Lexical functional grammar by y1 n falk

to my wife, Brandel, with love Table of Contents Table of Contents vii Introduction xi To the Student xiii Welcome to Lexical-Functional Grammar 1.1 Introduction 1.2 “Lexical” 1.3 “Functional” 10 1.3.1 Grammatical Functions 10 1.3.2 F-structure 11 1.3.3 Motivation 16 1.3.4 Consequences 22 1.4 “Grammar” 27 Additional Readings 29 Exercises 30 Constituent Structure 33 2.1 Constituent structure in LFG 33 2.2 theory 34 2.2.1 Lexical categories and their projections 34 2.2.2 Functional Categories 37 2.2.3 Endocentricity 42 2.3 Phrase structure rules 44 2.4 Exocentricity 48 Additional readings 51 Exercises 51   Functional Structure 55 3.1 Grammatical functions 55 vii viii / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR 3.2 Well-formedness conditions 58 3.3 Some formalism: the c-structure–f-structure mapping 62 3.3.1 Overview 62 3.3.2 Correspondence 64 3.3.3 F-descriptions 66 3.3.4 Functional annotations 68 3.3.5 Tying it all together 74 3.3.6 Constraining equations, etc 75 3.3.7 Outside-in vs inside-out designators 78 3.4 More on c-structure and f-structure 80 3.5 Appendix: Verbal inflectional features 82 Additional readings 86 Exercises 87 Argument Structure 89 4.1 Function-changing processes 89 4.2 Problems with the remapping analysis 92 4.3 Lexical Mapping Theory 97 4.3.1 Thematic structure 97 4.3.2 Mapping 100 4.3.3 Unergatives and unaccusatives 106 4.3.4 Passives and ditransitives 107 4.4 Appendix: Romance causatives 110 Additional readings 114 Exercises 115 Control: Equi and Raising Constructions 117 5.1 Preliminary survey 117 5.2 Equi: Anaphoric control 118 5.3 Raising: Functional control 123 5.3.1 Raising-to-subject 123 5.3.2 Raising-to-object 126 5.3.3 Licensing functional control 131 5.4 Equi complements 136 5.5 C-structure 139 Additional readings 142 Exercises 142 TABLE OF CONTENTS / ix Long Distance Dependencies 145 6.1 Overview 145 6.2 Licensing the dependency 147 6.2.1 Functional uncertainty 147 6.2.2 Direction of licensing 149 6.2.3 Subjects vs nonsubjects 152 6.2.4 On empty categories 156 6.3 Islands and pied piping 157 6.4 Relative clauses 161 6.5 Subjects revisited 165 Additional readings 167 Exercises 167 Anaphora 169 7.1 Overview 169 7.2 Prominence 170 7.3 Types of anaphors 174 7.3.1 English 174 7.3.2 Other languages 179 7.4 Formalization 182 7.5 On INDEX 185 7.6 Anaphora and levels of representation 186 Additional readings 186 Exercises 187 Conclusion 189 8.1 Summary 189 8.2 LFG and other constraint-based theories 190 8.3 Optimality Theory 191 8.4 Formalism vs functionalism 192 8.5 ILFGA and Internet resources 193 Additional readings 195 Appendix A Glossary 197 x / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Appendix B A Minigrammar of English 205 ID rules 205 LP rules 208 Lexical Mapping Theory 208 Operations on a-structure 209 Lexical entries 210 References 215 Index 225 Introduction This textbook, like all textbooks, was born of necessity When I went looking for a suitable textbook for my course on Lexical-Functional Grammar at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, I discovered that there wasn’t one So I decided to write one, based on my lecture notes The writing accelerated when, while I was on sabbatical at Stanford University (August 1999– February 2000), Dikran Karagueuzian of CSLI Publications expressed interest in publishing it This textbook is not intended as an introduction to syntax Throughout, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with elementary concepts of syntactic theory and with contemporary derivational syntactic theory (Government/ Binding theory and/or the Minimalist Program) I believe that this approach is conducive to opening up a dialog between different “camps” within generative syntactic theory It is a mistake for any student of contemporary linguistic theory to be taught a single theoretical framework as if it represents an overriding consensus in the field Being that derivational theories have a recognized centrality within the field, the assumption behind this book is that students are first introduced to a derivational theory, and then at a more advanced level learn alternatives (Coincidentally, or not so coincidentally, this situation also matches my teaching experience.) This book is aimed at such students, and therefore attempts to motivate the concepts and formalisms of LFG in relation to derivational approaches It is my hope that this approach will also make this book an appropriate one for professional linguists who wish to acquaint themselves with the basic principles and concepts of LFG Unlike most expositions of LFG, this book focuses on English While much has been done in LFG on other languages, and the typological reach of LFG is one of its strongest points, I believe that there is pedagogical value in focusing on a single language, one that the student knows Many students are initially turned off by having to wade through data from an unfamiliar language (I can attest to this from personal experience.) This approach also provides a more cohesive view of the theory than jumping from language to xi xii / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR language would It allows us to develop a minigrammar for the language, as is standard in textbooks on other formal theories, such as Akmajian and Heny (1975) on the Standard Theory and Sag and Wasow (1999) on Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar This textbook was written by a descriptively oriented generative syntactician for other descriptively oriented generative syntacticians As a result, there are many issues that are important in LFG that are not raised here in any serious way For example, there is no discussion of the mathematical properties of the LFG formalisms or of computational applications, even though both of these have always been central concerns in LFG research Throughout, the formalism is justified on the basis of descriptive linguistic considerations Similarly, there is no discussion here of “glue-language” semantics or other issues concerning the relation between LFG syntax and other components of the grammar References are made to the literature on some of these issues, and the interested student can pursue them given the background provided by this book Like any living theory, LFG is continually developing, and there are disagreements about certain details among LFG linguists The writer of a textbook must wrestle with the problem of exactly what perspective to present Naturally, my own preferences (and research) have influenced the presentation of the material in this book, but I hope that I have been fair to LFG as a whole Where there is no consensus and I have chosen one particular approach, I have noted this I would like to thank people who commented on the manuscript or helped me in other ways: Farrell Ackerman, Paul Bennett, Joan Bresnan, Aaron Broadwell, Mary Dalrymple, Malka Rappaport Hovav, Tsipi KuperBlau, Helge Lødrup, Irit Meir, Rachel Nordlinger and Jane Simpson I would also like to thank my wife Brandel, who looked at parts of the manuscript with an editor’s eye and made helpful suggestions on wording I would like to thank Dikran Karagueuzian, Chris Sosa, and Kim Lewis of CSLI Publications for all their help and support Most importantly, I would like to thank all my students, past and present, who have taught me how to teach; I hope some of that has found its way into the book Of course, none of these people is to blame for any remaining problems My computer accepts full responsibility; it put the mistakes in when I wasn’t looking Finally, I would like to thank my wife Brandel and my sons Eli, Yoni, Mati, and Gabi for putting up with my obsession to get this textbook finished Thank you To the Student Welcome! As stated in the introduction, the purpose of this textbook is to teach the theory of syntax called Lexical-Functional Grammar The concepts of the theory are built up piece-by-piece throughout the book As a result, it is important to realize that the individual chapters are not self-contained Each builds on what came before and the results are subject to revision in subsequent chapters A number of chapters have less essential appendices at the end; these should be considered optional The end-of-chapter exercises are an inherent part of the material in the text In some cases, they give the student a chance to practice a topic covered in the chapter; in other cases, they point to an addition to the analysis developed in the chapter Finally, a few words about bibliography In general, the important bibliographic references are cited in the end-of-chapter “Additional Readings” section, rather than in the text of the chapter itself For this reason, the sources of most of the important concepts in LFG will not be mentioned where the concepts themselves are introduced There are two reasons for this First, centralizing the bibliography makes it easier to find the references Second, most of the concepts we will be discussing are widely accepted in one form or another in the LFG community; while it is important to cite the original source, it is also important to recognize that they have become the basis on which all work in LFG is based Another thing to keep in mind is that the bibliography focuses on LFG material In general, there are no references to work in other theoretical frameworks on the basic constructions of English, most of which is probably already familiar to you This is not because they are not important, but simply because the purpose of this book is to focus on LFG analysis xiii Welcome to Lexical-Functional Grammar 1.1 Introduction Generative linguistics or generative grammar, a field of study that originates in the work of Noam Chomsky, is an attempt to discover the nature of the human language faculty, specifically of Universal Grammar (UG) The immediate goal of this approach to linguistics is to develop mathematical models of various aspects of human language It is through the development of such models that formal claims about language can be expressed and tested Much work in generative linguistics has focused on modeling the syntactic component, the component of language that deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences This is not coincidental Syntax, unlike such components as phonetics/phonology, semantics, and pragmatics, is a system that is purely internal to language It does not interface with nonlinguistic cognitive or motor systems It thus plays a central role in organizing the entire linguistic system Perhaps the best-known model of syntax within the generative tradition is the one known as transformational syntax This is a model that has been developed by Chomsky and his associates since the 1950s Various developments of this model are known by names such as the Standard Theory, the Extended Standard Theory, the Revised Extended Standard Theory, Government/Binding theory, and the Minimalist Program Despite all the changes, reflected by the different names that transformational theory has taken, certain assumptions underlie all transformational theories Among these assumptions are the following: • Syntactic representations are immediate-constituent structures, conventionally represented as trees The configuration of constituent structure trees defines all crucial concepts of syntax (such as c-command) 218 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Bresnan, Joan 2000 Lexical-Functional Syntax Oxford: Blackwell Bresnan, Joan, and Jonni M Kanerva 1989 Locative Inversion in Chiche a: A Case Study of Factorization in Grammar Linguistic Inquiry 20: 1–50 Bresnan, Joan, and Ronald Kaplan 1982 Introduction: Grammars as Mental Representations of Language The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Joan Bresnan, xvii–lii Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Bresnan, Joan, and Sam Mchombo 1987 Topic, Pronoun, and Agreement in Chiche a Language 63: 741–782 Bresnan, Joan, and Samuel A Mchombo 1995 The Lexical Integrity Principle: Evidence from Bantu Natural Language And Linguistic Theory 13: 181–254 Bresnan, Joan, and Lioba Moshi 1990 Object Asymmetries in Comparative Bantu Syntax Linguistic Inquiry 21: 147–185 Bresnan, Joan, and Annie Zaenen 1990 Deep Unaccusativity in LFG Grammatical Relations: A Cross-Theoretical Perspective , ed Katarzyna Dziwirek, Patrick Farrell, and Errapel Mejías-Bikandi, 45–57 Stanford: CSLI Publications Burzio, Luigi 1986 Italian Syntax: A Government-Binding Approach Dordrecht: D Reidel Butt, Miriam 1995 The Structure of Complex Predicates in Urdu Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Butt, Miriam, and Tracy Holloway King 1999 The Status of Case University of Konstanz and Xerox PARC Butt, Miriam, Tracy Holloway King, María-Eugenia Niño, and Frédérique Segond 1999 A Grammar-Writer’s Cookbook Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Chomsky, Noam 1955 The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory New York: Plenum 1975 Chomsky, Noam 1957 Syntactic Structures The Hague: Mouton Chomsky, Noam 1965 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Chomsky, Noam 1970 Remarks on Nominalization Readings in English Transformational Grammar, ed Roderick Jacobs and Peter Rosenbaum, 184–221 Waltham, Mass.: Ginn and Co Chomsky, Noam 1973 Conditions on Transformations A Festschrift for Morris Halle, ed Stephen R Anderson and Paul Kiparsky, 232–286 New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston Chomsky, Noam 1981 Lectures on Government and Binding Dordrecht: Foris Chomsky, Noam 1986 Barriers Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Chomsky, Noam 1995 The Minimalist Program Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Dalrymple, Mary 1993 The Syntax of Anaphoric Binding Stanford: CSLI Publications     REFERENCES / 219 Dalrymple, Mary (ed.) 1999 Semantics and Syntax in Lexical-Functional Grammar: A Resource Logic Approach Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Dalrymple, Mary, and Ronald M Kaplan 1997 A Set-Based Approach to Feature Resolution Proceedings of the LFG97 Conference, University of California, San Diego, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King on-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✂★✆✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✪✄✫✗✖✬ ✂✁✮✭✯✍ Dalrymple, Mary, Ronald M Kaplan, John T Maxwell III, and Annie Zaenen (eds.) 1995 Formal Issues in Lexical-Functional Grammar Stanford: CSLI Publications Dalrymple, Mary, and Helge Lødrup 2000 The Grammatical Functions of Complement Clauses Proceedings of the LFG00 Conference, University of California, Berkeley, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✄✰✄✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✱✄✱✗✖✬ ✂✁✮✭✯✍ Di Sciullo, Anna Maria, and Edwin Williams 1987 On the Definition of Word Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Dyvik, Helge 1999 The Universality of F-structure: Discovery or Stipulation? The Case of Modals Proceedings of the LFG99 Conference, University of Manchester, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✄✲✄✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✪✄✪✗✖✬ ✂✁✮✭✯✍ Falk, Yehuda N 1983a Constituency, Word Order, and Phrase Structure Rules Linguistic Analysis 11: 331–360 Falk, Yehuda N 1983b Subjects and Long Distance Dependencies Linguistic Analysis 12: 245–270 Falk, Yehuda N 1984 The English Auxiliary System: A Lexical-Functional Analysis Language 60: 483–509 Falk, Yehuda N 1992 Suppress ✳ Linguistics 30: 999–1030 Falk, Yehuda N 1997 Case Typology and Case Theory Presented at the twelfth annual meeting of the Israel Association for Theoretical Linguistics, Bar-Ilan University, 2–3 June 1997  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟✂☎✆✍✂✑✂✁✄✔✛✖✴✭✯☞☛✡✄✡✛✖✬ ✄✑✆✵✂✎✞✖✬✓✂✡✛✖✬✎✆✍✄✟✂✶✷✭✯☞☛✸✆✘✄✓✆✍✂✹✆✟ Falk, Yehuda N 1999 Philippine Subjects in a Monostratal Framework Sixth annual conference of the Austronesian Formal Linguistics Association, 16–18 April 1999, University of Toronto Falk, Yehuda N 2000 Pivots and the Theory of Grammatical Functions Proceedings of the LFG00 Conference, University of California, Berkeley, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✄✰✄✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✱✄✱✗✖✬ ✂✁✮✭✯✍ 220 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Falk, Yehuda N in preparation Infinitival to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Fassi-Fehri, Abdelkader 1981 Complémentation et anaphore en arabe moderne: Une apprôche lexicale fonctionelle Doctoral dissertation, Université de Paris III Fassi-Fehri, Abdelkader 1982 Linguistique arabe: Forme et interprétation Rabat, Morocco: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines de Rabat Fillmore, Charles J 1968 The Case for Case Universals in Linguistic Theory, ed Emmon Bach and Robert T Harms, 1–88 New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston Frank, Anette 1996 A Note on Complex Predicate Formation: Evidence from Auxiliary Selection, Reflexivization, and Past Participle Agreement in French and Italian Proceedings of the First LFG Conference, Rank Xerox, Grenoble, August 26–28, 1996, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✆★✂✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✌★✌✖✪ ✂✁✬✫✭✍ Frank, Anette 2000 Syntax and Morphology of Tense in LFG Proceedings of the LFG00 Conference, University of California, Berkeley, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✄✮✄✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✯✄✯✗✖✪ ✂✁✬✫✭✍ Gazdar, Gerald 1981 Unbounded Dependencies and Coordinate Structure Linguistic Inquiry 12: 155–184 Gazdar, Gerald, Ewan Klein, Geoffrey K Pullum, and Ivan Sag 1984 Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar Oxford: Basil Blackwell Givón, T 1990 Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction, Volume Philadelphia: John Benjamins Greenberg, Joseph H 1963 Some Universals of Language with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements Universals of Language, ed Joseph H Greenberg Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Grimshaw, Jane 1982a Subcategorizaton and Grammatical Relations Subjects and Other Subjects: Proceedings of the Harvard Conference on the Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Annie Zaenen, 35–55 Bloomington, Ind.: IULC Grimshaw, Jane 1982b On the Lexical Representation of Romance Reflexive Clitics The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Joan Bresnan, 87–148 Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Grimshaw, Jane 1995 Projection, Heads, And Optimality ms.,Rutgers University Hale, Kenneth, Laverne Jeanne, and Paul Platero 1977 Three Cases of Overgeneration Formal Syntax, ed Peter W Culicover, Thomas Wasow, and Adrian Akmajian New York Academic Press REFERENCES / 221 Jackendoff, Ray 1972 Semantic Interpretation in Generative Grammar Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Jackendoff, Ray 1977 Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Jackendoff, Ray 1990 Semantic Structures Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Jackendoff, Ray 1997 The Architecture of the Language Faculty Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Jespersen, Otto 1940 A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles Part V: Syntax, Fourth Part London: George Allen and Unwin Johnson, David E., and Paul M Postal 1980 Arc Pair Grammar Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press Kaplan, Ronald M 1972 Augmented Transition Networks as Psychological Models of Sentence Comprehension Artificial Intelligence 3: 77–100 Kaplan, Ronald M 1987 Three Seductions of Computational Psycholinguistics Linguistic Theory and Computer Applications, ed P Whitelock, M M Wood, H L Somers, R Johnson, and P Bennett, 149–181 London: Academic Press reprinted in Dalrymple, Kaplan, Maxwell, and Zaenen, eds 1995, 339–367 Kaplan, Ronald M., and Joan Bresnan 1982 Lexical-Functional Grammar: A Formal System for Grammatical Representation The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Joan Bresnan, 173–281 Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Kaplan, Ronald M., and John T Maxwell III 1988a An Algorithm for Functional Uncertainty Proceedings of COLING-88, Vol 297–302 reprinted in Dalrymple, Kaplan, Maxwell, and Zaenen, eds., 1995, 177–197 Kaplan, Ronald M., and John T Maxwell III 1988b Constituent Coordination in Lexical-Functional Grammar Proceedings of COLING-88, Vol 303–305 reprinted in Dalrymple, Kaplan, Maxwell, and Zaenen, 1995, pp 199–210 Kaplan, Ronald M., and Annie Zaenen 1989 Long-Distance Dependencies, Constituent Structure, and Functional Uncertainty Alternative Conceptions of Phrase Structure, ed Mark R Baltin and Anthony S Kroch, 17–42 Chicago: University of Chicago Press Keenan, Edward L., and Bernard Comrie 1977 Noun Phrase Accessibility and Universal Grammar Linguistic Inquiry 8: 63–99 King, Tracy Holloway 1995 Configuring Topic and Focus in Russian Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Koster, Jan 1978 Why Subject Sentences Don’t Exist Recent Transformational Studies In European Languages, ed S Jay Keyser Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Kroeger, Paul 1993 Phrase Structure and Grammatical Relations in Tagalog   222 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Laczkó, Tibor 2000 Derived Nominals, Possessors, and Lexical Mapping Theory In Hungarian DPs Argument Realization, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King, 189–227 Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Levin, Lori 1988 Operations on Lexical Forms: Unaccusative Rules in Germanic Languages New York: Garland Originally 1986 MIT dissertation Lødrup, Helge 2000 Underspecification in Lexical Mapping Theory: The Case of Norwegian Existentials and Resultatives Argument Realization, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King, 171–188 Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Manning, Christopher D 1996 Ergativity: Argument Structure and Grammatical Relations Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Marantz, Alec 1997 No Escape from Syntax: Don’t Try Morphological Analysis in the Privacy of Your Own Lexicon Proceedings of the 21st Annual Penn Linguistics Colloquium, U Penn Working Papers in Linguistics 4.2: 201–225 Philadelphia, Pa.: U Penn Linguistics Department Matsumoto, Yo 1998 On the Cross-Linguistic Parameterization of Causative Predicates: Japanese Perspectives Proceedings of the LFG98 Conference, University of Queensland, Brisbane, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✄✟✄☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✖✂✔✄✗✄✘✚✙✜✛✄✘✆✑✆✟✣✢✥✤✄✦✌✟✄✧✄✟✄✍✂✖✄★✆✩✄✪✫✙✬ ✂✁✮✭✯✍ Mohanan, K.P 1982 Grammatical Relations and Clause Structure in Malayalam The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Joan Bresnan, 504–589 Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Mohanan, K.P 1983 Functional and Anaphoric Control Linguistic Inquiry 14: 641–674 Neidle, Carol 1982 Case Agreement in Russian The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, ed Joan Bresnan, 391–426 Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Nordlinger, Rachel 1998 Constructive Case: Evidence from Australian Languages Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Nordlinger, Rachel 2000 Australian Case Systems: Towards a Constructive Solution Argument Realization, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King, 41–71 Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Perlmutter, David M 1978 Impersonal Passives and the Unaccusative Hypothesis BLS Perlmutter, David M (ed.) 1983 Studies in Relational Grammar Chicago: University of Chicago Press Pinker, Steven 1996 Language Learnability and Language Development, Second Edition Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press REFERENCES / 223 Pollard, Carl, and Ivan A Sag 1994 Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Postal, Paul M 1970 On Coreferential Complement Subject Deletion Linguistic Inquiry 1: 439–500 Postal, Paul M 1974 On Raising: One Rule of English Grammar and Its Theoretical Implications Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Postal, Paul M., and Geoffrey K Pullum 1988 Expletive Noun Phrases in 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Theories: An Introduction To Government-Binding Theory, Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, and Lexical-Functional Grammar Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Shieber, Stuart M 1986 An Introduction to Unification-Based Approaches to Grammar Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Simpson, Jane 1983 Aspects of Warlpiri Morphology and Syntax Doctoral dissertation, MIT Simpson, Jane 1991 Warlpiri Morpho-syntax: A Lexicalist Approach Dordrecht: Kluwer Sobin, Nicholas 1987 The Variable Status of COMP-Trace Phenomena Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 5: 33–60 Spencer, Andrew 2000 The Case for Separationism: WP (‘Top-Down’) vs Morphemic (‘Bottom-Up’) Approaches to Morphology Proceedings of the LFG00 Conference, University of California, Berkeley, ed Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King On-line: CSLI Publications  ✂✁✄✁✆☎✞✝✠✟✄✟☛✡✌☞✄✍✂✎✄✏✄☎✄✑✄✒✆✍✂✎✂✡✆✓✂✁✆✎✂✔✆✕✆☞✗✖✠☞☛✁✆✓✄✕✄✘✂✔✄✙✄✚✛✖✢✜✄✚✆✑✆✟✤✣✦✥✄✧✌✟✄✰✄✟✄✍✂✘✄✩✆✱✄✱✗✖✫ ✂✁✭✬✮✍ Stahl, J.F 1967 Word Order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar Dordrecht: D Reidel 224 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Wunderlich, Dieter 1996 Lexical Categories Theoretical Linguistics 22: 1–48 Zaenen, Annie 1983 On Syntactic Binding Linguistic Inquiry 14: 469–504 Zaenen, Annie, and Elisabet Engdahl 1994 Descriptive and Theoretical Syntax in the Lexicon Computational Approaches to the Lexicon, ed B.T.S Atkins and A Zampolli, 181–212 Oxford: Clarendon Press Zaenen, Annie, and Ronald M Kaplan 1995 Formal Devices for Linguistic Generalizations: West Germanic Word Order in LFG Formal Issues in Lexical-Functional Grammar, ed Mary Dalrymple, Ronald M Kaplan, John T Maxwell III, and Annie Zaenen, 215–239 Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Zaenen, Annie, and Joan Maling 1982 Passive and Oblique Case Papers in Lexical-Functional Grammar, ed Lori Levin, Malka Rappaport, and Annie Zaenen, 159–191 Bloomington, Ind.: IULC Zec, Draga 1987 On Obligatory Control in Clausal Complements Working Papers in Grammatical Theory and Discourse Structure, ed Masayo Iida, Stephen Wechsler, and Draga Zec, 139–168 Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications Index   A-bar ( ) movement See Long distance dependencies A-over-A Principle A-structure 14, 22–25, 96, 100, 103–105, 108, 110, 115, 133–136, 173, 178 Abney, Steven 38 Ackerman, Farrell 114 Adjoined position 35, 146 Adjunct (ADJ) 31, 61 Agreement 18, 49, 68 Aissen, Judith 91 Alsina, Alex 103, 111, 113, 114, 115 Anaphora 56, 121, 169, 170–172, 174–187, 191 See also Binding theory and precedence 170–171, 173–174 rank 173–174 Andrews, Avery D 57, 84–86, 114, 139, 142, 194, 195 Arabic, Moroccan (Semitic, AfroAsiatic) 190 ARG-ST 190–191 Argum e nt st ructure Se e A-structure; Theta ( ) grid; ARG-ST Arka, I Wayan 142 Arnold, Douglas 193 Attribute-value matrix (AVM) See F-structure in HPSG 190 Augmented Transition Network (ATN) Austin, Peter 29, 50, 51 Austronesian languages 142, 154 See also Tagalog (Philippine, Austronesian) Auxiliaries 51–52, 86, 153 Baker, Mark Bantu languages (NigerKordofanian) 93–94, 102– 103, 105, 190 Barron, Julia 86 Berman, Judith 167 Binding Theory 11, 119, 169, 174–179, 182, 184–185, 190 principles Bod, Rens 195 Börjars, Kersti 51, 195 Brame, Michael K 9, 38 Bresnan, Joan 3, 8, 9, 15, 29, 30, 34, 41, 43, 45, 48, 50, 51, 57, 82, 86, 92, 100, 101, 102, 114, 115, 120, 121, 129, 139, 148, 149, 157, 160, 162, 164, 167, 171, 173, 186, 190, 193, 195 Burzio’s Generalization Butt, Miriam 78, 83, 86, 111, 114, 193, 194, 195 ✁ 225 226 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR C-command 1, 57, 122, 169, 170–172, 174, 179 See also F-command C-structure 10, 19, 22–24, 25, 26, 33, 46, 61–62, 64, 80, 118– 119, 121, 148, 151, 156, 164, 171, 173, 178, 189–190, 192–193 See also X-bar ( ) theory annotated 69–70 empty elements 33, 42–43 See also Gap in derivational theories rules 44–50, 64, 69, 71–74, 76, 140–142 Case 14, 49, 139 in derivational theories 7, 11 Case Filter Categories See X-bar ( ) theory Causative 91–92, 94–96, 105, 110–115 Chapman, Carol 195 Chiche a (Bantu, NigerKordofanian) See Bantu languages Chisarik, Erika 51 Chomsky, Noam 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 26, 27–29, 34, 46, 51, 127, 174, 185 Cognition See Psycholinguistics Coherence Condition 59–62, 124, 193 Extended 62, 147, 151 Complement position (c-structure) 35 Completeness Condition 59–62, 118, 151, 193 Complex NP Constraint 158 Complex predicates 95–96, 105,   ✁   113–114 Computation 9, 27, 28, 29, 30, 86, 195 locality Comrie, Bernard 56, 154 Configurational theories See Derivational theories Configurationality 22, 29–30, 35, 51, 81 Consistency Condition See Uniqueness Condition Constituent command See C-command Constituent structure See C-structure Constraint-based Construction Grammar 190 Constructive morphology 79– 80, 86 Control 61, 117–118 See also Equi; Raising anaphoric 119, 121, 130, 136–139, 142 constituent 148, 167 See also Long distance dependencies equi vs raising 118, 123–124, 136, 142 functional 125–126, 132, 137–139, 142, 147, 154–155 raising vs ECM 126–131 Coordination 46–47, 72, 86–87 Core functions See Grammatical functions, core/noncore Core grammar 28 Correspondence 23, 64–66 Cree, Plains (Algonquian) 190 D-structure 4, 9, 16 INDEX / 227 Dalrymple, Mary 30, 86, 87, 133, 178, 179, 180, 186, 194, 195 Data-Oriented Parsing (DOP) 195 Derivational theories 1–2, 3–5, 8–9, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 44, 48, 57, 61, 62, 106, 118, 127, 135–136, 139, 148–149, 151, 154, 164, 169, 180, 185, 189 Di Sciullo, Anna Maria Discourse See Information structure Discourse functions See Grammatical functions, overlay and discourse Ditransitive constructions See Grammatical functions, objects (OBJ, OBJ2, OBJ ) symmetrical vs asymmetrical 94, 105, 110 Dutch (Germ a ni c, IndoEuropean) 190 Dyvik, Helge 86 Economy of Expression 33, 43, 45, 51, 119, 151, 154, 164, 192 Empty categories See C-structure, empty elements; Gap Endocentricity 42, 43, 46, 48, 51 Engdahl, Elisabet 133 English (Germanic, IndoEuropean) 5–6, 14, 22, 29, 35–36, 51, 83, 91, 103, 105, 117, 121, 146, 154, 158, 174, 178–179, 181– 182, 184, 190 Equi See Control Ergative languages 56, 86   Eskimo (Eskimo-Aleut) See Inuit (Eskimo-Aleut) Ewe (Kwa, Niger-Kordofanian) 190 Exceptional Case Marking (ECM) See Control, raising vs ECM Exocentricity 48 Expletives 13–14, 60, 102–103 object 129 Extended Standard Theory (EST) See Derivational theories Extraction See Long distance dependencies F-command 122–123, 130 See also C-command F-description 66–68 F-precedence 64–65, 121, 157, 171, 173 F-structure 11, 13, 14, 16–17, 24–26, 30–31, 43, 58–60, 62, 64, 80, 82, 85–86, 118, 121, 164, 173, 178, 193 metavariables 75 Falk, Yehuda N 46, 52, 57, 82, 86, 142, 155, 167, 195 FAQ 194 Feature structure See F-structure Features 16, 82–86 FORM 15 inflectional 13 PCASE 14, 73 PRED 13, 60, 68, 90 Filler See Long distance dependencies Filler-gap constructions See Long distance dependencies Finnish (Uralic) 190 228 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Flemish, West (Germanic, IndoEuropean) 190 FOCUS See Grammatical functions, overlay and discourse for (infinitival) 141–142 Formalism 27–29, 62–64, 66–80, 86, 192–193 constraining equations 76–77 metavariables 69, 75, 148 rules 71–72 Frank, Anette 86, 95, 114 French (Romance, IndoEuropean) See Romance languages Full Interpretation 9, 58, 62 Functional categories See X-bar ( ) theory, functional categories Functional command See F-command Functional description See F-description Functional structure See F-structure Functional uncertainty 148–152, 167, 182 Functionalism 192–193 Functions See Grammatical functions Gap 151–152, 155–157, 167 See also Long distance dependencies Gazdar, Gerald 3, 46, 155 Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) 3, 46, 155 Genitive See Possessive German (Germanic, Indo  European) 83, 190, 167 Gerund 51, 130 Givón, Talmy 156 Government in derivational theories 10 Government/Binding (GB) theory See Derivational theories Grammatical functions 10–11, 14, 18, 55–58, 86, 189, 190 and c-structure 22, 80, 81 a r g u m e n t / n o n a r g u m e nt 55–56, 61 core/noncore 56 hierarchy of See Relational hierarchy in derivational theories 2, 10, 19, 80 objects (OBJ, OBJ2, OBJ ) 55, 64, 91, 93, 102, 108–111, 172 open 124–125, 131, 136 overlay and discourse 57, 61, 78, 146– 147, 154, 161–163, 167 restricted 103 subject (SUBJ) 55, 57–58, 64, 80–81, 86, 90, 92–95, 101–104, 106, 117, 120–121, 123–124, 126, 131–132, 165–167 Grammatical relations See Grammatical functions Greed Greenberg, Joseph H 36 Greenlandic (Eskimo-Aleut) See Inuit (Eskimo-Aleut) Grimshaw, Jane 89, 92, 94, 95, 154 ✁ INDEX / 229 Hale, Kenneth 48 Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) 3, 18, 46, 86, 126, 148, 178, 185, 190–191 Heavy NP Shift 129–130 Hebrew (Semitic, Afro-Asiatic) 36, 49–50 Hierarchy See Relational hierarchy; Thematic hierarchy Hindi (Indic, Indo-European) See Hindi-Urdu (Indic, IndoEuropean) Hindi-Urdu (Indic, IndoEuropean) 36, 190 Icelandic (Germanic, IndoEuropean) 139, 142, 158, 190 Idioms 6, 14, 60, 77, 100 Immediate Dominance (ID) rules See C-structure, rules Indexation and coindexation 120, 170, 184–186 Infl 20–21, 39, 50, 51, 153 in derivational theories Information structure 22–25, 178, 185, 190, 193 Inside-out 78–80, 148–149, 151, 155, 182–183 International Lexical-Functional Grammar Association (ILFGA) 193–195 Internet 193–195 LFG Archive 195 LFG Bibliography 194–195 LFG List (e-mail discussion list) 195 Inuit (Eskimo-Aleut) 190 Irish (Celtic, Indo-European) 50, 190 Jackendoff, Ray 29, 35, 46, 51, 97, 99, 100, 106, 108, 171, 186 Japanese 19, 22, 36, 190 Jeanne, Laverne 48 Jespersen, Otto 141 Joshi, Smita 115 Kanerva, Jonni 114 Kaplan, Ronald M 3, 9, 29, 30, 82, 86, 87, 148, 149, 151, 158, 160, 167, 190 Keenan, Edward L 56, 154 Ki c ga (Ba nt u, NigerKordofanian) See Bantu languages King, Tracy Holloway 51, 78, 83, 86, 111, 167, 193, 195 Kinyarwanda (Bantu, NigerKordofanian) See Bantu languages Kleene plus 46, 155 Kleene star 45, 148, 155 Klein, Ewan 3, 46 Koster, Jan 45 Kroeger, Paul 41, 50, 51, 142, 167 Laczkó, Tibor 115 Levin, Beth 106 Levin, Lorraine 114 Lexical categories See X-bar ( ) theory, lexical categories Lexical Integrity Principle 4–7, 25–26, 29, 168 Lexical Mapping Theory (LMT) 91, 96–97, 100–110, 114–115, 172 Lexicalism 3, 5–6, 8–9   230 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Lexicon 3, See also Lexicalism in derivational theories 2, Lexocentricity 48 LFG conference 194 Linear Precedence (LP) rules See C-structure, rules; Word order LMT See Lexical Mapping Theory Lødrup, Helge 115, 133 Logical form 41 Long distance dependencies 145–152, 154–161, 165, 190 island constraints 158–159, 163, 183 pied piping 159–161, 164 M-structure 86 Malayalam (Dravidian) 19, 20, 22, 48, 121, 142, 190 Maling, Joan 114 Manning, Christopher D 86, 114, 115, 194 Marantz, Alec Marathi (Indic, Indo-European) 179, 181, 184 Matsumoto, Yo 115 Maxwell, John T., III 30, 86, 167 Mchombo, Sam A 30, 103, 114, 162, 167 Minimalist Program (MP) See Derivational theories Modularity See Parallel architecture Mohanan, K.P 19, 30, 142 Monotonicity 9, 93, 96 Morphology 5, 195 Moshi, Lioba 114 Navajo (Na-Dene) 190 Neidle, Carol 142 Niño, María-Eugenia 78, 83, 86, 111, 195 Nordlinger, Rachel 20, 21, 30, 50, 51, 86, 194 Norwegian (Germanic, IndoEuropean) 179–180, 187, 190 Nucleus 175–178, 184, 186 complete 178, 183–184 Objects (OBJ, OBJ2, OBJ ) See Grammatical functions, objects (OBJ, OBJ2, OBJ ) Oblique arguments (OBL ) 14, 55–56, 73, 82, 103 Off-path constraints 183–184 Operator 157, 159–160, 163–165 empty 163–164 Optimality Theory (OT) 191–192, 195 Outside-in 79, 147, 149–150, 154–155 Overlay functions See Grammatical functions, overlay and discourse Parallel architecture 22–25, 29, 174, 185–186, 189, 190, 191, 192 Parameters 192 ParGram 195 Passive 7–8, 89–96, 105, 107–110, 114, 128–129 adjectival arguments for lexical 8, 29, 89–90 Payne, John 51 Periphery 28 Perlmutter, David M 3, 11, 55, 90, 106       INDEX / 231 Phi ( ) 64 Phonology 5, 22–25, 190 Phrase structure (PS) rules See C-structure, rules Pinker, Steven 29 Platero, Paul 48 Pollard, Carl 3, 129, 178 Possessive 79, 80, 168 Postal, Paul M 11, 90, 118, 129 Pragmatics See Information structure PRO 13, 118–120, 136 Pro-drop See Pronoun drop Processing See Computation Procrastinate Projection architecture 97, 173, 185–186, 192–193 Projection Principle 3, 5, 44, 46, 61, 127, 129 Pronoun drop 121 Pronouns 13, 157, 169, 174–179, 184 Psycholinguistics 3, 9, 27, 28, 29 Pullum, Geoffrey K 3, 46, 129 Rank 173–177, 184, 191 Rappaport-Hovav, Malka 106 Realistic Transformational Grammar 3, 29 Referential structure 185–186 Reflexives 119, 169, 174–179, 182, 184, 186 intensive 178 logophoric 178, 187 Relational Grammar 3, 11, 55, 90 Relational hierarchy 56, 57, 172–174 Relative clauses 56, 161–167 Resultatives 106–107, 143 Revised Extended Standard   Theory (REST) See Derivational theories Romance languages (Italic, IndoEuropean) 83, 94–95, 105–106, 110–114 Rules See C-structure, rules; Lexical Mapping Theory (LMT) Russian (Slavic, Indo-European) 142, 167, 190 S (nonprojective category) 49–51, 53 Sadler, Louisa 87 Sag, Ivan A 3, 46, 129, 178 Segond, Frédérique 78, 83, 86, 111, 195 Sells, Peter 114, 186 Semantics 5, 22, 23, 24, 25, 185, 186, 190, 195 Serbo-Croatian (Slavic, IndoEuropean) 190 Shieber, Stuart M 29 Simpson, Jane 5, 20, 30, 51, 142 Sobin, Nicholas 156 Specifier position 39, 41, 50, 81, 146 Spencer, Andrew 195 Standard Theory See Derivational theories Stowell, Timothy A 46 Subjacency 148 Subject Condition 158 Subject-Aux Inversion 153–154 Syntax 26, 185, 189 autonomy of 192–193 place of in language Tagalog (Western Austronesian) 41, 50, 142, 167 that-trace effect 154–156, 167 232 / LEXICAL-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR Thematic hierarchy 100, 171–174 Thematic roles 61, 96–100 there construction 162, 164 Theta ( ) Criterion 9, 58, 61– 62, 118, 136 Theta ( ) grid Theta ( ) roles See Thematic roles to (infinitival) 41, 139–142, 165 TOPIC See Grammatical functions, overlay and discourse Trace See C-structure, empty elements; Gap Transformational Grammar (TG) See Derivational Theories Realistic See Realistic Transformational Grammar Transformations 2–3 Turkish (Altaic) 91, 92, 114 Typology 189–190 Unaccusativity 105, 106–107, 115 Unbounded dependencies See Long distance dependencies Uncertainty See Functional uncertainty Underlying representation See D-structure Unification 18, 62 Uniqueness Condition 62, 68, 102, 193 Universal Grammar 1, Urdu (Indic, Indo-European) See Hindi-Urdu (Indic, IndoEuropean)   ✁ ✁ V-to-I “movement” 4–5, 49, 52 Vincent, Nigel 195 VP 41, 52 bar (VP) 119 ellipsis 36 i n nonc onfi gura t i ona l languages 20–22, 48 Wambaya (Non-Pama-Nyungan, Australian) 20–22, 50, 190 W a rl pi ri (Pama-Nyunga n, Australian) 5, 20, 22, 50, 190 Wasow, Thomas Weak crossover effect 157, 167 Webelhuth, Gert 114 Welsh (Celtic, Indo-European) 190 Wh movement See Long distance dependencies Williams, Edwin Word order 36, 46 free 5, 19, 20 X-bar ( ) theory 34, 41–42, 46, 48, 49, 51, 119, 192 features 34–35 functional categories 37, 39, 40, 42, 51 lexical categories 34–37 Zaenen, Annie 30, 86, 114, 115, 133, 148, 149, 151, 158, 167 Zec, Draga 117, 139 ✄ ✂ ✂ ✂