The basics of chemistry

The Basics of Chemistry Richard Myers GREENWOOD PRESS Uploaded by Gilang Design Ebook Bumb.in ebook download (Free Ebooks & Tutorials) is a free ebooks links library where you can find and download free books in almost any category without registering For More Free Ebooks & Tutorials Visit http://ebook.bumb.in The Basics of Chemistry Richard Myers GREENWOOD PRESS The Basics of Chemistry The Basics of Chemistry Richard Myers Basics of the Hard Sciences Robert E Krebs, Series Editor GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Myers, Richard, 1951– The Basics of chemistry / Richard Myers p cm.––(Basics of the hard sciences) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0–313–31664–3 (alk paper) Chemistry I Title II Series QD33.2.2.M94 2003 540––dc21 2002028436 British Library Cataloging in Publication Data is available Copyright © 2003 by Richard Myers All rights reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002028436 ISBN: 0–313–31664–3 First published in 2003 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984) 10 Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyrighted materials in this book, but in some instances this has proven impossible The author and publisher will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgments in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions To Chris For all your support and companionship during our thirty years Contents Preface Acknowledgments xiii xv Chapter Introduction: Chemistry and Its Divisions Introduction The Scientific Enterprise What Is Chemistry? Divisions of Chemistry 1 Chapter A Brief History of Chemistry Introduction Early History Greek Science Alchemy Chemistry in the Middle Ages 7 11 13 Chapter The Birth of Modern Chemistry Introduction The Beginnings of Modern Chemistry The Phlogiston Theory Pneumatic Chemistry Lavoisier 17 17 17 19 20 25 Chapter The Atom Introduction The Law of Definite Proportions Dalton and the Birth of the Atomic Theory Gay-Lussac and Avogadro’s Hypothesis The Divisible Atom Atomic Structure 31 31 31 33 34 35 38 Brief Timeline of Chemistry 1913 Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom 1919 Rutherford’s alpha particles support existence of protons 1920 covalent bond by Lewis and Langmuir 1923 Brønsted definition of acid and base 1927–30 quantum mechanical model of atom developed 1932 neutron discovered by Chadwick 1931 DuPont produces synthetic rubber neoprene 1936 Carothers’ DuPont team produces nylon 1939 Mu¨ller synthesizes DDT 1940 synthetic rubber is used in tires 1953 Crick and Watson present structure for DNA 1963 Rachael Carson publishes Silent Spring 1969 EPA is established 1976 evidence that chlorine compounds destroy ozone 1985 Smalley and Kroto discover buckminsterfullerenes 1989 Human Genome Project commences 1990 PCR method established 1996 cloning of Dolly the sheep 2000 conclusion of human genome sequencing 353 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry Nobel laureates are listed consecutively by year starting with 1901 The country indicates where the chemist did major work If the chemist’s country of birth is different than where major work is done, this is indicated after the “b.” In many years, several chemists are recognized When several chemists are recognized in the same year, it may be either for work in similar areas of chemistry, working collaboratively or independently, or for work in entirely different areas When several laureates have been recognized for work in similar areas, the work is cited for the first laureate in the list Year Recipient(s) Country Work 1901 Germany b Netherlands Germany laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions sugar and purine syntheses Sweden electrolytic dissociation theory Great Britain Germany France Germany discovery of noble gases organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds isolation of fluorine and electric furnace fermentation in absence of cells and biochemistry radioactive decay 1904 1905 1906 1907 Jacobus Henricus van’t Hoff Hermann Emil Fischer Svante August Arrhenius William Ramsay Adolf von Baeyer Henri Moissan Eduard Buchner 1908 Ernest Rutherford 1902 1903 1909 1910 1911 1912 Wilhelm Ostwald Otto Wallach Marie Curie Victor Grignard Paul Sabatier 1913 Alfred Werner 1914 1915 Theodore Richards Richard Willsta¨tter Great Britain b New Zealand Germany b Russia Germany France b Poland France France Switzerland b Germany United States Germany chemical equilibrium, kinetics, and catalysis pioneering work with alicyclic compounds discovery of radium and polonium discovery of Grignard’s reagent hydrogenation with metal catalysts bonding of inorganic compounds determination of atomic weights studies of plant pigments, especially chlorophyll 356 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry Year Recipient(s) Country Work 1918 1920 1921 1922 1923 1925 Germany Germany Great Britain Great Britain Austria Germany b Austria Sweden Germany synthesis of ammonia thermochemistry radioactive substances and isotopes mass spectrography and discovery of isotopes organic microanalysis colloid chemistry Germany Great Britain Sweden b Germany sterols relationship with vitamins fermentation of sugar and sugar enzymes Germany Germany Germany United States United States France France Germany b.Netherlands Great Britain synthesis of hemin high pressure chemical processing dipole moments and x-ray diffraction carbohydrates and vitamin C Switzerland Germany b Austria Germany vitamins A and B12 carotenoids and vitamins sex hormones polymethylenes and terpenes 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 Fritz Haber Walter H Nernst Frederick Soddy Francis W Aston Fritz Perl Richard A Zsigmondy Theodor Svedberg Heinrich Otto Wieland Adolf Otto Windaus Arthur Harden Hans von EulerChelpin Hans Fischer Carl Bosch Friedrich Bergins Irving Langmuir Harold Urey Fre´de´ric Joliot Ire`ne Joliot-Curie Peter Debye Walter Norman Hayworth Paul Karrer Richard Kuhn Adolf F J Butenandt Leopold Ruzicka 1943 1944 1945 George DeHevesy Otto Hahn Atturi I Virtanen Switzerland b Hungary Sweden b Hungary Germany Finland 1946 James B Sumner John H Northrop United States United States Wendell M Stanley Robert Robinson Arne W K Tiselius William F Giauque Otto Diels Kurt Alder 1951 Edwin McMillan Glenn Seaborg 1947 1948 1949 1950 United States Great Britain Sweden United States Germany Germany United States United States disperse systems bile acids surface chemistry discovery of heavy hydrogen synthesis of new radioactive elements isotope tracers fission of heavy nuclei agricultural and food chemistry and preservation of fodder crystallation of enzymes preparation of proteins and enzymes in pure form alkaloids electrophoresis and serum proteins low temperature thermodynamics diene synthesis chemistry of transuranium elements Nobel Laureates in Chemistry Year Recipient(s) Country Work 1952 Archer J P Martin Richard L M Synge 1953 Hermann Staudinger 1954 Linus Pauling Great Britain Great Britain Germany United States invention of partition chromatography 1955 United States 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 Vincent Du Vigneaud Cyril Hinshelwood Nikolay Semenov Alexander Todd Frederick Sanger Jaroslav Heyrovsky Willard Libby Melvin Calvin Max Preutz John Kendrew Giulio Natta Karl Ziegler 1964 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin 1965 Robert Woodward 1966 Robert Mulliken 1963 1967 Manfred Eigen Ronald Norrish George Porter 1968 Lars Onsager Great Britain USSR Great Britain Great Britain Czechoslovakia United States United States Great Britain b Austria Great Britain Italy Germany Great Britain United States United States Derek Barton Odd Hensel 1970 Luis Leloir Germany Great Britain Great Britain United States b Norway Great Britain Norway Argentina 1971 1972 Gerhard Herzberg Christian Anfinsen Canada b Germany United States Stanford Moore United States 1969 William Stein Ernst Fischer Geoffrey Wilkinson 1974 Paul Flory 1975 John Cornforth 1973 1976 Vladmir Prelog William Lipscomb United States Germany Great Britain United States Great Britain Switzerland b Bosnia United States 357 macromolecular chemistry chemical bonding and molecular structure of proteins sulfur compounds of biological importance, synthesis of polypeptide hormone mechanisms of chemical reaction nucleotides and their co-enzymes protein structure, insulin polarographic methods of analysis carbon-14 dating CO2 assimilation in plants structure of globular proteins high polymers x-ray techniques of the structures of biochemical substances organic synthesis chemical bonds and electronic structure of molecules study of very fast chemical reactions thermodynamic of irreversible processes conformation sugar nucleotides and carbohydrate biosynthesis structure and geometry of free radicals ribonuclease, amino acid sequencing and biological activity chemical structure and catalytic activity of ribonuclease organometallic sandwich compounds macromolecules stereochemisitry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions stereochemistry of organic molecules structure of borane and bonding 358 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry Year Recipient(s) Country Work 1977 1978 1979 Belgium b Russia Great Britain United States b Great Britain Germany United States United States Great Britain Japan United States b Poland Great Britain theory of dissipative structures chemiosmotic theory organic synthesis of boron and phosphorus compound Ilya Prigogine Peter Mitchell Herbert Brown George Wittig Paul Berg Walter Gilbert Frederick Sanger 1981 Kenichi Fukui Roald Hoffman 1980 1982 Aaron Klug 1983 Henry Taube 1984 1985 Robert Merrifield Herbert Hauptman Jerome Karle 1986 Dudley Herschbach Yuan Lee 1987 John Polanyi Donald Cram United States b Canada United States United States United States United States United States b Taiwan Canada United States France United States b Korea, of Norwegian descent 1988 Johann Deisenhofer Germany and United States b Germany Robert Huber Germany Michel Hartmut Germany 1989 Sidney Altman United States b Canada Thomas Cech United States 1990 Elias James Corey United States 1991 Richard Ernst Switzerland 1992 Rudolph Marcus United States b Canada 1993 Kary Mullis United States Michael Smith Canada b Great Britain 1994 George Olah United States b Hungary recombinant DNA nucleic acid base sequences chemical reactions and orbital theory crystallographic electron microscopy applied to nucleic acids and proteins electron transfer in metal complexes chemical synthesis crystal structures chemical elementary processes development of molecules with highly selective structure specific interactions Jean-Marie Lehn Charles Pedersen photosynthesis catalytic properties of RNA organic synthesis nuclear resonance spectroscopy electron transfer in chemical systems invention of PCR method mutagenesis and protein studies carbocation chemistry Nobel Laureates in Chemistry Year Recipient(s) Country Work 1995 Germany b Netherlands United States b Mexico United States atmospheric chemistry United States Great Britain United States United States Great Britain Denmark discovery of fullerenes Paul Crutzen Mario Molina Rowland F Sherwood 1996 Robert Kurl Harold Kroto Richard Smalley 1997 Paul Boyer John Walker Jens Skou 1998 Walter Kohn John Pople 1999 Ahmed Zewail 2000 Alan J Heeger Alan MacDiarmid Hideki Shirakawa 2001 William Knowles Ryoji Noyori K Barry Sharpless 2002 John B Fenn Koichi Tanaka Kurt Wu¨thrich United States Great Britain United States b Egypt United States United States Japan United States Japan United States United States Japan Switzerland 359 stratospheric ozone depletion enzyme mechanism of ATP discovery of ion transport enzyme Na‫ם‬, K‫ם‬ATPase density function theory computational methods in quantum chemistry transition states using femto spectroscopy discovery of conductive polymers chirally catalyzed hydrogenation reactions chirally catalyzed oxidation reactions identical of biological macromolecules NMR analysis of biological macromolecules Table of the Elements Element Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dubnium Dysprosium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Db Dy 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 105 66 227 26.98 243 121.8 39.95 74.92 210 137.3 247 9.012 209.0 264 10.81 79.90 112.4 40.08 251 12.01 140.0 132.9 35.45 52.00 58.93 63.55 247 262 162.5 Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Rf 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 104 200.6 95.94 144.2 20.18 237 58.69 92.91 14.01 259 190.2 16.00 106.4 30.97 195.1 242 210 39.10 140.9 147 231 226 222 186.2 102.9 85.47 101.1 261 362 Table of the Elements Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flourine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt Md 99 68 63 100 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 71 12 25 109 101 254 167.3 152.0 253 19.00 223 157.3 69.72 72.59 197.0 178.5 265 4.003 164.9 1.008 114.8 126.9 192.2 55.85 83.80 138.9 257 207.2 6.941 175.0 24.31 54.94 268 256 Element Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununnilium Unununium Unumbium Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W Uun Uun Uub U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 110 111 112 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 150.4 44.96 263 78.96 28.09 107.9 22.99 87.62 32.07 180.9 99 127.6 158.9 204.4 232.0 168.9 118.7 47.88 183.9 269 269 277 238.0 50.94 131.3 1773.0 88.91 65.39 91.22 Selected Bibliography Aftalion, Fred A History of the International Chemistry Industry, 2nd ed Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Press, 2001 Amato, Evan Stuff: The Materials the World Is Made 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Finucane, Edward W Definitions, Conversions and Calculations for Occupational Safety and Health Professionals, 2nd ed Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1998 Gibbs, F W Joseph Priestley Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1967 Giunta, Carmen “Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry.” http://webserver.lemoyne edu/faculty/giunta/papers/html 23 February 2002 Goran, Morris The Story of Fritz Haber Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967 Greenaway, Frank John Dalton and the Atom Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966 Greenberg, Arthur A Chemical History Tour New York: Wiley Interscience, 2000 Heiserman, David L Exploring Chemical Elements and Their Compounds Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992 Herron, J Dudley, Kukla, David A, Schrader, Clifford, DiSpezio, Michael A., and Erickson, Julia Lee Heath Chemistry Lexington, MA: D.C Heath and Company, 1987 Hill, John W Chemistry for Changing Times, 6th ed New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1992 Hill, John W., and Feigl, Dorothy M Chemistry and Life: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 3rd ed New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1978 Hoffmann, Roald The Same and Not The Same New York: Columbia University Press, 1995 Hoover’s Handbook of American Business 2002 Austin, TX: Hoover’s Business Press, 2002 HowStuffWorks, Inc http://www.howstuffworks.com/ 20 December 2001 Hudson, John The History of Chemistry New York: Chapman and Hall, 1992 Idhe, Aaron J The Development of Modern Chemistry New York: Harper and Row, 1964 364 Selected Bibliography International Directory of Company Histories Detroit: St James Press, 1988 Jacobs, Bob “Wilton High School Chemistry.” http://www.chemistrycoach.com/home.htm 23 February 2002 Jaffe, Bernard Crucibles: The Story of Chemistry From Ancient Alchemy to Nuclear Fission, 4th ed New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1976 Kent, James A., ed Riegel’s Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, 7th ed New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969 Knight, David Humphry Davy: Science and Power Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1992 Krebs, Robert E The History and Uses of Our Earth’s Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998 Lagowski, J.J The Chemical Bond Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966 Landis, Walter S Your Servant the Molecule New York: Macmillan, 1945 Lavoisier, Antoine Elements of Chemistry, with an introduction by Douglas McKie Translated by Robert Kerr New York: Dover Publications, 1984 Leicester, Henry M, and Klickstein, Herbert S., A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400–1900 Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952 Levere, Trevor H Affinity and Matter Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971 Mathews, Harry, Freeland, Richard, and Miesfeld, Roger L Biochemistry: A Short Course New York: Wiley Sons, 1997 McMurry, John, and Fay, Robert C Chemistry, 2nd ed Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998 Miller, G Tyler Environmental Science, 4th ed Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1993 Morrison, Robert Thornton, and Boyd, Robert Organic Chemistry Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1959 Multhauf, Robert P Neptune’s Gift Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978 Nobel Foundation “Nobel e-Museum.” http://www nobel.se/index.html February 2002 O’Neil, Maryadale J., Budavari, Susan, Smith, Ann, Heckeleman, Patricia E., and Kinneary, Joanne F., eds The Merck Index, 12th ed Rahway, NJ: The Merck Publishing Group, 1996 Park, John L “The Chem Team, A Tutorial for High School Chemistry.” http://www.dbhs.wvusd k12ca.us/ 15 January 2002 Parker, Sybil P., ed McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985 Patterson, Elizabeth C John Dalton and the Atomic Theory Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1970 Pauling, Linus The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd ed Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960 Pera, Marcelo The Ambiguous Frog: The GalvaniVolta Controversy Translated by Jonathan Mandelbaum Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992 Redgrove, H Stanley Alchemy: Ancient and Modern New York: Harper and Row, 1911; reprint New York: Harper and Row, 1973 Rowh, Mark Great Jobs for Chemistry Majors Chicago: VGM Career Horizons, 1999 Sae, Andy S W Chemical Magic from the Grocery Store Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1996 Salzberg, Hugh W From Cavemen to Chemist: Circumstances and Achievements Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1991 Sass, Stephen L The Substance of Civilization New York: Arcade Publishing, 1998 Shreve, R Norris, and Brink, Joseph A Chemical Process Industries New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977 Snyder, Carl The Extraordinary Chemistry of Ordinary Things New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1992 Stoker, H Stephen General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001 Summerlin, Lee R., Borgford, Christie L., and Ealy, Julie Chemical Demonstrations, A Sourcebook for Teachers Volume 2, 2nd ed Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1988 Summerlin, Lee R., and Ealy, James L Jr Chemical Demonstrations: A Sourcebook for Teachers Volume 1, 2nd ed Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1988 Taylor, F Sherwood The Alchemists New York: Henry Schuman, 1949 Thomas, John Meurig Michael Faraday and The Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1991 Ware, George W The Pesticide Book, 5th ed Fresno, CA: Thomson Publications, 1999 Wendland, Ray T Petrochemicals, The New World of Synthetics Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1969 Woodburn, John H Chemistry Careers Chicago: VGM Career Horizons, 1997 Zumdahl, Steven S., and Zumdahl, Susan A., 5th ed Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000 Author Index Abegg, Richard, 74 Agricola, Georgius, 16 Al-Razi, 13 Anaximander of Miletus, Andrews, Samuel, 305 Aquinas, Thomas, 14 Aristotle, 10, 13, 14, 18 Arrhenius, Svante August, 141, 156, 157, 158, 159 Avicenna, 13 Avogadro, Amedeo, 35, 106 Bacon, Roger, 14 Baekeland, Leo Hendrik, 298 Bayen, Pierre, 26 Bayer, Friedrich, 168 Bayer, Karl Josef, 192 Becher, John, 19, 20 Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 38 Bergman, Tobern, 27, 72 Bernigaut, Louis Marie Hilaire, 297, 298 Berthelot, Marcellin, 196 Berthollet, Claude Louis, 27, 32, 33, 72 Berzelius, Jöns Jacob, 34, 51, 73, 196, 197, 198 Biringuccio, Vannoccio, 16 Black, Joseph, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26 Bohr, Niels, 40 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 103 Bosch, Karl, 153 Bose, Satyendra Nath, 85 Boullay, Pierre Francois Guillaume, 196 Boyle, Robert, 18, 19, 21, 25, 102 Bragg, William Henry, 91 Bragg, William Lawrence, 91 Brønsted, Johannes, 158 Bunsen, Robert, 296 Cannizzaro, Stanislao, 62, 63 Carlisle, Anthony, 176 Carothers, Wallace Hume, 298, 299, 300 Carson, Rachael, 283 Cavendish, Henry, 20, 25, 26, 27, 36 Celsius, Anders, 104 Chadwick, James, 37, 38 Chapman, Sydney, 262 Charles, Jacques Alexandre, 105, 107 Chesebrough, Robert, 218 Colgate, William, 306 Couper, Archibald Scott, 198 Crick, Francis, 234, 236 Crookes, William, 35, 36 Crutzen, Paul, 266 Curie, Marie, 38 Curie, Pierre, 38 Dalton, John, 10, 33, 34, 35, 38, 45, 46, 51, 56, 107, 131, 176 Daniell, John Fredrick, 180 Davy, Humphrey, 72, 73, 156, 176 de Broglie, Louis, 40 de Buffon, Comte, 72 de Fourcroy, Antoine Francois, 27 de Mestral, George, 299 de Morveau, Guyton, 27 Democritus, 9, 10, 47, 71 Diocletian, 12 Döbereiner, Johann, 61, 62 366 Author Index Dow, Herbert Henry, 302, 303 Drake, Edwin L., 216 Du Fay, Charles, 172 Dumas, Jean-Baptiste André, 196, 197, 198 DuPont, Henry, 292, 293 DuPont, LaMont, 293 DuPont, Pierre Samuel, 292 DuPont de Nemours, Eleuthère Irènèe, 292 Eastman, George, 298 Ehrlich, Paul, 296 Einstein, Albert, 85, 246 Empedocles of Agrigentum, Epicurus, 10 Fahrenheit, Daniel, 104 Faraday, Michael, 73, 176, 205, 294 Fermi, Enrico, 46 Firestone, Harvey Samuel, 305 Fischer, Ernest Gottfried, 32 Ford, Henry, 305 Frankland, Edward, 73, 198 Franklin, Benjamin, 23, 172 Fresenius, Karl, 296 Fuller, F Buckminster, 96 Galen, 14 Galilei, Galileo, 99 Galvani, Luigi, 172, 173, 174, 180, 193 Gamble, James, 305, 306 Gamble, William, 306 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 34, 35, 105, 107, 196, 290 Geiger, Johannes Wilhelm, 39 Gell-Mann, Murray, 44 Geoffroy, Etienne Francois, 72 Gerhardt, Charles Fredric, 168, 197, 198 Gilbert, William, 171 Glover, John, 290 Goodrich, Benjamin Franklin, 304, 305 Goodyear, Charles, 300, 304 Gore, Wilbert, 299 Graham, Thomas, 136 Grove, Sir William, 188 Guldberg, Cato Maximilian, 151 Haber, Fritz, 153, 154 Hales, Stephen, 21, 22 Hall, Charles Martin, 191, 192, 193 Heisenberg, Werner, 40 Henry, William, 33, 131 Heraclitus of Ephesus, Héroult, Paul L T., 191, 192, 193 Hippocrates, 167 Hoffman, Felix, 168 Hooke, Robert, 6, 18, 19, 297 Hyatt, John Wesley, 298 Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), 13, 14 Joule, James Prescott, 115 Kekulé, Friedrich August, 73, 198, 206, 296 Kirwan, Richard, 27 Koch, Robert, 296 Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann, 168, 196 Kossel, Walther, 74 Kroto, Harold, 96 Langmuir, Irving, 74 Laurent, Auguste, 73, 197, 198 Lavoisier, Antoine, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 70, 156, 193, 196, 292 Le Châtelier, Henri Louis, 149, 153 LeBlanc, Nicholas, 291 Leclanché, George, 186 Leucippus, 9, 71 Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 74, 75, 76, 159 Libavius, Andreas, 16 Libby, Williard, 246 Liebig, Justus, 156, 197, 198, 295, 296 Lister, Joseph, 296 London, Fritz, 89 Lowry, Thomas, 158, 159 Lucretius, 10 Magnus, Albertus, 14 Marsden, Ernest, 39 Maxwell, James Clerk, 103 Mayow, John, 19 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 63, 64, 65 Meyer, Julius Lothar, 63 Millikan, Robert Andrew, 37 Mitscherlich, Eilhardt, 205 Molina, Mario, 265, 266 Morehead, James T., 304 Morton, William T J., 209 Moseley, Henry, 64 Müller, Paul, 282, 283 Mullis, Kary B., 236 Newlands, John, 62 Newton, Isaac, 6, 25, 71, 72 Nicholson, William, 176 Nieuwland, Julius, 300 Nobel, Alfred, 293 Nobel, Immanuel, 293 Author Index Paracelsus, 14, 15, 18 Parmenides, Pasteur, Louis, 296 Pauli, Wolfgang, 42 Pauling, Linus, 77 Perkins, William Henry, 295 Perrin, Jean Baptiste, 56 Planté, Gaston, 186 Priestley, Joseph, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 172 Procter, Harley, 306 Procter, William, 305, 306 Proust, Joseph Louis, 32, 33 367 Smalley, Richard, 96 Smith, Robert Angus, 267 Sobrero, Ascanio, 293 Solvay, Ernest, 292 Sorenson, Soren Peer Lauritz, 162 Stahl, George, 20, 21 Stoney, George, 37 Thompson, William (Lord Kelvin), 104, 105 Thomson, Joseph John, 36, 37, 38, 73, 176 Topham, Charles, 297 Torricelli, Evangelista, 99, 100 Tyndall, John, 137 Queeny, John Francis, 303 Richter, Jermias Benjamin, 31, 32 Rockefeller, John D., 305 Roebuck, John, 290 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 38, 46 Rouelle, Giullame Francois, 25 Rowland, F Sherwood, 265, 266 Rutherford, Daniel, 22 Rutherford, Ernest, 37, 39 Scheele, Carl, 24, 25, 26 Schrödinger, Edwin, 40 Schweppe, Jacob, 23 Seaborg, Glenn, 69 Seiberling, Charles, 304 Seiberling, Frank A., 304 Sennert, Daniel, 18 van der Waals, Johannes Diederick, 90, 91 van Helmont, Jan Baptista, 17, 18, 21 van Musschenbroek, Pieter, 172 van’t Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus, 142 Volta, Alessandro, 72, 172, 174, 175, 176, 180, 193 von Guericke, Otto, 171 von Hofmann, Wilhelm, 295, 296 von Laue, Max Theodor Felix, 91 Waage, Peter, 151 Watson, James, 234, 236 Watt, James, 22, 26 Williams, Charles Greville, 300 Willson, Thomas L., 304 Wöhler, Friedrich, 195, 196, 197, 294 Zweig, George, 44