Language in the real world

Language in the Real World Language in the Real World: An introduction to linguistics challenges the traditional approaches taken to linguistics to provide an innovative introduction to the subject By first examining the real world applications of core areas of linguistics and then addressing the theory behind these applications, this text offers an inductive, illustrative, and interactive overview for students Key areas covered include animal communication, phonology, language variation, gender and power, lexicography, translation, forensic linguistics, language acquisition, American Sign Language, and language disorders Each chapter, written by an expert in the field, is introduced by boxed notes listing the key points covered and features an author’s note to readers that situates the chapter in its real world context Activities and pointers for further study and reading are also integrated into the chapters and an end of text glossary is provided to aid study Professors and students will benefit from the interactive companion website that includes a student section featuring comments and hints on the chapter exercises within the book, a series of flash cards to test knowledge, and further reading and links to key resources Material for professors includes essay and multi-choice questions based on each chapter and additional general discussion topics Language in the Real World shows that linguistics can be appreciated, studied, and enjoyed by actively engaging real world applications of linguistic knowledge and principles and will be essential reading for students with an interest in language Susan J Behrens is Professor of Speech–Language Pathology and Audiology at Marymount Manhattan College Judith A Parker is Professor of English and Linguistics at the University of Mary Washington Language in the Real World An introduction to linguistics Susan J Behrens and Judith A Parker First published 2010 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk Selection and editorial matter © 2010 Susan J Behrens and Judith A Parker Individual chapters © 2010 the contributors All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Language in the real world / [edited by] Susan J Behrens and Judith A Parker – 1st ed p cm Applied linguistics I Behrens, Susan J., 1959– II Parker, Judith A P129.L365 2010 418—dc22 2009031835 ISBN 0-203-83981-1 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–77467–5 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–77468–3 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–77467–3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–77468–0 (pbk) Contents Alternate Contents Acknowledgments Contributors vii xi xii Introduction I: Language, Education, and Cultural Change Language Variation: Students and Teachers Reflect on Accents and Dialects Susan J Behrens and Rebecca L Sperling 11 Speech Communities: Language as a Mediator of Messages and Perceptions Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth 27 Teaching Pronunciation: Using Phonology in the ESL and Foreign Language Classroom Joanna Labov 43 II: Literature, Translation, and Computers Lexicography: What Dictionaries Reveal about Language and Dictionary Makers Paul D Fallon Text Translation: Approaching Otherness Mary Boldt and Esperanza Roncero Machine Translation: The Challenge of Ambiguity Nan Decker The N-Word, the F-Word, and All that Jazz: Race, Sex, and Transgressive Language in Contemporary American Literature and Popular Culture Carmen Gillespie III: Language, Power, and Identity Language, Power, and Sexual Assault: Women’s Voices on Rape and Social Change Judith A Parker and Deborah Mahlstedt Gender, Language, and Power: Surname or Sirname? Diana Boxer 10 Linguistics as a Forensic Science: The Case of Author Identification Carole E Chaski 65 67 89 107 123 137 139 164 180 vi Contents IV: Forms of Language and Communication 205 11 First Language Acquisition: Developing Native Linguistic Competence Janine Graziano-King and Helen Smith Cairns 207 12 ASL: A Visual Language Miako Villanueva, Deanna Twain, and Laura Leigh Wood 226 13 Animal Communication: The “Language” of Honey Bees Wyatt A Mangum 255 V: Language and Communication Science 275 14 Communication Disorders: A Personal Perspective Ann D Jablon 277 15 Analyzing Narratives: An Example of Cross-Cultural Research Methods Cecile L Stein 297 16 Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics: Contributions to Understanding Healthy Aging and Dementia Yael Neumann, Linda Carozza, and Anastasia Georgiou 314 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 331 Glossary Index 349 367 Alternate Contents This Alternate Contents guides readers to chapters that cover the traditional areas of linguistic theory and subdisciplines Discourse Analysis Speech Communities: Language as a Mediator of Messages and Perceptions Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth Machine Translation: The Challenge of Ambiguity Nan Decker Language, Power, and Sexual Assault: Women’s Voices on Rape and Social Change Judith A Parker and Deborah Mahlstedt Gender, Language, and Power: Surname or Sirname? Diana Boxer 27 107 139 164 10 Linguistics as a Forensic Science: The Case of Author Identification Carole E Chaski 180 15 Analyzing Narratives: An Example of Cross-Cultural Research Methods Cecile L Stein 297 16 Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics: Contributions to Understanding Healthy Aging and Dementia Yael Neumann, Linda Carozza, and Anastasia Georgiou 314 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 331 Lexicon/Semantics Speech Communities: Language as a Mediator of Messages and Perceptions Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth 27 Lexicography: What Dictionaries Reveal about Language and Dictionary Makers Paul D Fallon 67 Text Translation: Approaching Otherness Mary Boldt and Esperanza Roncero Machine Translation: The Challenge of Ambiguity Nan Decker 89 107 viii Alternate Contents The N-Word, the F-Word, and All that Jazz: Race, Sex, and Transgressive Language in Contemporary American Literature and Popular Culture Carmen Gillespie 123 Language, Power, and Sexual Assault: Women’s Voices on Rape and Social Change Judith A Parker and Deborah Mahlstedt 139 10 Linguistics as a Forensic Science: The Case of Author Identification Carole E Chaski 180 11 First Language Acquisition: Developing Native Linguistic Competence Janine Graziano-King and Helen Smith Cairns 207 12 ASL: A Visual Language Miako Villanueva, Deanna Twain, and Laura Leigh Wood 226 13 Animal Communication: The “Language” of Honey Bees Wyatt A Mangum 255 16 Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics: Contributions to Understanding Healthy Aging and Dementia Yael Neumann, Linda Carozza, and Anastasia Georgiou 314 Morphology Lexicography: What Dictionaries Reveal about Language and Dictionary Makers Paul D Fallon 67 11 First Language Acquisition: Developing Native Linguistic Competence Janine Graziano-King and Helen Smith Cairns 207 12 ASL: A Visual Language Miako Villanueva, Deanna Twain, and Laura Leigh Wood 226 14 Communication Disorders: A Personal Perspective Ann D Jablon 277 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 331 Neurolinguistics/Psycholinguistics Language, Power, and Sexual Assault: Women’s Voices on Rape and Social Change Judith A Parker and Deborah Mahlstedt 139 14 Communication Disorders: A Personal Perspective Ann D Jablon 277 15 Analyzing Narratives: An Example of Cross-Cultural Research Methods Cecile L Stein 297 Alternate Contents ix 16 Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics: Contributions to Understanding Healthy Aging and Dementia Yael Neumann, Linda Carozza, and Anastasia Georgiou 314 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 331 Pragmatics Speech Communities: Language as a Mediator of Messages and Perceptions Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth 14 Communication Disorders: A Personal Perspective Ann D Jablon 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 27 277 331 Phonetics/Phonology Language Variation: Students and Teachers Reflect on Accents and Dialects Susan J Behrens and Rebecca L Sperling 11 Speech Communities: Language as a Mediator of Messages and Perceptions Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth 27 Teaching Pronunciation: Using Phonology in the ESL and Foreign Language Classroom Joanna Labov 43 Lexicography: What Dictionaries Reveal about Language and Dictionary Makers Paul D Fallon 67 Text Translation: Approaching Otherness Mary Boldt and Esperanza Roncero 89 11 First Language Acquisition: Developing Native Linguistic Competence Janine Graziano-King and Helen Smith Cairns 207 14 Communication Disorders: A Personal Perspective Ann D Jablon 277 16 Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics: Contributions to Understanding Healthy Aging and Dementia Yael Neumann, Linda Carozza, and Anastasia Georgiou 314 17 Language of Children with Autism: The Two Worlds Underlying Verbal Communication Marion Blank and Mary Beth Cull 331 364 Glossary Tense vowel A particular vowel quality that is phonemically contrastive in many languages, including English Tense phonemes are produced with the jaw muscles tensed (3) Theory of mind (ToM) A theory whose primary characteristic is the ascription of mental states to another mind and the recognition that others may hold beliefs different from one’s own (17) Tinnitus A hearing disorder characterized by experiencing ringing, hissing, or other noises (14) Topic-associating story structure An organizational pattern of discourse in which contiguous topics are related The structure differs from the constraints of the topic-centered discourse structure common in mainstream Anglo culture (2) Topicalization A sentence structure (in speech or signing) that begins with an entity, separated from the main clause, that will be important to what follows e.g That street, it’s closed (12) Transitive verb A verb that takes a direct object Slice is a transitive verb, and in the sentence She sliced the vegetables, the direct object is the vegetables (See Intransitive verb) (1, 4, 6) Translation-by-example An approach to machine translation in which a corpus in one language (the source language) is matched with translations in the second language (the target language) (See Source and Target) (6) Traumatic brain injury (TBI) An acquired disorder caused by a trauma to the brain Problems with language production, comprehension, memory, and other cognitive functions can result (14) Tremble dance A honey bee behavior in which a bee stimulates others to process nectar into honey (13) Truncated passive (See Agentless passive) (8) Unaspirated A phoneme is unaspirated if it is not followed by a burst of air (See Aspiration and Aspirated) (11) Unconventionally indirect speech act A speech act in which a speaker uses language in a new way to send a message indirectly (2) Underextension An error children make in word learning in which a word is used to refer to a smaller set of things than the word is used to refer to by adults (See Overextension) (11) Ungrammatical A sentence is ungrammatical if it cannot be produced given the syntactic rules of the language (11) Universal grammar The set of grammatical principles shared by all human languages (11) Unmarked Characterization of linguistic forms that are considered normal by users (See Marked and Markedness) (1) Use Related to pragmatics the socially appropriate use of language (See Form and Content) (14) Utterance A unit of language spoken (or signed) (11) Validation testing A means of testing any given method’s ability to arrive at or obtain the correct or valid response (10) Validity The genuineness of findings (10) Verb phrase A phrase headed by a verb, including the noun phrases, prepositional phrases and adverbs that (in English) follow it In the sentence John drove his car into the lake last night, the verb drove, the direct object noun phrase his car, and the prepositional phrase into the lake together constitute a verb phrase (6) Visual dictionary A dictionary characterized by pictures that have detailed labeling so that users can find the word they are looking for visually (4) Vocabulary spurt An increase in the rate of word learning that begins when children have between 50 and 100 words in their productive lexicons (11) Vocal folds The folds of tough flexible tissue in the larynx extending from back to front (3) Glossary 365 Vocal tract The tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs involved in making speech sounds (3) Voice disorder A disorder that affects voice quality in an abnormal way (14) Voiced sounds Speech sounds that are produced with the vocal folds vibrating (See Voiceless sounds) (3) Voiceless sounds Speech sounds that are produced with no vibration of the vocal folds (See Voiced sounds) (3) Vowel A phoneme that is produced without blocking the air stream from the lungs at any point in the vocal tract (3) Waggle dance A bee dance that indicates the distance of a food source, the direction to the source, and even the quantity of food; typical for distances greater than 100 meters (13) Wh-question A question formed with a wh-word, such as what, when, or why (11, 12) Yes/No question A question that elicits a yes or no response, such as Did you find the house keys? (11, 12) Index Page numbers relating to Figures or Tables will be in italic print Abrams, L., 316 Academy of Neurologic Communication Disorders and Sciences, 328 accents, 15–16, 28 acquaintance rape, 143 acquired language disorder, 287 active voice, 147 actual rape, 144 adjectives, 116 affixes, 74 African American English (AAE), 18 African American Vernacular English (AAVE), 17–19, 32, 37; taboo words, 124–25, 126, 127 African American women, narratives, 148 agentless passive, 147 aging: Alzheimer’s disease, 315, 317–20, 323, 324, 328; auditory comprehension, 317; differentiation of terms, 318; healthy, 315–17, 320; lexical access, 316; linguistic changes, 316; neural changes, 316; spoken discourse, 317 Ainsworth, M D S., 335 Alcoff, L., 148, 149, 153 ALIAS _SynAID (Automated Linguistic Identification and Assessment System_Syntactic Author Identification), 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194 All in the Family (TV comedy), 28 allophones, 50–57 alphabetical order, organization by, 69 alternations, 70 Alzheimer’s disease, 315, 317–20, 323, 324, 328; healthy aging contrasted with Alzheimer’s type dementia, 320 Amasyali, M F., 196 ambiguity, detecting, 217 ambiguity in machine translation, 110–17; domain information, 113; lexical, 112; multiword phrases, 112; parsing of input sentence, 113–15; sentence boundaries, 110; using semantic information for disambiguation, 116–17; word boundaries, 111; words reducing, complete descriptions of, 112–13; see also machine translation (MT) American culture, critical incidents, 35, 36 American Dictionary of the English Language, 81, 84 American Heritage Company, 82 American Heritage Dictionary, The, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 91 American literature, contemporary, 123–34; censorship, 127–28; N (nigger) and F(fuck) words see N (nigger) and F(fuck) words American Psychiatric Association, 333 American School for the Deaf, 229 American Sign Language (ASL), 226–51; arbitrary signs, 234; commands, 248; compounds, 242–4, 243; conditionals, 248; declarative statements, 246; depiction, 249, 250, 251; diachronic changes, 235; dominant hand, 235; history, 228–30, 231; home signs, 229; iconicity, 230, 232–5, 233, 234, 249; lingustics of, 230; manual alphabets, 231; minimal pairs, 241, 242; morphology, 239–45; non-manual signals, 235; nouns from verbs, 240–1; phonology, 235–9, 236, 237, 238; questions, 246–7; syntax, 245–6; topicalization, 246 American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA), 278, 281–4, 290; Social Dialects, 294 American Spelling Book, The, 81 anachronisms, 69 Anderson, A., 196 animal communication: versus human, 257; interchangeability, 268; see also bees’ dance communication Annas, P., 36 antonyms, 77 Anzaldúa, Gloria, 11, 14, 24, 97 aphasia, 281, 287, 289, 328 arbitrariness, 269–70 argot, 96 Aries, P., 332 Armah, B., 124 Armstrong, D F., 234 Arnold, D J., 119 articulation, manner and place of, 57, 58 articulators, 49 ASD see Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Ash, S., 188 Ashby, M., 60 Asperger, H., 333 Asperger Syndrome, 333 aspiration, 50, 51, 211 assimilation, 56–57 associative relationships, 322 Atlas of North American English, 188 attachment behavior, 335 attorney, role in courtroom, 153 attributive noun, 112 Auden, W H., 67, 85 audiologists, 278 auditory comprehension, aging process, 316, 317 auditory system, 283 author identification, 189–95; new computation tools, 193–5 autism, 331–44; hallmarks, 332–3; and language, 332, 337–40; social cognition, 334–7; spectrum concept, 333–4; verbal communication, 340–4; see also Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD); communication disorders 368 Index Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network, 333 Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN), 344 Autistic Spectrum Conditions (ASC), 333 Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD): classifying communication disorders, 281; gesture language and joint attention, 334; hyperlexia, 340; initiatorresponder roles, young children, 343; language disorders, 286–7; semantics, 338–9; spectrum concept, 333; syntax, 340; theory of mind, 336–7, 338 auxiliary verbs, 214 Baayen, H., 196 babbling, in infants, 211 babies, 209, 211, 334, 335 Bachman, L., 31 backchannels, 28 Baggs, A., 332 Baghdadlia, A., 344 Bailey, Nathan, 81 Baker-Shenk, C., 240, 245 Bamberg, M., 300, 301 Bartolucci, G., 339 Bashir, A S., 286, 287, 288 Bassnett, S., 90 Bates, E., 212 Baugh, A C., 183 Baugh, J., 18 Bayles, K A., 324 Beall, S K., 157 Beebe, L., 34 bees’ dance communication, 255–72; arbitrariness, 269–70; big picture, 264–6; cultural transmission, 268–9; discreteness, 267–8; displacement, 270–1; experiment, 256–7; historical observations, 257–9; interchangeability, 268; mode of communication, 267; productivity, 271; quality of food, 265–6; recruit bees, 261, 262–4; round dance, 262–4; tremble dance, 265; types of bee, 267, 269, 271; waggle dance see waggle dance (bees); “waltzing bees”, 259; whether a language, 266–71 behavioral methodology, 321–5 Bellugi, U., 216 Benedict, H., 212 Berkowitz, D., 28 Berman, A., 103 Berman, R., 301 BET (Black Entertainment Television), 124 beta-amyloid plaques, in elderly, 316 Bhabha, H., 90 Bhutanese culture, 305–6 bias: confirmation, 193, 195; and dictionaries, 84–85; language, 14–15 Bible, 84, 101 Biesmeijer, J C., 271 bilabial consonants, 57 bilingualism/bilingual education, 19, 31; process of acquiring second language, 36–37 Bishop, D V M., 338 Black Arts movement (1960s), 125 Black English see African American Vernacular English (AAVE) Blackman, W A., 181 Blank, M., 340, 341, 342, 343, 344 Blaxill, M F., 333 Bletzer, K., 143–44 Blink (Gladwell), 335 Bloom, L., 284 Blum-Kulka, S., 33 Boal, A., 158 Boberg, S., 188 Bodman, J., 34 Bolinger, Dwight, 82 Bonvillian, J D., 338 Booker, M., 157 Borderlands/La Frontera (Anzaldúa), 97 Borker, R A., 168 Boucher, J., 337 bound morphemes, 213–14 Bourdieu, P., 17 Boxer, D., 174 brain, 288–9; hippocampus, 319; imaging of, 315–16 brain-language developments, 314–28; healthy aging, 315–17 Brinton, B., 216 British Sign Language (BSL), 230, 231 Broca, P., 288 Broca’s area, brain, 288, 289 Brown, R., 218 Bucholtz, M., 152 Bullokar, John, 80 Burke, D M., 316, 326 by-phrase, 147 Cairns, H S., 216, 217 Californians, 28–29 Callies, M., 94 calque, 96 Cameron, D., 152, 156, 168 Campbell, J B., 90 Campbell, W M., 189 Canada, 120, 177 Canale, M., 31 Capelli, C A., 217 Capps, L., 301, 309, 310 Carey, S., 213 Carozza, L C., 317, 321, 323, 324, 325 Carpenter, M., 34 Cassidy, F G., 188 Cawdry, Robert, 80 Cazden, C., 37 censorship, 127 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 333 Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, The, 80 Charrow, R P., 183 Charrow, V R., 183 Chaski, C E., 186, 189, 196, 197, 198 child development, narratives, 300 CHILDES database, 209 child psychiatry, 332 Chimezie, A., 127 Choi, S H., 38 Chomsky, N., 90, 180 Christ, Ronald, 98, 99 Christie, A., 97, 101 citations, 82 Civil Code, Russian Federation, 175 Civil Rights movement, 125 Clark, K., 152 Clerc, L., 228, 229 Clothesline Project, 157–58 cluster reduction, 211 Coates, J., 29 code-switching, 96–97 cognates, 94–95, 229 Cogswell, A., 228 Index Cohen, L B., 334 Cokely, D., 240, 245 Colgan, S E., 334 Collins, P H., 151 collocations, 73 commands, 248 common noun, 112 communication: in autism, 333, 340–4; definitions, 279; non-verbal, 32; verbal (in autism), 340–4 communication disorders, 277–94; and adults, 293; autism see autism; Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD); case studies, 285–6, 289–90, 291–2, 293; classifying, 281; fluency, 282; hearing, 283; language, 286–90; sound production, 281–2; treating, 290–2; voice, 282–3 communicative competence, 31, 32 communities, speech see speech communities comparative method, 78 Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, A, 81 competence, linguistic, 208, 338 complementary distribution, 51 compounds, American Sign Language, 242–4, 243 compound words, 213 computational linguistics, 187 Computerized Tomography (CT scanning), 316 conditionals, 248 confirmation bias, 193, 195 Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons, 228 connotations, 92, 142 consonants: bilabial, 57; description, 57; English, 55, 57; graphics, 59; l and r, 59, 60; stop consonants, 50, 51, 57, 211; teaching of, 57–60; and vocal tract, 49 constraints on language, 221 content (Wh-) questions, 216, 247 content words, 339 context, 149 cooperative overlapping, 28 Corcoran, D., 158 Corney, M., 196 corpora, computers, 78, 108 corpus linguistics, 187 Coulter, G R., 230 Counseling to End Violence against Women: A Subversive Mdel (Whalen), 157 count nouns, 112 Coupland, N., 148 Courchesne, P., 96 courtroom discourse, sexual assault, 152–56 Couverture laws, 166 Covi, G., 91 Craighero, L., 335 Crais, E R., 217 Crane, E., 257 Crawford, J., 167 Crenshaw, K W., 151 critical discourse analysis (CDA), 150, 152, 165 critical incidents, responses to, 34–36 Crockett, D., 318 Crystal, D., 194 Cuban Americans, 97 Cull, M B., 344 cultural referents, 94 cultural transmission, 268–9 Cummins, J., 38 Curtiss, S., 220 369 Damrad-Frye, R., 300, 301 Dangerfield, R., 27, 38 Dapretto, M., 335 Darwin, C., 210 DAT (dementia of the Alzheimer’s type), 315, 317–20 data collection, 186 date rape, 143, 152 Daubert standard, forensic linguistics, 197, 198 Dawson, G., 344 deafness, 283; see also American Sign Language (ASL) declarative statements, 246 Decoration Day (film), 95 Defoe, Daniel, 81 De Francisco, V L., 170 deixis, 144, 339 DeKeresedy, W S., 151 Delpit, L., 18 DeMaio, L J., 343 de Marco, R J., 265 dementia: of Alzheimer’s type (DAT) see Alzheimer’s disease; cognitive-linguistic changes, 319–20; definitions, 317–18; frontotemporal, 318; multiinfarct, 318; neural changes, 319 Denizet-Lewis, B., 168 denotations, 92, 142 depiction, in ASL, 249, 250, 251 Derwing, T., 44 descriptive approach to language, 15, 82, 188 design features of language, 257 DeVel, O., 196 developmental language disorders, 287 diacritics, 69 dialectology, 187–8 dialects: regular, 20; standard and non-standard, 16–17; text translation, 96 Dickinson, E., 100 dictionaries, 67–85; and bias, 84–85; CD-ROMs included with, 72; contemporary issues, 82–84; headwords, 74, 76; history, 80–81; learner’s, 73–74; lexical ambiguity, dealing with, 112; morphology, 74–75; organization, 68–69; prescriptive approach, 82; pronunciation, 70–72; reverse, 68; rhyming, 68; semantics, 75–78; syntax, 73–74; tautologous definitions, 76; visual, 68; word origins, 78–79 Dictionary of American Regional English, 188 Dictionary of American Sign Language (Stokoe), 230 Dictionary of the English Language, 81 Diekema, A R., 118 differential diagnosis, 315, 320 diphthongs, 60 direct object, 109 direct speech acts, 33 Diri, B., 196 discourse/discourse analysis: and autism, 341–2; courtroom discourse, sexual assault, 152–56; critical discourse analysis, 150, 152, 165; discourse styles, contrasting, 28–29; forensic linguistics, 187; initiatorresponder roles, young children, 342–4; narrative discourse analysis, 321, 324–5; suppressed discourse, 148; survivor discourse, 148–52 discreteness, communication, 267–8 displacement, 270–1 domain information, 113 domestic violence (DV), 142 Dopwell, M., 155 Dorji, T., 306, 308 double modals, 21 double negatives, 22, 188 370 Index Down syndrome (DS), 281, 287 Doyon, D., 158 Dromi, E., 212 Droogsma, R A., 158 Dyer, F C., 259, 262, 267 Dykman, E., 36, 37 Dym, R., 277 Eades, D., 30 Eastham, M., 340 Ebonics (African American Vernacular English), 17, 18, 19, 32 Ebsworth, M E., 35 Ebsworth, T., 35 Eckert, P., 134, 147, 149, 152, 156 Ehrlich, S L., 152, 153–55 Eigsti, I M., 340 Eisenstein, M., 28, 32, 34 electrophysiology, 321 Eltit, D., 98 embedded sentences, 214 emotions, 31–32 empowerment, 156–57 Encarta World Dictionary (Microsoft), 81 encyclopedic information, 80 Engberg-Pedersen, E., 249 English Expositor, An (Bullokar), 80 English language: academy, demand for, 81; African American Vernacular English, 17–19, 32, 37; cognates, 95; consonants, 55, 57; and Latin, 70–71; machine translation, 119; Old and Middle English, 76, 78; pronunciation, 45; and Spanish language, 45; Standard English see Standard English (SE); as S-V-O language, 114, 119, 214, 215; syllable structure system, 54, 55; vowels and diphthongs, 60, 61 Ensler, E., 157 epenthesis, 55 equivalence, 91 Erickson, R L., 279 ESL (English as a second language), 43, 45, 49, 58 espanglish espaninglish, 97 Etter-Lewis, G., 148 etymology, 78, 79 euphemism, 131, 145–46 Event-Related Potentials (ERPs), 315, 316, 321, 325–7 Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha’s Vineyard (Groce), 280 excluded speech, 148 experts, 109, 116 Fairclough, N., 152 Fakotakis, N., 196 false belief task, 336 false deixis, 145 fast mapping, 212–13 FCU (form, content, and/or use), 286, 287 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 85 feminism, 151–52; surname issue, 164–78; waves of, in US, 148, 167–8 feminist linguistics, 152 Ferree, C W., 19 fictional narratives, 298, 301–5 Field, J., 44 Fillenbaum, S., 32 fingerprint examination, forensic science, 197 fingerspelling, 230, 231 first impressions, 27, 28–29 first language acquisition (FLA), 207–21; contributions of children, as learners, 220–1; course of, 210–18; critical period, 220; fast mapping, 212–13; language development from birth to age four, 210–16; language development from age four and beyond, 216–18; lexical development, 212; linguistic environment, 219–20; milestones, 221–2; morphological development, 213–14; myths, language learning, 218–19; phenological development, 210–11; study of, 208–10; vocabulary spurt, 212 first wave feminism, 167–8 Fishman, P., 170 five vowel system, 60 fluency disorders, 282 Foa, E B., 157 folk linguistics, 29 Fonow, M M., 150 forensic linguistics: as applied linguistics, 186–92; author identification, 189–95; dialectology and identification, 188–9; Frye and Daubert standards, 197; hacked profile trial, 185–6, 192, 199–200; inheritance dispute, 185, 192; language identification, 187; minors, endangering of, 185, 192; need for, 184–6; possibility of linguistics as forensic science, 197–200; regional association, 187–8; as a science, validating methods, 195–7; speaker identification, 189; study of language and law, 181; stylistics, 193–5, 197; syntactic development, 214–16; text similarity, 189 forensic science, linguistics as, 180–200 Forensic Stylistics (McMenamin), 194 form, content, and/or use (FCU), 286, 287 formality, 99–100 Foster, M., 29 Foundation for American Christian Education, 84 four letter words see taboo words Fowler, R., 152 frame of mind (FOM), 301, 304, 309 Françon, J., 257 Franklin, E., 343 Fraternity Anti-Violence Education Project, 158 free morphemes, 213–14 free radicals, 316 French language, 99 French Sign Language, 228 fricative, 57 Frishberg, N., 234, 235, 249 Frith, U., 333 frontotemporal dementia, 318 Frye standard, forensic linguistics, 197, 198 Fujiki, M., 216 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), 316 Funk and Wagnalls Comprehensive Standard International Dictionary, 81 G & C Merriam Company (later Merriam-Webster), 81, 82 Gallaudet, E M., 229 Gallaudet, T H., 228, 229 Gallaudet University, 227, 229 Gamon, M., 196 garden path sentence, 115 Gardner, R C., 32 Geldart, K., 324 Gender and Conversational Interaction (Tannen), 168 genres, 298 Georgiou, A., 317, 321, 324, 325 Index Gerlach, E K., 344 German language, 95, 99 gerunds, 98 gesture language, social cognition, 334–5 Ghana, surnames of women, 177 Gladwell, M., 335 Glenn, C G., 302 Goldberg, W., 127–28, 134 Goldin, C., 166 Gould, C G., 267, 268 Gould, J L., 267, 268 grammar, 68, 108, 218; Universal Grammar, 221 grammatical errors, 188, 196 grammatical morphemes, 339 Grant, Tim, 194 graphames, 50 grapheme/phoneme correspondence, 217 Gray, L., 148, 149, 153 Griffiths, R., 30 Gritsenko, E., 164, 174 Groce, N E., 280 Guillén-Nieto, V G., 193 Gutman, G., 324 Gutt, E.-A., 90 Hale, C M., 342, 343 Hall, J H., 188 Hamilton, T., 196, 197 handwriting examination, forensic science, 197, 198 Hanlon, C., 218 hard of hearing, 283 Hardy, B., 297, 310 Harper Collins German-English Unabridged Dictionary, 95 Harris, W F., 125–26 Hatim, B., 102 headwords, 74, 76, 190 hearing, 280 hearing disorders, 283 Heath, S B., 13 hedging, 144 helping verbs, 214 Henley, N M., 147, 151–52 Herman, D., 151 Higginbotham, D J., 324 high-amplitude sucking (HAS) technique, 209 high point evaluation, 300 hip hop music, 124 hippocampus, brain, 319 Hiraga, M., 34 Hispanic cultures, surnames of women, 177 Hockett, C., 257, 266, 267 Hodgson, R C., 32 Hoffman, E., 36 Hollien, H F., 189 Holmes, J., 30, 37 holophrastic stage, 215 Holy Synod, 175 homonyms, 75, 77 homophones, 72 Horn, L R., 33 House, J., 34 Howlin, P., 344 Huddleston, R., 73 Hudson, J., 300 Hughes, D., 302, 303, 310 Huttenlocher, J., 212 Hutton, Cate, 94 371 hybridizing of languages, 97–98 Hymes, D., 23, 31 hypercorrection, 21–22 hyperlexia, and autism, 340 hyperpriming, 323 hypopriming, 323 hypothesis testing, 196 Iacoboni, M., 335 iconicity, 230, 232–5, 233, 234, 249, 269 identity, and power, 173–4 idiom, 112 imperatives, 248 inclusive class setting, 289 indicators, social, 21 indirect speech acts, conventional/unconventional, 33 infinitives, 98, 99 inhibition response (N200 waveform), 326, 327 initiator-responder roles, young children, 342–4 interchangeability, communication, 268 International Association of Forensic Linguists (IAFL), 181, 182 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 46, 47–48, 53, 71 International Phonetic Association (IPA), 71 inter-stimulus interval (ISI), 322 intimate partner violence (IPV), 142 Intons-Peterson, M J., 167 intransitive verbs, 22, 73, 113 inversion, subject/auxiliary, 214, 216 Italian language, 119 Jackson, Jesse, 124 Jackson, S L., 127 James, L E., 316, 317 James, W., 334 Janzen, T., 234 jargon, 23, 96 Jaworski, A., 148 Johnson, C J., 217 Johnson, Samuel, 67, 81, 82, 84, 85 joint attention, social cognition, 334–5 Jones, K., 155–57 Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 131 Juola, P., 193 Jusczyk, P W., 212 Kanner, L., 332–3, 334, 337 Karadsheh, R., 217 Karimi, L., 94 Kasper, G., 31 Kaszniak, A W., 324 Kearns, K., 338 Kegl, J., 235 Kennedy, R., 125 Klima, E S., 216 Kniffka, H., 184 Kohnert, K., 277, 292 Koike, D A., 33 Kokkinakis, G., 196 Kongas-Maranda, E K., 305, 308 Koppel, M., 196, 197 Koss, M., 143–44 Kotthoff, H., 165 Kramarae, C., 151–52 Kress, G., 152 Kutas, M., 326 372 Index labeled bracketing, 109 Labov, W., 15, 18, 21, 22, 188, 198, 298, 299 Ladusaw, W A., 46 Lahey, M., 284 Lakoff, R., 152 Lalonde, C E., 211 Lambert, W E., 32, 35 Landa, R., 344 Landau, Sidney, 82 Lane, H., 228 language: acquisition of, 188; American Sign see American Sign Language (ASL); and autism, 332, 337–40; bees’ communication as, 266–71; biases, 14–15; design features, 257; as evidence, 198; and feelings, 38; first, acquisition of see first language acquisition (FLA); identification, 187; and law, 181–6; non-literal, 217; and racism, 129; reactions to, researching, 32; standard, 16, 17; unconscious attitudes, 15; variation see variation, language language biases, 14–15 Language Development and Language Disorders (Bloom and Lahey), 284 language differences, 293–4 language disorders, 286–90 language-learning disorder (LLD), 290 larynx, 282 Latin alphabet, 70–71 Latinos, 32, 97 law, and language, 181–6 Lawrence, D H., 100 lax vowel, 60 learner’s dictionaries, 73–74 Lefevere, A., 97 legal discourse, 152–56 legalese, 23, 182–4 lemma, 74 Le Page, R B., 165 lesions, nervous system, 319 Levi, J N., 182 lexical access, aging process, 316 lexical category, 73 lexical characteristics, 96 lexical decision task, 322 lexical development, 212 lexical holes, 118 lexical mismatch, 118 lexical retrieval, 316 lexicographers, 68, 75, 83, 84, 112, 118 lexicography, 67–85, 186 lexicons, 112, 212 LGBTQA initiatives, 148 Liberman, I Y., 217 Liddell, S K., 230, 249 Lieberman, P., 211 linguistic changes, aging process, 316 linguistic competence, 208, 338 linguistic environment, 219–20 linguistic evidence, 184 linguistic performance, 209 Linguistic Society of America (LSA), 18 loan word, 118 Lockhart, Charles, 13 Lodge, D., 297 LogoVista, 107 Lorch, N., 217 Losh, M., 309, 310 Lubinski, R B., 324 Lucas, C., 230 Lucy Stoners, 167 Lumpérica (Eltit), 98 Lust, B., 219 Lvovich, N., 36 machine translation (MT), 107–21; ambiguity problem see ambiguity, machine translation; in Canada, 120; challenges in translating words, 118; conversion step, 119; converting parsed input sentence to target language, 117–18; free programs, 120; language pairs, 120; overview of process, 107–10; rule-based, 108, 109, 110, 112; statistical, 108; structural challenges, 118–19; see also text translation MacKinnon, C., 153 macrostructure, 298–300, 304, 307 MacWhinney, B., 209 Madden, C M., 217 Maguire, K C., 134, 143 Mahlstedt, D., 158 Maidment, J., 60 Maldman, A., 340 Maltz, D N., 168 Mandel, D R., 212 Mandel, M., 249 Mandelbaum, D G., 90 Mangum, W A., 255 manner of articulation, 57 manual approach, teaching deaf students through, 228 Maori stories, 30 Maranda, P., 305, 308 Marchman, V A., 212 Marcus, G F., 213 Marini, A., 317 markedness, 191 markers, social, 21 Married Women’s Property Acts, 166 Marx, G., 217 mashhadi, 94 Mason, I., 102 Massieu, J., 228 mass noun, 74, 112 matched guise methodology, 32 Matoesian, G., 152, 153, 155 Matsuyama, U K., 307 Matute-Bianchi, M E., 30 McCabe, A., 300, 305 McConnell-Ginet, S., 134, 147, 149, 152, 156 McIntosh, P., 151 McMenamin, G R., 193, 194, 197 McNeil, D., 219 meaning: multiple meanings, 95, 217; non-literal meanings, 93–94; translating, 91–92 mean length of utterance (MLU), 216 Mehler, J., 210 Mellinkoff, D., 183 Melzi, G., 37–38 Mendenhall, T C., 189 mental lexicon (vocabulary), 68 Merriam-Webster (previously G & C Merriam Company), 81, 82, 83 Mesthrie, R., 30 metalinguistic skills, 217 metaphor, 77, 93–94, 217 Metzger, M., 251 Mexican Americans, 97 Mey, J L., 33 Michaels, S., 37 Michelsen, A., 260, 267 Index Middle English, 76, 78 Mileski, J., 340 Miller, C., 165 Miller, P W., 32 Mills, C W., 15 minimal pairs, 52–53, 54; American Sign Language, 241, 242 mirror neurons, social cognition, 334, 335 miscommunication, 54 misunderstandings, 34 mnemonics, 23 mode of communication, 267 Mohay, G., 196 Molavi, D W., 289 monologues, and narratives, 29–30 monomorphemic words, 213 Montessori, M., 207, 219, 222 Mora, R., 30 Morford, J., 235 morphemes: bound and free, 213–14; definitions, 213; and dictionaries, 74; grammatical, 339; language variation, 22 morphological development, 213–14 morphology: American Sign Language, 239–45; definitions, 213; and dictionaries, 74–75; forensic linguistics, 186; speech-language pathology, 284 morphophonemic rule, 214 Morrison, Toni, 123, 127, 128–33, 134; Beloved, 129, 130, 131; Jazz, 131–33 mother–child interaction, 335 multi-infarct dementia (MID), 318 multiword phrases, 112 Munro, M., 44 Munte, T F., 326 Murder in Mesopotamia (Christie), 101 Murray, T E., 167 N (nigger) and F(fuck) words, 128, 129, 134; history, 125–27 N200 waveform, 326, 327 Nakagawa, N., 217 naming practices, 165 narrative discourse analysis, 321, 324–35 narratives, 297–310; Bhutanese culture, 305–6; child development, 300; cross-cultural application, 305–9; definitions, 298; fictional components, 298, 301–5; frame of mind, 301, 304, 309; high point, 300; methodology issues, 299–300, 304; and monologues, 29–30; personal components, 298–301; perspective taking, 301, 304, 308; as primary acts of mind, 310; story grammar, 301–4, 307–8; story resolution, 305, 308 Narrow Fellow in the Grass, A (Dickinson), 100 nasal tract, 49 National Academies of Sciences (NAS), 195 National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), 287 National Institute on Aging (NIA), 315 natural language, 108 Neidle, C., 230 Neijt, A., 196 neologism, 118 Neumann, Y., 321, 326, 327 neural changes: aging process, 316; Alzheimer’s disease, 319 neurofibrillary tangles, in elderly, 316 neuroimaging methodology, 325–7 neurolinguistics, 278, 315 373 neurotypical infants, 334 Nevin, H., 95 New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, A, 76 Newmark, P., 90 New Oxford American Dictionary, The, 76, 77, 84 Newport, M., 240 New York dialogue, 28, 32, 38 New York Times, 82 Nicaraguan Sign Language, 235 Nida, E., 90 Nieh, J C., 271 nigger, terminology, 125–27 Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word (Kennedy), 125 Nittrouer, S., 211 Nobret, R., 96 noise-induced hearing loss, 283 nonce names, 214 non-content words, 339, 340 noncount nouns, 74 non-verbal communication, 32 Nord, C., 90 noun phrase (NP), 109, 114, 190 nouns, 73–74; as children’s first words, 212; deriving from verbs, sign language, 240–1; machine translation, 112 Nunberg, G., 83, 194 Nuyoricans (New York Puerto Ricans), 97 Oakland School Board, California, 17, 18 Ochs, E., 218, 301 October Revolution (1917), Russia, 175 Ogbu, J U., 30 O’Grady, W D., 339 Old English, 76 Olshtain, E., 33 O’Neil, W., 18 onomastics, 165 oral approach, teaching deaf students through, 228 Orange, J B., 324 organs of speech, 48–49, 211, 338 Ortega y Gasset, J., 89 orthographic representations, 322 overextension, 213 overlaid function, speech as, 279 overregularization errors, 213 Oxford English Dictionary (OED), 71, 76, 77, 82 Paletz, D L., 125–26 Paradiz, V., 344 parent–child interaction, 335 parsing: converting parsed input sentence to target language, 117–18; of input sentence, machine translation, 113–15; parser (computer program), 108; parse tree, 108–9, 113–14; text similarity, 189 particle, 117 passive voice, 147 Pastor, K A., 262, 263, 268 past participle, 75 past tense, 213 pauses, use of, 30 Pavlenko, A., 37 Penjore, D., 306, 308 Pennebaker, J W., 157 performance, linguistic, 209 Perry, T., 18 personal narratives, 298–301 perspective taking (PT), 301, 304, 308 374 Index Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD), 332, 333 Peterson, C., 300 Petitto, L A., 219 Pfeifer, H L., 19 Philippot, P., 32 phonemes: accents, 15; autism, 337; dictionaries, 70; English, 52; graphames compared, 50; language development, 210–11; and phonetics, 44; sign language, 235 phonetics, 43, 44–48, 186 phonological awareness, 217 phonological development, 210–11 phonological rules, 54 phonology, 43, 44, 49–50; accents, 15; in Alzheimer’s disease, 320; American Sign Language, 235–9, 236, 237, 238; and autism, 337–8; dictionaries, 70; forensic linguistics, 186; linguistic changes, in elderly, 316; sound studies, 102; speech-language pathology, 284; text translation, 100 phonotactics, 55, 187 phrasal verbs, 73, 113 phrases: building, 214–16; multiword, 112; prepositional, 113 Picasso, P., 314 Pick’s disease, 318 Pierce-Baker, C., 157 Pisoni, D B., 212 place of articulation, 57 Place of Articulation Assimilation Rule, 57 plain language movement, 183 Polanyi, L., 29 politeness, perception of, 34 polysemous words, 77 Pore, S G., 325 Porter, C., 95 Positron Emission Tomography (PET scanning), 316 Postif, L., 96 power, 149, 151; and identity, 173–4 pragmalinguistic failure, 34 pragmatic failure, 34 pragmatics, 33–34, 165, 341 pragmatic skills, in Alzheimer’s disease, 320 prefixes, 74, 75, 213 preposition, 112 prepositional phrases, 113 prescriptive approach to language, 12, 82, 188 present participle, 98, 99 Preston, D., 29 priming, 321–4 Prince-Hughes, D., 340 productivity, communication, 271 pronouns, 20 pronunciation: allophones, 50–57; consonants, teaching, 57–60; English, 45; lexicography, 70–72; phonetics, 44–48; phonology, 49–50; sound and letter relationships, 45; speech organs, 48–49; teaching, 43–61; vowels, 45, 49, 60, 61 proper noun, 112 prosody, 31, 115, 280, 333 psycholinguistic methodology, 321–7 psycholinguistics, 187, 321 Puerto Rican culture, critical incidents, 35, 36 Pujolar, J., 165 Pullum, G K., 46, 73 Pulp Fiction (film), 127 qualitative research: and brain, 321; forensic linguistics, 186; surname issue, gender, 172, 175 quantitative research: and brain, 321; forensic linguistics, 186; surname issue, gender, 170, 171, 172, 176 Quebec, Civil Code, 177 questions, 214, 216; American Sign Language, 246–7 racial identity, 123–24 Rain Man (film), 332 Ramanathan, V., 325 Random House DictionaryRandom House Webster’s, 78, 80, 81 rape: prevention work, 158; speaking in courtroom, 152–56; terminology, 142–45, 152; see also sexual assault reactions to language, researching, 32–33 “Read a Book” (animated video), 124 Real Ebonics Debate (Perry and Delpit), 18 Reed, K L., 325 referents, 339 reflection, 278–9 reflexive pronouns, 20 regional association, 187–8 reliability, research, 181 Renkema, J., 341 Rennie, H., 143, 144 Reproducing Rape: Domination through Talk in the Courtroom (Matoesian), 153 response time (RT), 322, 323 reverse dictionary, 68 Reynolds, D., 189 rhetorical questions, 247 rhyming dictionary, 68 Richards, J., 13 Richardson, E., 155, 156 Rintell, E., 31–32 Rizzolatti, G., 335 Rodman, R., 189 Rodriguez, R., 36 Romance languages, 165 Roncero, Esperanza (ER), 90, 102, 103 Root, E R., 259 root and pattern system, 69 roots of words, 74 Rose, K., 31 Rose, M G., 95 Rose, P., 189 Rosenthal, M., 37 Rothbaum, B O., 157 Roubik, D W., 271 round dance (bees), behaviour of recruit bees, 262–4 rules of language, 280 Russia, surname and gender issues, 174–5 Rutter, M., 333 Rymer, R., 220 Saffran, J R., 212 Salapatek, P., 334 Salle, A.-L., 102 ‘Sally–Anne’ task, 336 Sanday, P., 151 Sapir, E., 90 sarcasm, 217 Sato, C., 30 SAUSI: Semi-Automatic Speaker Identification System, 189 Scandinavia, surnames of women, 176 schematic analysis, 325 Schicklgruber, C., 306 Index Schieffelin, B B., 218 Schleiermacher, F., 90 Schler, J., 196, 197 Schmitt, B M., 326 Schumann, J., 37 Schwartz, M D., 151 Scott, K D., 165 Seal, B C., 338 Searle, J., 33 second language, acquiring, 36–37 second wave feminism, 168 Seeley, T D., 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 271 segment encoding, 327 selectional restrictions, of adjectives, 116 semantic differential scales, 32 semantic domain, 113 semantic features, 116 semantic field, 91 semantic qualifiers, 183 semantics, 75–78; and autism, 338–9; forensic linguistics, 186; lexical access, in elderly, 316; sexual assault, 146–48; survivor and victim, 142; translation, 91; using semantic information for disambiguation, 116–17 senility, 318 sentence boundaries, finding, 110 sentences: building, 214–16; constituents, 109; embedded, 214; garden path, 115; grammatical and ungrammatical, distinguishing, 218; parsing of input sentence, machine translation, 113–15; young children, 215 sexist language, 21 sexual assault, 139–58; Latina women’s references to, 145, 146; lexicon of, 141–46; public activism to end, 157–58; speaking about rape in courtroom, 152–56; survivor and victim, 146; survivor discourse, 148–52; syntax and semantics, 146–48; terminology, 142–44; use of words to acknowledge, 144–45 sexual terrorism, 151 Shaffer, B., 234 Shapiro, L., 300 Shaw, G B., 341 Sheffield, C., 151 Shim, M., 166 Shuy, R., 181, 182, 184, 194–5 Sicard, R.-A., 228 signifiers, 126, 130 sign language, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 280; see also American Sign Language (ASL) Sign Language Structure (Stokoe), 230 silence, 30–31 silent letters, 69, 70 similes, 93 simple words, 213 slang, 22 slavery, 126 Slobin, D., 220, 301 Small, J A., 324 Smiley, P., 212 Smith, B., 58 Smitherman, G., 29 Snake (Lawrence), 100 Snake on a Plane (cult film), 127 social class: and accents, 15; contrasting discourse styles, 29; and dialects, 17; and hypercorrection, 21 social cognition, 334–7 Social Dialects (ASHA), 294 social indicators/markers, 21, 165 375 social skills, 332 sociolects, 96 sociolinguistics, 187, 188; sociolinguistic sensitivity, early development, 37–38 sociological imagination, 15 sociopragmatic failure, 34 Solan, L M., 183 Solomon, B., 269 Sopranos, The, 28 sound and letter relationships, 45 sound contrasts, teaching, 54 sound production disorders, 281–2 source author/text, 90, 91 source language, 108 Spanglish, 97–98 Spanish language, 45, 55–56, 57, 99 speaker identification, 189 Specific Language Impairment (SLI), 281, 287 speech, definitions, 279–80 speech acts, 33–34, 149, 165 speech communities, 27–38; approaching language and feelings, 38; communicative competence, 31, 32; critical incidents, responses to, 34–36 speech disorders, 281–3 speech events, 149 speech-language pathologists (SLPs), 278, 283–4, 325; and linguistics, 284–6 speech organs, 48–49, 211, 338 speech sounds see phonemes Sperber, D., 341 Spillers, H J., 126 spoken discourse, aging process, 316, 317 Srihari, S N., 198 Stabentheiner, A., 267 Stamatatos, E., 196 Standard American English (SAE), 12, 151 Standard English (SE), 12, 19, 37; in flux, 21; formality, 99; irregularity, 20–21; versus vernacular English, 17, 18 standard language, 16, 17 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (Mrs Henry Stanton), 166–7 statistical analysis, 186, 190 Statute of Pleading (1362), 183 Stein, C., 305 Stein, N L., 302 stereotyping, 32, 34, 127 Stern, D N., 210, 334 Stokoe, W., 227, 229, 230, 235 stop consonants, 50, 51, 57, 211 story grammar, 301–4, 307–8 story resolution, 305 stranger rapes, 152 structural power, 151, 153 student-teacher interactions, 30 student writing, 19–20 St Vincent, S., 196, 197 style, 22, 28 stylemarkers, 193 stylistics, forensic, 193–5, 197 subject/auxiliary inversion, 214, 216 sub-language, 120 substitutive depiction, 249 subtitling, 101–2 suffixes, 74, 213 Sungaila, P., 318 Supalla, T., 240, 249 suppressed discourse, 148 376 Index surname issue, gender, 164–78; and children, 172–3; cross-cultural research, 175–7; history, 166–7; identity and power, 173–4; initial study, 168–70; larger study, 170–2; qualitative data, 172, 175; quantitative data, 170, 171, 172, 176; recent trends, 167; Russia versus US, 174–5 survivor discourse, sexual assault, 148–52 Suzuki, M., 59 Svartik, J., 189 S-V-O language, English as, 114, 119, 214, 215 Swain, M., 31 Swan, M., 58 swear words, 85 Swift, Jonathan, 81 Swift, K., 165 syllable encoding, 327 syllable structures, 54–56 synonyms, 77 syntactic awareness, 217 syntactic development, 214–16 syntactic tagging, 189–90, 191 syntax, 73–74; in all human languages, 214; in Alzheimer’s disease, 320; American Sign Language, 245–6; and autism, 339–40; forensic linguistics, 186; linguistic changes, in elderly, 316; sexual assault, 146–48 taboo words, 85, 144; see also N (nigger) and F(fuck) words Tabouret-Keller, A., 165 Tager-Flusberg, H., 338, 339, 342, 343 Take Back the Night (support group), 148, 157 Tannen, D., 28–29, 38; Gender and Conversational Interaction, 168 target language, 108 target reader, 90 Taub, S F., 232, 234, 249 tautologous definitions, dictionaries, 76 Tautz, J., 258 Taylor, D M., 38 teacher-talk, 13 tense vowel, 60 text similarity, 189 text translation, 89–103; blending of languages, 97–98; code-switching, 96–97; cognates, 94–95; cultural referents, 94; definition of ‘translation’, 90; identity of translator, 100–101; intimacy and respect, 99–100; meaning see meaning; source text, 91; specialized fields, 101; subtitling, 101–2; variations, 96; verb structures and tenses, 98–99; see also machine translation Theatre of the Oppressed (TO), 158 theory of mind (ToM), social cognition, 334, 336–7 Thiessen, E D., 212 third wave feminism, 167 Thomas, J., 34 Tiersma, P M., 183 TimeSlips creative storytelling project, 325 tinnitus, 279 Tomoeda, C K., 324 topicalization, 246 topic-associating story structure, 37 Towne, W F., 265 transitive verbs, 22, 73, 113, 118 translation see machine translation; text translation translation-by-example, 108 traumatic brain injury (TBI), 287 Trinch, S., 145 Trost, J., 176 truncated passive, 147 Tunmer, W E., 217 Turner, J., 34 Tweedie, F., 196 Ulatowska, H., 324 underextension, 213 United States: American School for the Deaf, 229; Civil Rights movement, 125; code-switching, 97; New York dialogue, 28, 32, 38; sexual assault, terminology, 143; Standard American English, 12, 151; surnames of women see United States, surname issues; vernacular language see African American Vernacular English (AAVE); waves of feminism in, 148, 167–8; see also American Sign Language (ASL) United States, surname issues: quantitative data, 170, 171, 172; versus Russia, 174–5; tradition, 165–6 Universal Etymological English Dictionary, An, 81 Universal Grammar (UG), 221 unmarked accents, 15 Unz, R., 19 utterances, of children, 209, 216 Vagina Monologues, 148, 157 validation testing, 196 validity, research, 181 Valli, C., 228 van Dijk, T A., 148, 149, 152 van Halteran, H., 196 Van Leeuwen, T., 152 Van Riper, C., 279 variation, language, 11–25; accents, 15–16; African American Vernacular English, 17–19; in classroom, 13–14; dialects, 16–17; Standard English, 12, 20–21; text translation, 96 verbal communication, and autism, 340–4 verb phrase (VP), 109, 114 verbs: auxiliary, 214; deriving nouns from, sign language, 240–1; forms, 75; phrasal, 73, 113; regular, 213; structures and tenses, 98–99; transitive and intransitive, 22, 73, 113, 118 Verdi, G., 36, 38 vernacular language see African American Vernacular English (AAVE) Verschueren, J., 341 visual dictionary, 68 vocabulary, 68 vocabulary spurt, 212 vocal folds, 56 vocal tract, 48–49, 211 voiced and voiceless sounds, 56 voice disorders, 282–3 Voice Foundation, 282–3 voiceless stop consonants, 51 Voicing Assimilation Rule, 57 von Frisch, K., 259–61, 263 von Humboldt, W., 90 vowels, 45, 49, 60, 61 waggle dance (bees), 258, 261, 263, 271; arbitrariness, 269; direction information, 259–60; discreteness, communication, 267–8; distance information, 260–2; shaking signal, 265; see also bees’ dance communication Walch, M A., 198 Waletzky, J., 298, 299 Wallach, M., 342 Index Ward, G L., 33 Warshaw, R., 143 Weaver, W., 91 Webster, N., 81, 84 Webster Comprehensive Dictionary, 81 Webster’s New International Dictionary, 82 Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 83 Webster’s New World Dictonary, 81 Webster’s Random House Dictionary, 80 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 72, 77, 80 Weinberg, A., 216 Welland, R J., 324 Wells, P H., 263 Wenner, A M., 263 Werker, J F., 211 Wernicke, K., 288 Wernicke’s area, brain, 288, 289 West Africa, surnames of women, 177 Westby, C., 305 Whalen, M., 157 White, K K., 316 White Ribbon Campaign (support group), 148, 158 Whorf, B L., 90 wh-questions, 216, 247 Wilbur, R B., 230 377 Wiley, N., 165 Williams, D., 331, 343 Williams, R L., 18 Wilson, D., 341 witness, role, 153 Wodak, R., 152 Wood, L A., 143, 144 Woodward, J., 229 Worcester, J., 81 Word According to Whoopi, The (comedy), 127–28 word boundaries, finding, 111 word learning, 212–14 word origins, 78–79 World Book Dictionary, The, 76, 78, 80 World Book Encyclopedia, 80 World Publishing Company, 81 Wright, S C., 38 writing practices, in college, 19–20 Yale Child Study Center, 337 Yes/No questions, 214; American Sign Language, 246 Yirmiya, N., 337 Young, S L., 134, 143 Zimmerman, R., 94