Language in the schools integrating linguistic

LANGUAGE IN THE SCHOOLS Integrating Linguistic Knowledge Into K–12 Teaching This page intentionally left blank LANGUAGE IN THE SCHOOLS Integrating Linguistic Knowledge Into K–12 Teaching Edited by Kristin Denham Anne Lobeck Western Washington University 2005 LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS Mahwah, New Jersey London Copyright Ó 2005 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 www.erlbaum.com Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey Cover art by Rachel Denham The technique is intaglio-type etching Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Language in the schools : integrating linguistic knowledge into K–12 teaching / edited by Kristin Denham, Anne Lobeck p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8058-4813-4 (alk paper) ISBN 0-8058-4814-2 (pbk : alk paper) Language arts English language—Study and teaching Language and education English teachers—Training of Linguistics—Study and teaching (Higher) I Denham, Kristin E., 1967– II Lobeck, Anne C LB1576.L2973 2005 372.6—dc22 2004059124 CIP Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability Printed in the United States of America 10 Contents Preface ix PART I: HOW KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE CAN INFORM TEACHERS IN MULTICULTURAL, LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE CLASSROOMS Linguistics and Education in Multilingual America John Baugh Embracing Diversity Through the Understanding of Pragmatics Jin Sook Lee 17 Growing Up Shifting: Immigrant Children, Their Families, and the Schools Susan Meredith Burt and Hua Yang 29 Language and Gender Matters in the Classroom Kathryn A Remlinger 41 v vi CONTENTS “My Teacher Says ,” Mastery of English and the Creole Learner Alicia Beckford Wassink 55 The Relevance of Linguistic Analysis to the Role of Teachers as Decision Makers Jean Ann and Long Peng 71 A Positive Sign: An Overview of the Benefits of Signing in the Classroom Lynn S Mancini 87 A Critical Approach to Standard English Anne Lobeck Bilingualism: Myths and Realities Patricia MacGregor-Mendoza 10 Spanish Maintenance and English Literacy: Mexican-Descent Children’s Spanish and English Narratives Robert Bayley and Sandra R Schecter 97 109 121 PART II: INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE INTO K–12 TEACHING 11 Spelling Stories: A Way to Teach the History of English Anne Curzan 12 Teaching Students About Language Change, Language Endangerment, and Language Death Kristin Denham 149 Language as a Reflection of Our Social and Physical World: What Students Can Learn From Metaphor Janet M D Higgins 161 Contrastive Analysis and Codeswitching: How and Why to Use the Vernacular to Teach Standard English Rebecca S Wheeler 171 13 14 139 CONTENTS 15 English LIVEs: Language In Variation Exercises for Today’s Classrooms Kirk Hazen vii 181 16 Developing Savvy Writers by Analyzing Grammar Rants Patricia A Dunn and Kenneth Lindblom 191 17 Linguistics as a Tool in Teaching Fiction Writing Donna Jo Napoli 209 18 Applications of Corpus Linguistics in the English Language Classroom Tony T N Hung 223 English Gairaigo: Learning About Language Structure From the Margins of Japanese Anca M Nemoianu 235 19 20 Opening Dictionaries to Investigation Anne Curzan 247 About the Authors 259 Author Index 265 Subject Index 271 This page intentionally left blank Preface As linguistics grows, the connections between linguistics and other disciplines become more and more evident One area of particular interest to many linguists is how the scientific study of language can be productively applied in K–12 education in order to provide alternatives to more traditional approaches to language, approaches that are inconsistent with what we now know about language structure, variation, change, and acquisition, and language as a social tool Collaboration between linguists and educators has begun to emerge on a national scale, producing work that aims to identify, first, what aspects of linguistic knowledge are most useful for teachers to know, and second, what kinds of activities and projects are most effective in introducing those aspects of linguistic knowledge to students The importance of raising language awareness in the schools is reflected in the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)’s 1994 Position Statement on Language Study: RESOLUTION Resolved, that the National Council of Teachers of English appoint a committee or task force to explore effective ways of integrating language awareness into classroom instruction and teacher preparation programs, review current practices and materials related to language awareness, and prepare new materials for possible publication by NCTE Language awareness includes exam- ix 269 AUTHOR INDEX Priestley, J., 104 Proulx, A., 199, 207 Prutting, C., 91, 95 Prys Jones, S., 111, 119 Pullum, G., 173, 179 Pyles, T., 153, 159 R Raskin, E., 215, 221 Reddy, M., 169 Reich, P., 89, 96 Reisigl, M., 44, 54 Remlinger, K A., 2, 41, 44, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54 Reppen, R., 223, 224, 234 Rhyne, J., 91, 92, 95 Rickford, J R., 70, 71, 86, 105, 108, 172, 173, 179 Rickford, R J., 71, 86 Ritchie, W C., 110, 119 Roberts, P., 69 Rodman, R., 183, 189 Rodriguez, R., 79, 86 Rodriguez-Brown, F., 112, 119 Romaine, S., 115, 120 Rose, S., 61 Ryan, E B., 70 S Sacher, L., 213, 221 Salisbury, G., 217, 221 Schecter, S R., 4, 121, 122, 132, 133 Schick, B., 90, 96 Schilling-Estes, N., 174, 179 Schmich, M., 205, 207 Schneider, B., 192, 207 Schnorr, R., 74, 85 Schoer, L., 100, 108 Schulz, M., 47, 54 Scollon, R., 22, 27 Scott, E., 253, 258 Scragg, D G., 142, 148 Searle, J., 24, 25, 27 Semino, E., 169 Senese, G B., 73, 86 Sensenig, L., 92, 96 Shanahan, T., 112, 119 Sharma, N K., 114, 119 Shuy, R W., 83, 86 Siegel, M E A., 204, 205, 207 Sinclair, J., 224, 234 Sirmans, J M., 253, 258 Slavin, R E., 75, 86 Sledd, J H., 193, 207, 249, 258 Smitherman, G., 14, 16, 72, 80, 86, 193, 207, 256, 258 Smithson, I., 42, 53 Snow, C E., x, xii, 17, 27, 100, 108 Sontag, S., 167, 169 Spender, D., 42, 47, 54 Spinelli, J., 216, 221 Spring, J., 73, 86 Stibbe, A., 167–169 Stockwell, R., 142, 148 Stokoe, W., 71, 72, 86, 87, 96 Strong, M., 90, 96 Suri, L Z., 90, 96 Sutton, L., 42, 47, 53, 54 Swann, J., 47, 53 Swords, R., 173, 177, 179 T Talbot, M., 42, 44, 47, 54 Tannen, D., 21, 27, 41, 42, 51, 52, 54 Taylor, H U., 172, 173, 179 Taylor, O., 14, 15 Taylor, R., 44, 53 Tedlock, D., 160 Temple, x, xii Thomas, J., 29, 30, 39 Thomas, W P., 113, 120 Topf, B., 92, 96 Torres, R D., 14, 16 Torres-Ayala, B., 122, 132 Tozer, S., 73, 86 Treichler, P A., 47, 53, 256, 258 Troemel-Ploetz, S., 42, 54 Trudgill, P., 41, 54, 205, 207 Tse, L., 112, 120 Turner, L D., 69 U, V U.S Bureau of Census, 109, 120 Valdés, G., 15, 16, 117, 118, 120, 123, 133 Valli, C., 94, 96 270 Vallins, G H., 142, 148 van Dijk, T., 44, 54 Vang, B., 34, 39 van Teeffelen, T., 169 Venezky, R L., 142, 148 Violas, P C., 73, 86 Voigt, C., 212, 221 W Waletsky, J., 123, 124, 133 Wallace, D F., 206, 207 Wardhaugh, R., 79, 86 Wasik, B A., 75, 86 Wassink, A B., 2, 55, 64, 69, 79, 111, 156 Watahomigie, L J., 160 Watts, R J., 205, 206 Webster, C D., 92, 95 Webster, D., 144, 145, 147 Wei, L., 110, 120 Wheeler, R S., x, xii, 72, 103, 136, 171–173, 177, 179, 193, 207 White, E B., 220, 221 Williams, J M., 191, 207 Wilson, A., 224, 234 Wilson, R., 93–95 AUTHOR INDEX Winchester, S., 249, 258 Winford, D., 70 Wodak, R., 44, 53, 54 Wolff, V E., 213, 221 Wolfram, W., 14, 16, 68, 69, 121, 133, 174, 179, 186, 189 Wong Fillmore, L., 17, 27, 100, 108, 111, 120 Wong Scollon, S., 22, 27 Woodruff, E., 217, 221 Woods, G., 104, 108 Wright, J., 256 Wyman, L., 118, 120 X, Y Xiong, G., 29, 39 Yagoda, B., 200, 201, 207 Yamamoto, A Y., 160 Yang, H., 2, 29 Z Zentella, A C., 14, 16 Zindel, P., 214, 221 Subject Index A abbreviation, 243, 253 Academie Francaise, 153 accent, 6, 8, 13, 59, 61, 79, 128, 215, 216, 239 access, 42–45 accountability, 74, 172 achievement gap, 172, 178, 263 affirmative action, 7, 10 affixation, 251 African American English, 6, 14, 26, 49, 71, 72, 79, 82, 104, 105, 136, 172, 176, 186, 187, 256, 259, 260 African American Vernacular Language (AAVE), see African American English African countries, 6, 58–60, 64, 65, 69, 93, 256 after-school program, 75 agglutinative language, 239 allophone, 241, 242 all students, educating, 2, 7, 10, 11, 44 alphabet, 142, 143, 147, 150, 197, 211, 212, 239, 255, 256 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 158 American Philological Reform Association, 147 American Sign Language (ASL), 3, 14, 15, 87–90, 92–94, 259, 262, see also sign language American Spelling Reform Association, 147 analytical language, 239 Apostrophe Protection Society, 200 assessment, 3, 4, 21–23, 31, 73–75, 82, 123–125, 127–132, 172, 176, 192, 202, 261 audience, 24, 64, 104, 171, 177, 178, 192, 194, 197 Australia, 25 autism, 3, 91, 92 auxiliary language, 57 B Bank of English, 137, 226–228, 230, 232 benchmark, 149 Beowulf, 150 bilingualism, 1, 4, 9, 10, 13, 15, 30, 58, 67, 69, 71, 73–75, 84, 109–123, 127, 128, 131, 158, 259, 261, 262, see also multilingualism blending, 243, 251 boundaries, 163 271 272 broadcast speech, broken English, 64, 87 Brown v Board, C captioning, 88 Caribbean, 3, see also creole Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), 14, 158 chaos, 135, 140, 146 China, 22, 23, 58, 168, 237, 261 classroom management, 93 classroom talk, 2, 21, 24, 43–45, 47–50, 52 clipping, 243, 251 codeswitching, 59, 79, 103, 113–117, 136, 171, 172, 177, 178, 261, 263 colonization, 5, 6, 57, 65, 149, 156, 157 commissive, 24 communication breakdown, 2, 29 compounding, 243, 251 connotation, 251, 254 context conversational, 18–21, 26, 46, 58, 83, 84, 188, 218 linguistic, 78, 148, 173, 194, 205, 214, 226 school, 72, 100, 236, 237 social, 23, 41, 49, 52, 110, 113, 115, 157, 188, 193 Contrastive Analysis, 171–173, 175, 177, 178 Cooperative Principle, 2, 19–22 copyright, 249 corpus, 137, 138, 167, 223–230, 232–234, 237, 239, 240 counselor, 73 creative writing, 209, see also fiction creole, 1–3, 6, 14, 55–69, 136, 156, 159, 263 creolization, 58 critical discourse analysis (CDA), 44, 161, 261 cross-cultural discourse, 1, 2, 4, 20, 26, 131 cross-reference, 254 culture diversity, 10, 17–23, 25, 26, 55, 149, 155, 157, 162, 177, 195 influence of, 11, 22, 23, 29, 58, 114–116, 124, 151, 168, 182, 192, 202, 235, 259, 263 knowledge, 15, 30, 38, 41, 64, 65, 68, 72, 87, 118, 238, 242 learning experience, 2, 4, 66, 90, 111, 113, 166, 177 loss, 136, 156 SUBJECT INDEX specificity, 2, 22, 202 curriculum, 71, 76, 100, 113, 135, 136, 138, 145, 150, 161, 163, 235–238, 247, 248, 251, 252, 260, 262, 263 D databank, 223, 233 dead language, see language death deafness, 1, 3, 7, 9, 10, 15, 74, 87–90, 93 declined reply, 25 deferred reply, 25 denotation, 251 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 61 descriptive linguistics, 4, 98, 100–102, 106, 138, 223, 248, 250, 260 dialect defined, 102, 183 diversity, 7, 48, 136, 147, 150, 153, 177, 181–184 examples, 6, 61, 88, 104, 106, 152, 186, 187, 195, 202, 251 in school, 4, 14, 48, 68, 98, 103, 105, 107, 136, 137, 158, 171–174, 178, 183, 242, 256, 257, 260 dialogue, 209–212, 215, 218, 219, 262 dictionary, 138, 139, 156, 176, 201, 202, 204, 223, 227, 239, 247–257 Diglossia, 14 disability, 74, 83, see also special-needs children discourse marker, 21, 124 discourse pattern, 17, 18, 21 discourse styles, 18, 19, 21, 26 diversity, 1, 2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 17, 155, 158, 177, 181, 182, see also language diversity domain, 64 double borrowing, 145 double negative, 97, 103, 104, 106, 172, 174, 229 dual-language program, 13 duration, 211–213 E Early Modern English, 143, 153 Ebonics, 9, 109, 172, 259, see also African American English 273 SUBJECT INDEX editorial law, 200, 201 embedding, 219 empowerment, 26, 45, 46, 102 English as a Second Language (ESL), 2, 3, 6, 8, 12, 29, 38, 71, 73–75, 84, 92, 93, 121, 261–263 English for Specific Purposes (ESP), 223 English language learner (ELL), 9–12, 14, 15, 17, 121 English Only laws, 155, 158 equality, 7, 42, 44, 46 ethnicity, 7, 8, 49, 81, 109, 137, 182, 188, 219, 256, see also race etyma, 60 etymology, 142, 143, 256 euphemism, 104 expert witness, 83, 84 expressives, 25 F face, 18, 21–23 federal regulations, 1, feminism, 256 fiction, 135, 137, 209, 210, 212, 217, 220, 221, 262 final-fall, 61 final-rise, 61 fingerspelling, 89, 93, 94 floor control, 48, 50–52 fluency, 5–7, 11, 13, 15, 69, 89, 115, 156, 238, see also language proficiency folk sentiment, 195 foreign language, 90, 217, 235, 237, 239, 243, 244, 261 forensic linguistics, 83, 84 formal English, 98, 104, 177, 243 free variation, 241 funding, 9, 10, 12–15, 42, 74, 81, 209, 252 G Gairaigo, 137, 235–245 Geetche, gender, 2, 7, 41–48, 50–52, 205, 219, 237, 256, 260, 261, 263 genocide, 154 gesture, 21, 87, 262 gifted and talented, 15, 111 global language, 155, 237 goal, 22, 23, 26, 114, 137, 162–164, 168, 188, 238, 239, 248, 250 good writing, 4, 131, 187, 193, 197 grammar, see also prescriptive grammar anxiety, 101 constructions, 60, 63, 66, 67, 70, 98, 104, 115–118, 174, 228, 233, 239 development, 58, 156, 223, 250 differences, 59, 61, 66, 67, 90, 116, 137, 147, 150, 181, 191, 193, 200, 205, 215, 229, 231, 235 rant, 104, 137, 191, 194–201, 203–206 rule-governed, 63, 68, 97, 99, 103, 175, 177, 182, 201–203, 233 system, 71, 107 teaching, 3, 4, 45, 72, 97, 100–108, 130, 137, 171, 178, 187, 191–206, 224–227, 232–237, 248, 260, 261, 263 Great Vowel Shift (GVS), 143, 144 Greek, 142, 144, 154, 157, 195 Grice’s conversational maxims, 2, 18–23 grrrl, 45, 46 Gullah, H haiku, 235 Haiti, 7, 58, 59, 61, 62 handbook, 97–100, 104, 191, 201 Hawaii, 57, 217 headword, 252, 253 heart language, 66 Hebrew, 154 Hepburn romanization, 252, 253 heritage language, 11, 13, 15, 30, 36, 38, 39, 110–113, 116, 117, 261, see also native language heterosexism, 42, 43, 45, 47–49, 197 high-stakes testing, 74, 75, 82 history of English, 135, 136, 139, 140, 142, 145, 147, 148, 184, 249, 250, 257, 260, 261, 263 home language, 2, 11, 17, 18, 103, 110–113, 122, 171–173, 177, 193 homogeneity, 155 host community, 2, 29, 30 274 I iconic sign, 92, 94 identity, 2, 42–50, 52, 153, 155, 181, 192, 235 illocutionary act, 24, 25 immersion, 11 immigrants, 2, 3, 6, 7, 13, 15, 29–32, 36, 37, 55, 56, 58, 62, 78, 79, 109, 131, 155, 172 imperialism, 149, 157 implicature, 20, 22 improper English, 8, 193 inclusion, indigenous language, 5, 244, 245, see also native language indirectness, 34, 35 Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA), Indo-European language family, 154 Indonesia, 58 inference, 20, 58 informal English, 98, 104, 177, 255 inner-city school, 8, 10 input language, 58 in-service teachers, 3, 12, 15, 56, 71, 81, 84, 173 integration, 10 intensity, 211, 212 International Phonetic Alphabet, 216 internet, 135, 226, 237, 255 interpreter, 15, 117, 118 interruption, 45, 50, 218 intonation, 59–61, 67, 68, 83, 84, 105, 210, 212, 214, 225 J Jamaica, 57–61, 63–67, 78, 79, 82, 256, 263 Japan, 22, 137, 235–245, 261, 262 Japangurisshu, 235–238, 241, 243, 245 jargon, 104, 162 K katakana, 239 kinesthetic feedback, 91, 94 Korea, 18, 19, 22, 23, 237, 242, 261 SUBJECT INDEX L Language Assessment Survey for English, Language in Variation Exercises (LIVE), 136, 181 language or linguistic acquisition, 55, 68, 110–115, 151, 259, 262 analysis, 3, 71–73, 75–78, 80–84, 101, 108, 136, 161, 195, 203, 223, 233, 236, 238, 239 attitudes, 4, 23, 56, 57, 63–70, 80, 97, 98, 100, 103, 107, 152, 153, 182, 196, 204, 261 authority, 1, 97–102, 104, 138, 148, 188, 195–197, 201, 203, 224, 225, 247–251, 254, 256 awareness, 4, 11, 38, 41, 43–45, 49, 73, 84, 97, 98, 101, 102, 117, 118, 135–138, 161, 177, 182, 239, 242 change, 1, 66, 135, 136, 138, 143, 147–158, 181–184, 188, 195, 198, 200, 204, 206, 225, 236–239, 248–251, 254–257, 260, 262, 263 contact, 5, 34, 57, 58, 62, 151, 153 data, 3, 72, 73, 75, 82–84, 155, 178, 223, 225–228, 232, 233, 246 death, 136, 149, 153–158, 197 degradation, 150–152, 204 delay, 81 discrimination, 4, 9, 13, 98, 101, 104, 108, 136, 137, 155, 181, 182, 194, 197, 204, see also stigma diversity, 5–10, 13–15, 17, 20, 23, 26, 56, 71, 101, 149, 155 domination, 5, 45, 112 education, 2, 4, 13, 71, 76, 82–84, 136, 137, 182, 232, 234–236, 247, 251, 263 endangerment, 136, 149, 158, 159 error, 98, see also prejudicial error evolution, 5, 159 family, 154, 237 function, 2, 17, 18, 25, 43–45, 49, 58, 114, 236, 239, 245, 246 ideology, 2, 98, 103, 104, 204, 263 inequality, 6, 8–10 intervention, 14, 76 isolation, 13 knowledge, 1, 30, 55, 61, 66, 71, 72, 80–83, 100, 101, 115, 135, 149, 177, 182, 192, 195, 234, 237 literacy, 158 275 SUBJECT INDEX loss, 155, 156 maintenance, 4, 121, 122, 129, 131, 156, 261 minority, 1, 2, 8, 11, 13–15, 121, 122, 131, 155, 261 proficiency, 4, 7–10, 12, 14, 15, 110, 112, 121, 123, 129, 131, 132, see also fluency reclamation, 45, 46 revitalization, 149, 154, 158 role, 4, 69, 155, 200, 238 shift, 2, 30, 31, 37, 46, 114–117, 154, 195, 251, 259, 263 strategy, 21, 23, 30, 34–37, 44, 50–52 structure, 17, 18, 55, 56, 58, 62, 65, 69, 87, 98–101, 137, 152, 235–237 transfer, 90 use, 2, 3, 8, 17–20, 24, 26, 41, 42, 46, 49–52, 57, 65, 71, 98–101, 117, 122, 131, 161, 173, 182, 188, 192, 195–198, 204, 223, 225, 229–233, 245, 250, 257, 261 variety, 1, 58, 59, 62–66, 80, 88, 102–104, 136, 150–153, 155, 171–178, 181–188, 218, 219, 227, 256–260, 263 Laos, 29 Latin, 104, 142–145, 153, 154, 157, 211, 225, 236, 252 Latino, Lau v Nichols, 10 least restrictive environment, 89 lexical feature, 59–61, 102 item, 58, 211, 215, 217, 244 knowledge, 115, 117 law, 250 semantics, 240 lexicography, 223, 247–250, 253, 254, 256, 260 lexicon, 61, 137, 138, 142, 146, 212, 220, 221, 239, 243, 248, 251 lexifier language, 58, 59, 65 limited English proficiency, lingua franca, 154, 155 loanword, 137, 238, 239, 243–245 local control, 10 locutionary act, 24 M mainstream, 2, 89, 92, 95, 197, 205 majority language, 110 Manually Coded English (MCE), 88–90 mapping, 162, 210 marginalization, 62, 187 meaning, see also semantics and language function, 43–50, 52 and lexicography, 247–255, 257 and speech acts, 23, 24 as linguistic feature, 2, 60, 88, 94, 100, 131, 235–240 change, 20, 46, 59, 83, 115, 138, 150, 242–246, 254, 255 in context, 18, 118, 178, 191, 212, 217, 229 Melanesia, 58 mental retardation, 3, 91, 92 metaphor, 136, 161–169, 243, 244, 251 metonymy, 162, 164, 251 Mexico, 59, 186 Middle English, 143, 144, 150 miscommunication, 20, 29, 41 misunderstanding, 4, 17, 21, 23, 29, 38, 55, 57, 62, 68, 173 mnemonics, 139 modality, 92, 94 monolingualism, 64, 67, 110–114, 122, 131 morpheme, 88–90 morphology, 72, 88, 89, 100, 102, 136, 137, 150, 151, 155, 227, 240, 242, 243, 262 mother tongue, 6, 7, 205, see also native language motivation, 94, 115, 122, 136, 202, 249, 257 multiculturalism, 1, 135, 158, 166, 168, 241, 260 multilingualism, 1, 5, 11, 13, 15, 58, 158, 260, see also bilingualism multivalued attitude, 63, 64 N narrative, 123–130, 132, 157, 177, 202, 252, 256, 262 National Association of Teachers of English (NATE), 66 National Council of Teachers of English, 172 Native American languages, 21, 149, 151, 154, 156, 157, 260 native language, 3, 5, 7, 58, 74, 137, 155, 157, 166, 168, 219, 220, 256, see also heritage language and indigenous language and mother tongue native speaker, 7, 9, 19, 59, 62, 68, 84, 92, 137, 174 neutral language, 46 276 Niger-Congo language family, 154 No Child Left Behind (NCLB), nonfiction, 210 norm, 7, 14, 17–20, 22, 26, 43, 46–49, 65, 72, 103, 108, 114, 116, 118, 173, 181 O official language, 155, 158 off topic, 21 Old English, 143, 144, 150, 151, 154 onomatopoeia, 46, 92 onset dropping, 77 ontological metaphor, 163–165 opting out, 34–37 oral language, 4, 105, 157, 211 orientational metaphor, 165 Oxford English Dictionary (OED), 223, 249, 250, 253, 255 P parent, 12, 15, 56, 57, 75, 81, 97, 112, 113, 117, 118, 122, 131 parent language, 58–63, 65 particle, 32–34 Patois, 57, 64, 78, 79, 144 peer, 8, 31, 72, 80, 81, 94, 110–114, 130, 147, 163, 164 pejorative, 44–46, 251 performance theory, 44 perlocutionary act, 24 personification, 162, 165 phoneme, 140, 151, 241, 242 phonology, 56, 59–61, 70, 72, 78, 83, 88, 100, 102, 137, 150, 151, 155, 216, 225, 240, 242, 244, 259, 261–263 pidgin, 6, 57, 58, 88, 156, 159 pitch, 60, 61, 211, 212 placeholder, 99 plagiarism, 249 politeness, 2, 18, 21–23, 26, 31–38, 49, 260 power, 23, 42, 45, 47, 49–52, 80, 97, 138, 152, 155, 156, 164, 191–194, 202, 203, 238, 248, 257 practice theory, 44 pragmatic failure, 2, 29–31, 35, 37 pragmatics, 2, 17–20, 26, 29–31, 38, 50, 52, 83, 117, 118, 260, 261 SUBJECT INDEX prejudicial error, 4, 105–107 prescriptive grammar, 4, 72, 98, 100–104, 130, 137, 152, 187, 201, 203, 224–226, 236, 248, 250, 263 Prescriptively Correct English (PCE), 187 preservice teachers, 3, 15, 56, 71, 81, 84, 173 prestige, 64, 65, 97, 98, 102, 103, 116, 157, 195, 202 preverbal marker, 60 pronunciation and dialect, 181, 183, 184, 215–217, 227, 235, 242, 261 and dictionary, 138, 250, 252, 255, 256 and etymology, 142–145, 241 and language change, 150, 152, 153 and spelling, 140, 143–147, 153, 211, 212, 216, 240–242 proper English, 8, 56, 193, 197, 204, 205, see also Standard English prose-poetry, 213 pseudo-loan, 238, 239, 243–245 public education, 7, 13, 98, 100, 178 pull-out service, 74 pun, 245 push-in service, 74 R race, 7–9, 13, 48, 52, 137, 155, 177, 219, 259, see also ethnicity rapport talk, 51 reform, 75, 145, 147, 148 register, 4, 98, 104, 105, 117–119, 216, 223, 242 regularization, 151, 152 relevance, 19–21 remedial classes, 75, 79 report talk, 51 resource, 210 allocation, 10, 12, 63, 113 classroom, 136–138, 140, 232, 235, 236, 247, 248, 250, 255, 257 linguistic, 13, 15, 19, 66–68, 115, 248, 250 Rhetorically Correct English (RCE), 188 rhythym, 211, 213 Rochester method, 89 role play, 38, 76, 177 romanization system, 239, 241 rubric, 4, 123, 127–132 rules cultural, 26, 37 277 SUBJECT INDEX grammar, 58, 63, 68, 71, 90, 97–105, 116, 137, 175, 177, 182, 191–194, 199, 201–203, 205, 233 language, 19, 77, 80, 102, 178, 181–183, 205, 238 speech, 2, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 103, 104, 216 spelling, 139, 140 rune, 143 S sanction, savvy writer, 191–195, 199–201, 203 scavenger hunt, 146, 252, 253 school personnel, 4, 111, 117 second language, 7, 23, 30, 38, 90, 94, 116, 259, 261, 262 segregation, 13, 81 semantics, 20, 45–47, 49, 52, 72, 99–102, 137, 147, 204, 238, 240, 243, 251, 255, 262 sexism, 42, 43, 47, 147, 197, 229 sexuality, 2, 7, 43, 47–49, 52, 263 shortcut talk, 56, 57 sign language, 1, 3, 71, 87–95, 262, see also American Sign Language (ASL) Simplified Spelling Board, 147 simultaneous communication, 88, 90–92 slang, 64, 104, 239, 243, 250–256 slavery, 5, 6, 9, 10, 65, 259 social distance, 23 sociolinguistics, 3, 55, 57, 71, 72, 79, 80, 195, 215, 219, 250, 259, 260, 263 sound, see phonology special education, 63, 71, 74, 79, 81 special-needs children, 3, 71, 74, 90, 92, 93 speech act, 2, 22–26, 30, 37 act realization, 30 act theory, 2, 18, 23, 24 community, 68, 80, 102, 151, 154, 250 pattern, 77, 78, 83, 182 therapy, 63, 73 spellchecker, 139, 196 spelling, 135, 136, 139–148, 150–153, 195, 196, 198, 211, 215–217, 235, 240, 241, 248 spelling pronunciation, 153, 240 spontaneous conversation, 211 standards, 74, 75, 138, 149, 150, 182, 188, 191, 193, 203 Standard English, 3, 4, 7–10, 12, 14, 15, 59, 71, 79, 81, 82, 97–109, 135, 136, 148, 171–178, 192, 193, 205, 225, 227, 257 state regulations, 1, status, 65, 79, 106, 107, 114, 116, 138, 149, 195, 204, 209, 224, 235–238, 243, 245, 248 stereotype, 12, 38, 45, 52, 79, 98, 105, 162, 235 stigma, 4, 6, 20, 71, 72, 97, 103, 106–108, 136, 137, 152, 153, 174, 181, 183, 186, 187, see also language discrimination street language, 8, 259 stress, 211, 213 structural metaphor, 166 subject/auxiliary inversion, 60, 68 subjunctive, 228, 231, 232 substrate, 59 subtractive language education, 11, 12 success, 4, 7, 12, 19, 63, 72, 75, 91, 98, 100, 109, 112–115, 122, 139, 147, 177, 178, 203, 235 Success For All (SFA), 75 summer school, 75 suprasegmental, 211–213 syntax, 137, 155, 260–263 change, 150, 151, 218, 225 defined, 100, 128 knowledge, 72 of American Sign Language, 88–90 of African American English, 136 of creole, 55, 59–61, 67, 68 of speech, 212, 216–219, 227 rules, 20, 101, 102, 106, 116, 128, 203, 238 T talking black, talking white, taxes, 13, see also funding teacher attitude, 3, 4, 8, 12, 42, 63, 72, 101, 111, 122, 194, 200, 203 education, 1–3, 11, 17, 23, 55, 56, 67, 71, 80–84, 100, 101, 158, 171, 175, 238, 248, 259 role, 3, 11, 12, 17, 18, 25, 38, 56, 71, 73, 105, 106, 109–119, 145, 182, 192–194, 224, 234 standards, 12 workload, 15 technology, 15, 223 278 testing, 66, 73, 74, 93, 178, 183 thesaurus, 245 timing, 21 tone, see intonation topic, 21, 45, 50, 51, 57, 81, 113, 114, 117, 127, 136, 154, 188, 244, 245 translation, 61, 115, 118, 239, 260 turn taking, 2, 45, 50–52 U universality, 2, 20, 58, 205 unsolicited reply, 25 Ural-Altaic language family, 237 V verbal hygiene, 203, 250 SUBJECT INDEX vernacular, 6, 9, 57, 136, 171–178, 236 vocabulary, see lexicon vocabulary test, 3, 94 voicing, 183, 184 W Warm Springs Native Americans, 21 web site, 137, 235 word structure, see morphology writing, 163, 203, 250, 260, 261 and grammar, 105, 137, 191, 223, 226–228 and language change, 136, 144, 148, 150 fiction, 209–212, 262 “good,” 4, 193 in multiple languages, 130, 238 savvy, 191–195 versus oral language, 105, 157, 211