management within the academic context, and thirdly, it describes the application of knowledge management in curriculum design Keywords: Knowledge acquisition, Knowledge management, Changing role of a university, Curriculum design Academe in Transition Among the numerous changes that have ensued in the process of transition from the agricultural age to the digital age, one is that of function and role of the universities The preliminary purpose of universities was to provide instruction in philosophy, logic, rhetoric, ethics, and religion Young men (and some women) that attended these institutions came from affluent families and as such these young learners were not likely to seek gainful employments at the end of their university education Universities were, in the true sense of the term, in knowledge management business Universities saw themselves as beacons of enlightenment and insight, not suppliers of diplomas that serve as union cards for various professions The working classes that needed and sought jobs learned their trade or craft through the process of apprenticeship Members of these lower classes did not attend universities They went to trade schools or technical institutes It is apparent that in our present time the initial purpose of the universities has become faded if not been forgotten As societies moved from aristocratic cultures to egalitarian and industrialized nations the need for formal training in professions such as medicine, law, engineering, and farming became necessary Initially, the responsibility of preparing the skilled professionals in these areas was assumed by trade schools As late as 1920, universities in the United States taught poetry not pottery, ethics not electronics, and mathematics not mechanical engineering Our institutions of higher education no longer have such luxury; today our universities' smorgasbord offers college credit for the auto repair, break dancing, surfing, French pastry, and managing small businesses Economic reality for most university students of today is such that they are going to need and look for jobs in specific trades As a result, they seem to have no use, appetite or patience for the arts, philosophy, and literature Students come to the institutions of higher education, not for enlightenment but to prepare for trades Institutions that can produce employable individuals are seen as the right schools to attend Henceforward, the universities have transformed into trade schools, and professors are dubbed as trainers, facilitators, and mentors Focus is no longer Plato’s Republic or Homer's Iliad but the corporate cultures of Google and Microsoft; heroes of the Greek mythology have been replaced by Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Martha Stewart, Paula Dean, and Donald Trump The faculty members that can teach the “in-demand” skills are retained and rewarded The shift is neither good nor bad It is what the global economy dictates Species living in water learned to swim or they died out; species living on land learned to walk and run or got consumed by bigger and stronger creatures Big business runs the global economies; the educational institutions produce the workforce for these corporations Survival is still the name of the game Will the trend reverse? Unlikely Will there be a time when knowledge for its own sake is viewed as valuable? It's doubtful The current thinking of a typical university student is: How does any particular set of courses help me in obtaining and/or retaining a job? And this is the tail that has wagged the institutions of higher learning The new mission of the universities is to produce employable individuals Universities are ranked in terms of their graduation rates and average starting salaries of their graduates Read as: an understanding of megapixels is valued more than appreciating the Mona Lisa Although the universities not openly admit in their mission statements, but more and more of the institutions are being run as businesses Terms such as Total Quality Management, Lean Operations, Rightsizing, Outsourcing, and Meeting the Customers' Needs are no longer uncommon among the university administrators Students are seen as paying customers and efforts of recruiting students are beginning to resemble the battles for larger market shares fought by the likes of soft drink makers, automobile producers, cosmetic industry, insurance companies and financial institutions Businesses that cease to be profitable, are shut down Many of the liberal arts universities in the United States are facing shutdowns Universities have begun to make claims that they are offering the best value for the investment (tuition dollars); the return on investment is promised in comparison tables and charts with starting salaries of their recent graduates Faculty are hired, promoted and retained using criteria that add value to a campus This is done either through research and publishing potential or a track record for attracting grants and external 10 The idea of ‘hanging out’ vs the idea of ‘true bonds’ creates a large divide When it comes to sports, the Poles mainly enjoy soccer, American football although recognized is ‘odd’ in the Polish culture In the Budweiser spot, there is an emphasis on the Clydesdale horses and tradition The Poles are unfamiliar with the Clydesdale horses and would not understand the connection The Budweiser campaign mentions that the beer is made in America This fact is functional and effective in the American culture; however, it would not be effective in the Polish culture American beers are frowned upon in Europe They are generally seen as low-quality beers with little flavor Thus, a connection between quality and American beer is just not present in the mind of the Polish viewer and therefore, presents a lacuna The historical elements of the Budweiser commercial and the overarching traditional theme would be of interest to the Polish viewer The Budlight campaign presents some lacunas as well The young and hip lifestyle promoted in the campaign would be understood in Poland Mink Kelly would not be recognized and the idea of ‘wackiness’ would not be totally understood Arnold Schwarzenegger would be easily recognized The Budlight website also presents some lacunas Poland is less multi-cultural than America; thus, the Poles would recognize the many different ethnic groups present on the site They would realize that the photos are not taken in Poland and thus, may feel less connected to the brand The fact that many are smiling would also be problematic Poles not smile as much as Americans and would see the smiling as something superficial The Splash into Summer campaign by Coors Light presents only a few lacunas First off, the idea of a light beer is not so attractive to the Polish drinker who prefers heavy brews The idea of summer and beer drinking is common in both cultures so the theme is effective in that respect There are many Twitter references on the websites These references may present some lacunas for those who have not become infatuated with Twitter There are currently fewer Poles than Americans using Twitter Overall, this campaign could be easily adapted to the Polish culture although the Poles most likely would not like the product itself Conclusion One can see that although there are some general similarities overall the American and Polish beer advertisements are quite different The beer advertisements and commercials would have to be changed when advertising outside of the country-of-origin Budweiser has a global strategy It wants to be the next McDonalds of beer It wants to continue to build on the values of optimism and celebration If this is to be accomplished by Budweiser and other global beer brands, there must be a promotion of a global brand image yet at the same time there must be local elements of cultural implementation present in specific campaigns McDonalds has been quite successful in this pursuit They are recognized as a global brand yet they are able to adapt their menu and their campaigns 97 References Antipov, B.A., Donskich, O.A., Markovina, I.J & Sorokin (1989) (Eds.) Test kaka yavlenie kultury Novosibirsk Boguszewski, R (2013) Wartości i normy Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej Retrieved from http://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2013/K_111_13.PDF CBOS Public Opinion Research Centre – official webpage (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.cbos.pl/EN/about_us/about_us.php Grodzki, Erika (2003) Using lacuna theory to detect differences in American and German automotive advertising Frankfurt: Peter Lang Jay, Y., & Cude, B J (2009) Possible disparities in consumers' perceptions toward personalized advertising caused by cultural differences: U.S and Korea Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 21(4), 251-269 Kalliny, M., Saran, A., Ghanem, S., & Fisher, C (2011) Cultural differences and similarities in television commercials in the Arab world and the United States Journal of Global Marketing, 24(1), 41-57 Lantolf, J P., & Bobrova, L (2012) Happiness is drinking beer: a cross-cultural analysis of multimodal metaphors in American and Ukrainian commercials International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 42-66 Marketing-news (online) Stadion – podsumowanie kampanii Tyskiego i Kompanii Piwowarskiej (2012) Retrieved from http://www.marketing-ews.pl/message.php?art=36139 Shavitt, S., Johnson, T P., & Jing, Z (2011) Horizontal and vertical cultural differences in the content of advertising appeals Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23(3/4), 297-310 Styl.fm (online) Figo buduje stadion w Polsce (2012) [Image file] Retrieved from: http://styl.fm/newsy/63688.figo-buduje-stadion-w-polsce Szewczyk, Ł (2012) Tyskie Klasyczne w całej Polsce - kampania z tradycją w nowym spocie (wideo) Media2 [Video file] Retrieved from: http://media2.pl/reklama-pr/97733-Tyskie-Klasyczne-w-calej-Polsce-kampania-z-tradycja-wnowym-spocie-wideo.html Tatra beer official facebook profile Prawdziwy facet nie pyta o drogę (2014) [Image file] Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/tatrapiwo/photos/a.234207576609404.71410.223018154395013/7 98 86347394728750/?type=3&theater Wajdzik, K (2012) Tyskie z elementami 2D na outdoorze Portal medialny Retrieved on April 10, 2014 from http://portalmedialny.pl/art/34577/tyskie-z-elementami-2d-na-outdoorze.html Wirtualna Polska (online) Najpopularniejsze piwa w Polsce (2013) Retrieved on April 4, 2014 from: http://finanse.wp.pl/gid,15648113,kat,36874,page,1,title,Najpopularniejsze-piwa-wPolsce,galeria.html?ticaid=1129fd ubr beer official facebook profile ubr ponad wszystko (2014) [Image file] Retrieved from: https://www.facebook.com/zubr/photos/pb.145007725514445.2207520000.1406277122./888384424510101/?type=1&theater 99 Desired Traits in Mate Selection: A Survey of Hispanic American College Students Sharaf Rehman Abstract Previous research on mate selection has primarily focused on long-term relationships, i.e spouse selection Literature suggests that factors and traits playing significant role in choosing a short-term partner have been mostly overlooked in mate-selection research The present study, with a sample of 195 Hispanic-American college students, attempts to determine if there are significant differences in reported preferences when looking for short-term partner versus when looking for a long-term partner The subjects individually ranked their preferences for short-term partners from a list of traits generated by previous research The subjects were then put into groups consisting of five same-sex members in each group Group members discuss their preferences among themselves and generate a list of desirable traits in a long-term partner This paper reports the findings of the survey in two specific categories It separates the desired traits for short-term and long-term partners, and it presents the differences in responses by males and females The paper also reports on the differences based on relational status, i.e., single, in a relationship, or married Keywords: Mate Selection, Courtship & Culture, Marriage, Interpersonal Relationships Introduction In the days of cave dwellers, the males sought females with physical features best suited for child bearing and child rearing Females looked for males that showed a promise for protecting the offspring and a willingness to teach the children to fish, hunt, and become self-reliant Biological characteristics were the basis for mate selection It was simple and based on practical concerns With the emergence of social systems and religions, the societies shifted the natural mate selection process to fit new criteria established and enforced by social structures and organized religions Old requirements of physical ability, endurance, and strength were replaced by values rooted in social status, wealth, political standing, and beauty In almost all culture, concept of family (soon to become a social institution) became closely woven into the institution of marriage – an institution that reinforced the church and religious values Mate Selection Models From the primitive methods of the cave dwellers to present day speed dating, numerous mate selection theories and models have emerged A brief description of some of the significant theories is presented here According to evolutionary psychologists and Natural Selection theorists, females were drawn to males that could provide for the family and teach the offspring to fish, hunt, and become self100 reliant Males sought females that seemed healthy enough for having, caring for, and raising the children (Buss & Kenrick, 1998; Looy, 2001) Social Homogamy theory suggests that man and women are attracted to people from similar social and cultural backgrounds, i.e., people tend to marry within their own race, religion, socioeconomic group and apply similar standards of beauty Ideal Mate theory claims that people have an unconscious image of an ideal mate and as soon as one comes across a person that fits one’s ideal one feels a strong attraction Love at first sight can often be explained through the ideal mate theory This theory also asserts that since most people use their parents as role models, people tend to choose partners that come close to their own parents Hence, men marry women that remind them of their mothers and women seek men that remind them of their fathers Both behaviors, respectively known as Oedipus complex and Medea complex are demonstrations of Ideal Mate theory at work Social Exchange theory asserts that since people are capable of falling in love with different people, most people look for a person who would make an equal contribution towards tangible and intangible rewards in a long-term association Both parties are expected to bring equal amounts to the table (Sprecher, 1998) Developmental theory holds that people try different courtships and the one that seems to fit a couple’s needs the best has the best chance of succeeding Feminist theory states that marriages between older and more established men and younger women occur for two reasons Firstly, older men have greater resources, are better able to provide financial security, and a better life style for their younger wives Secondly, men with traditional patriarchal values find it easier to maintain a dominant status with younger women that have fewer resources (Eagly & Wood, 1999; Eagly, Wood & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2004) Market Experience theory compares mate selection to an open market situation where buyers and sellers look for the best bargains by comparing costs and benefits of all available alternatives Applied to mate selection, market experience is the dating practice where individuals learn about potential mates through first-hand experience before making their long-term partner selection Free-Choice Mate Selection theory holds that attraction is the strongest factor in relationship formation The first stage in the formation of a relationship is attraction If a person A is not attracted to person B, not much more is likely to develop When people are attracted to each other, they pursue a relationship; they may fall in love; they may get married (Kauth 2000) 101 Like-Attracts-Like Selection Not unlike social homogamy, this theory proposes that people from similar socio-economic status, raised in the same neighborhoods (physical proximity) are more like to meet, interact, date, and eventually create marital bonds (Buss, 1985) There appear to be two common threads in all the above theories People use some sort of a criterion in making mate selection These criteria are culture-specific The second factor explains the different rituals, traditions, mores, and customs practiced by different cultures in condoning and condemning selection methods Related Research Scholars around the globe have studied the rationale and reasons in human mate selection Sundal and Mcromick (1949) studied the differences in ages when men and women chose to get married Zhang and Kline (2009) reported on the freedom of making mate selection, and importance of different values in Chinese and American cultures Rohrlich (1988) focused on intercultural marriages, and Hatfield & Rapson (2005) analyzed the cross-cultural dimensions of passionate love and sexual desire in mate selection Li, Valentine & Patel (2010) compared mate preferences in the US and Singapore; Nesteruk & Gramescu (2012) focused their attention on the mate selection of children of the immigrants in the US Espiritu (2001) compared the dating behavior of white American and Filipino girls Weiler (2005) explored the information seeking behavior of the generation Y students (Buss, 1989) conducted a Meta-analysis of 37 samples from 33 countries to determine the role of six factors: earning potential, ambition, industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity The present study reports on the reported preferences for mates by Hispanic-American College students Two reasons prompted the study Firstly, mate selection aspect of this population has thus far remained relatively unexamined Secondly, Hispanic-American college age population represents the immigrants and first or second-generation immigrants, and it is primarily made up of a generation known as the Generation Y A group that, although, has been studied widely by marketing scholars, sociologists, and behavioral psychologists, has remained neglected in regards to its mate selection practices This text focuses on heterosexual (male-female) attraction and mating and does not consider the characteristics or circumstances of homosexual or bisexual attraction and mating The terminology and conceptual definitions for terms such as sex (noun and verb), gender, male, female, and sexual orientation are derived from Kauth (2005) Methodology The present survey was conducted at a mid-size, state supported university with a predominantly Hispanic-American population, 203 students enrolled in Interpersonal Communication courses 102 participated in the study Only eight of the respondents were married Responses of these eight subjects were removed from the study There were two parts to the study In the first part, the participants were asked to list 10 or more characteristics they desired in a person that they would consider dating The subjects were not permitted to discuss their choices with other participants The instrument also asked the students to identify their gender, age, and their relational status - whether they were single, in a relationship, or married This set of data was used to analyze preferences for short-term relationships For the second part of the study, the subjects were put in groups - with five samesex members in each group The group members were allowed to discuss the desired traits and characteristics they would seek in a long-term partner This set of data was used to analyze the preferences for a long-term relationship Sample The participants were from a State-supported university with nearly 95 percent Hispanic students Thus it was relatively easy to obtain a reasonable size sample of a Hispanic-American Population The sample consisted of 80 men and 115 women All respondents were under 30 years of age Hence, age as a variable was not taken into account However, this was clearly a Generation Y sample Among the 80 males, 19 (24 percent) claimed they were in a relation and 61 (76 percent) said they were single, among the 115 women 66 (57 percent) said they were in a relationship and 49 (43 percent) claimed to be single Results A master list was generated from the list of desired traits identified by the respondents This is presented in Appendix I Differences in preferences based on gender has been reported, among others, by Buss (1989), Wood & Eagly (2002), and Fisman, Iyengar, Kamenica & Simonson (2006) It was not surprising to find that the Hispanic men and women too preferred different traits in their mates Table presents three lists These are rankings by the sample (N=195), ranking by women, and ranking by men Table Top -5 desired traits for a short-term relationship Ranking Men seek Romantic Attractive Humor Funny Honest Ranking 103 Women seek Funny Taller Athletic Attractive Romantic The choice of traits desired in a short-term partner includes romance, good looks, good time, and fun This seems to be true for both men and women While men seek "honesty" as a desired trait, women desire a man who is taller and athletic Romance and attractiveness are important to both sexes Table presents the least desired traits by man and women Table Least desired traits in a short-term relationship Men Committed Independent Higher education Likes to cook Patient Women Loyal Open minded Has a job Ambitious Successful Men, when looking for a female to date (short-term relationship), commitment, education, patience, or ability to cook are unimportant Similarly, women, in their preferences for a dating partner not seek loyalty, ambition, success, or a man who is employed Neither men nor women are concerned with commitment and loyalty in a dating arrangement Do these preferences change with relational status? Do the priorities change when one moves from being single to being in a relationship? Table and Table present the top-10 desired traits and relational status Table Women - Single vs In a Relationship Ranking Single Funny Ranking In a Relationship Smart Smart Hard working, Good goals (tie) Hardworking, Respectful (tie) Attractive, Funny, Romantic (tie) Taller Caring Athletic, Responsible (tie) Career Romantic Honest, Kind (tie) Attractive, Honest (tie) Responsible Kind, Family material (tie) Faithful Adventurous Friendly 10 Caring 10 Taller 104 It is clear to see that priorities change from seeking fun, adventure, and romance while single, to traits more relevant to raising a family and building a home Once in a relationship, traits such as Hardworking, Caring, Career, Responsible, and Faithful enter the top-10 list As has been reported in previous research (Regan & Berscheid, 1997; Fisman et.al 2005), males, both single and in relationships, are more drawn to looks and beauty than their female counterparts are Present data seems to suggest that a woman's physical attributes (Body, Beauty, and Attractiveness) are still in the top-10 list for men in relationships Single men ranked Honesty at #8; it moved up to #6 as Trustworthy for men in relationships The attribute, "Funny" that was ranked at #2 by single men does not appear on the list for men in relationships For listing of desirable traits in a long-term relationship, the subjects worked in five-member groups There were 16 male groups and 23 female groups These groups generated their list of traits in a long-term partner These rankings were tabulated for the top-20 traits The rankings were compared using Spearman's rho to determine statistically significant differences Several of the characteristics showed no significant difference These included: Attractive, Supportive, Responsible, Career, Outgoing, Rich, Religious, Ambitious, and Successful Rankings (high or low) were almost similar by men and women Differences were significant at 0.05 level for Funny and Romantic; and significant at 0.05 levels for Hardworking, Respectful, Family Oriented, Faithful, Honest, Smart, Loyal, Caring, and Athletic Table presents these rankings for desired traits for a long-term relationship Table Men - Single vs In a Relationship Ranking Single Smart Ranking In a Relationship Outgoing Funny Smart Shorter Body, Caring, Funny (tie) Attractive Athletic Outgoing Beautiful Body Trustworthy Eyes Attractive Honest Confident Cute Honest 10 Caring 10 Kind 105 TABLE Desirable Traits in a Long-Term Relationship Traits Ranking by Women Attractive Hardworking Respectful Family Oriented Supportive Faithful Honest Responsible Smart Funny 10 Romantic 11 Career 12 Loyal 13 Outgoing 14 Rich 15 Caring 16 religious 17 Ambitious 18 Successful 19 Athletic 20 Ranking by Men Significance ND 17 ** ** 10 ** ND 15 ** 12 ** ND ** * 16 * 11 ND ** 13 ND 14 ND ** 19 ND 20 ND 18 ND ** ND No significant difference * Significant at 0.05 levels ** Significant at 0.01 level Several traits were combined to create five factors These were (1) Earning Potential, (2) Attractiveness, (3) Chastity, (4) Ambition or Drive, and (5) Family Orientation 106 Factors Earning Potential was calculated by combining traits such as Smart, Responsible, Career, Health, Rich, and Hardworking Attractiveness was calculated by combining Attractive, Good Body, Athletic, Eyes, Hair, and Body Chastity was calculated by combining Loyalty, Faithful, Trustworthy, Religious, and Committed Ambition/Drive was measure by adding Responsibility, Good Goals, Ambition, Confident, Successful, and Determined Family Orientation was measured by combining Protective, Supportive, and Caring These factors are presented in Table TABLE Gender and Importance of Factors Factors Earning Potential Family Orientation Ambition/Drive Attractiveness Chastity Ranked by Women Ranked by Men Discussion There are some notable differences and similarities among the Hispanic American college students and their mainstream counterparts Due to cultural differences and the notion of machismo, Hispanic males are less likely to admit being in a relationship than Hispanic females This was evident from the sample responses where 57 percent of the females and 24 % of the males admitted to being in a relationship Overwhelmingly, the sample ranked Attractive as the most desirable trait in men and women As Knapp (1978; Archer 1996) have suggested, attraction is the foundation for most short associations The present sample suggests that attraction is deemed more important than some other factors even in long-term relationships In this sample, women ranked Attractive as #3, and Faithful as #8 for long-term relationships For long-term relationships, men ranked traits such as 107 Body, Beauty, and Attractive as more important than Honest and Caring This may be a reflection of the current times where most young people make social comparisons with faces and bodies of the celebrities that decorate so many of the magazines covers and advertising This may also be one of the characteristics of Generation Y as identified by Twenge (2006) Look at the five factors, women still choose Earning Potential and Family Orientation over Attractiveness and Chastity Men report to prefer Attractiveness and Family Orientation to Ambition and Earning Potential While single, the Hispanic-American college students are looking for fun with attractive partners without much concern for careers, earning potential, responsibility, of commitment This is very much in line with the rest of Generation Y, not just in the US but globally (Finn & Donavan, 2013) However, when it comes to long-term relationships, the qualities that Hispanic men and women are looking for are not too far from the Natural Selection theories, and Social Homogamy theories, i.e., males are looking for attractive women that will be committed to raising children; females are looking for men that can provide for the family and help raise the children Neither men nor women report to have much concern about chastity or drive The undercurrent in the present data alludes to the trial-and-error permitted in a society that allows dating - a practice that provides people with an opportunity to leaner about and chose from a number of partners In most of the western societies today, two of the most important social institutions, religion, and education, provide more than spiritual and academic guidance; these institutions create opportunities for young people to get to know one and another so that they may make the best possible selection in choosing their long-term partners References Archer, J (1996) Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible? 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