tài liệu vật lý in2physics của tác giả stephen bosi

S C I S PHY @ HSC Stephen Bosi John O’Byrne Peter Fletcher Joe Khachan Jeff Stanger Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and associated companies around the world Sandra Woodward Contents Series features How to use this book Stage Physics syllabus grid vi viii x Module Space Module Introduction Chapter Cannonballs, apples, planets and gravity 1.1 Projectile motion 1.2 Gravity 1.3 Gravitational potential energy Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 4 10 16 20 22 22 Chapter Explaining and exploring the solar system 26 2.1 Launching spacecraft 26 2.2 Orbits and gravity 35 2.3 Beyond Kepler’s orbits 41 2.4 Momentum bandits: the slingshot effect 44 2.5 I’m back! Re-entry 46 Practical experiences 52 Chapter summary 53 Review questions 54 Chapter Seeing in a weird light: relativity 3.1 Frames of reference and classical relativity 3.2 Light in the Victorian era 3.3 Special relativity, light and time 3.4 Length, mass and energy Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 58 58 61 64 69 75 76 76 Module Review 80 Module Motors and Generators Module Introduction 82 Chapter Electrodynamics: moving charges and magnetic fields 84 4.1 Review of essential concepts 84 4.2 Forces on charged particles in magnetic fields 89 4.3 The motor effect 90 4.4 Forces between parallel wires 93 Practical experiences 97 Chapter summary 98 Review questions 98 Chapter Induction: the influence of changing magnetism 5.1 Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction 5.2 Lenz’s law 5.3 Eddy currents Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 100 100 104 106 109 110 110 Chapter Motors: magnetic fields make the world go around 6.1 Direct current electric motors 6.2 Back emf and DC electric motors 6.3 Alternating current electric motors Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 114 114 120 121 126 127 127 Chapter Generators and electricity supply: power for the people 7.1 AC and DC generators 7.2 Transformers 7.3 Electricity generation and transmission Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 130 130 136 141 148 149 149 Module Review 152 Module From Ideas to Implementation Module Introduction 154 Chapter From cathode rays to television 8.1 Cathode ray tubes 8.2 Charges in electric fields 8.3 Charges moving in a magnetic field 8.4 Thomson’s experiment 8.5 Applications of cathode rays Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 156 156 160 164 165 167 170 171 171 Chapter Electromagnetic radiation: particles or waves? 9.1 Hertz’s experiments on radio waves 9.2 Black body radiation and Planck’s hypothesis 9.3 The photoelectric effect 9.4 Applications of the photoelectric effect Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 174 174 178 182 184 185 186 187 iii Contents Chapter 10 Semiconductors and the electronic revolution 10.1 Conduction and energy bands 10.2 Semiconductors 10.3 Semiconductor devices 10.4 The control of electrical current Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 188 189 190 193 197 201 202 202 Chapter 11 Superconductivity 11.1 The crystal structure of matter 11.2 Wave interference 11.3 X-ray diffraction 11.4 Crystal structure 11.5 Electrical conductivity and the crystal structure of metals 11.6 The discovery of superconductors 11.7 The Meissner effect 11.8 Type-I and type-II superconductors 11.9 Why is a levitated magnet stable? 11.10 BCS theory and Cooper pairs 11.11 Applications of superconductors Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 204 204 205 207 208 Module Review 224 209 211 212 212 213 215 217 220 221 221 Module Quanta to Quarks Module Introduction 226 Chapter 12 From Rutherford to Bohr 228 12.1 Atomic timeline 228 12.2 Rutherford’s model of the atom 229 12.3 Planck’s quantised energy 231 12.4 Spectral analysis 232 12.5 Bohr’s model of the atom 235 12.6 Bohr’s explanation of the Balmer series 236 12.7 Limitations of the Rutherford–Bohr model 239 Practical experiences 241 Chapter summary 242 Review questions 243 Chapter 13 Birth of quantum mechanics 13.1 The birth 13.2 Louis de Broglie’s proposal 13.3 Diffraction 13.4 Confirming de Broglie’s hypothesis 13.5 Electron orbits revisited 13.6 Further developments of atomic theory 1924–1930 Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions iv 247 247 248 250 251 252 253 256 256 257 Chapter 14 20th century alchemists 14.1 Discovery of the neutron 14.2 The need for the strong force 14.3 Atoms and isotopes 14.4 Transmutation 14.5 The neutrino 14.6 Was Einstein right? 14.7 Binding energy 14.8 Nuclear fission 14.9 Chain reactions 14.10 Neutron scattering Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 260 260 261 262 263 265 266 268 269 270 272 273 274 275 Chapter 15 The particle zoo 15.1 The Manhattan Project 15.2 Nuclear fission reactors 15.3 Radioisotopes 15.4 Particle accelerators 15.5 The Standard Model Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 279 279 280 282 286 292 295 296 297 Module Review 300 Module Medical Physics Module Introduction 302 Chapter 16 Imaging with ultrasound 16.1 What is ultrasound? 16.2 Principles of ultrasound imaging 16.3 Piezoelectric transducers 16.4 Acoustic impedance 16.5 Types of scans 16.6 Ultrasound at work Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 304 304 305 308 310 312 315 317 318 318 Chapter 17 Imaging with X-rays 17.1 Overview and history: types of X-ray images 17.2 The X-ray tube 17.3 Types of X-rays 17.4 Production of X-ray images 17.5 X-ray detector technology 17.6 Production of CAT X-ray images 17.7 Benefits of CAT scans over conventional radiographs and ultrasound Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 320 320 321 322 324 326 326 329 330 331 331 Contents Chapter 18 Imaging with light 18.1 Endoscopy 18.2 Medical uses of endoscopes Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 333 333 336 338 339 339 Chapter 19 Imaging with gamma rays 19.1 Isotopes and radioactive decay 19.2 Half-life 19.3 Radiopharmaceuticals: targeting tissues and organs 19.4 The gamma camera 19.5 Positron emission tomography Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 340 340 343 Chapter 20 Imaging with radio waves 20.1 Spin and magnetism 20.2 Hydrogen in a magnetic field 20.3 Tuning in to hydrogen 20.4 It depends on how and where you look 20.5 The MRI scanner 20.6 Applications of MRI Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 354 354 355 357 359 360 362 363 364 364 Module Review 366 344 346 347 350 351 351 Module Astrophysics Module Introduction 368 Chapter 21 Eyes on the sky 21.1 The first telescopes 21.2 Looking up 21.3 The telescopic view 21.4 Sharpening the image 21.5 Interferometry 21.6 Future telescopes Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 370 370 373 374 377 380 382 383 384 384 Chapter 22 Measuring the stars 22.1 How far? 22.2 Light is the key 22.3 The stellar alphabet 22.4 Measuring magnitudes 22.5 Colour matters Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 388 388 389 394 397 400 403 405 405 Chapter 23 Stellar companions and variables 23.1 Binary stars 23.2 Doubly different 23.3 Variable stars 23.4 Cepheid variables Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 407 407 411 413 415 418 418 419 Chapter 24 Birth, life and death 24.1 The ISM 24.2 Star birth 24.3 Stars in the prime of life 24.4 Where to for the Sun? 24.5 The fate of massive stars 24.6 How we know? Practical experiences Chapter summary Review questions 422 422 423 425 428 430 433 435 436 436 Module Review 438 Module Skills Module Introduction 440 Chapter 25 Skills stage 25.1 Metric prefixes 25.2 Numerical calculations 25.3 Sourcing experimental errors 25.4 Presenting research for an exam 25.5 Australian scientist 25.6 Linearising a formula 442 442 443 445 446 447 447 Chapter 26 Revisiting the BOS key terms 26.1 Steps to answering questions 448 449 Numerical answers Glossary Index Acknowledgements Formulae and data sheets Periodic table 452 454 465 471 473 474 v S C I S Y PH @ HSC AGE FOR NSW STUDENTS CK PA S IC YS PH E ET PL M CO THE in2 Physics is the most up-to-date physics package written for the NSW Stage Physics syllabus The materials comprehensively address the syllabus outcomes and thoroughly prepare students for the HSC exam Physics is presented as an exciting, relevant and fascinating discipline The student materials provide clear and easy access to the content and theory, regular review questions, a full range of exam-style questions and features to develop an interest in the subject in2 Physics @ HSC student book • The student book closely follows the NSW Stage Physics syllabus and its modular structure • It clearly addresses both the contexts and the prescribed focus areas (PFAs) • Modules consist of chapters that are broken up into manageable sections • Checkpoint questions review key content at regular intervals throughout each chapter • Physics Philes present short, interesting snippets of relevant information about physics or physics applications • Physics Features highlight important real-life examples of physics • Physics For Fun—Try This! provide hands-on activities that are easy to • Physics Focus brings together physics concepts in the context of one or more PFAs and provides students with a graded set of questions to develop their skills in this vital area From ideas to on implementati From cathode rays to television glass anode (positive) electrons 'boil' off the heated cathode collimator electron beam heater cathode (negative) Figure 8.5.3 electrons attracted to the positive anode The components of an electron gun used in oscilloscopes and CRT televisions both cathode ray Television electron gun magnetic coils fluorescent screen Figure 8.5.5 A television picture tube showing the electron gun, deflection coils and fluorescent screen only one beam Each student book includes an interactive student CD containing: • an electronic version of the student book • all of the student materials on the companion website with live links to the website vi mask blue beam electron guns red beam R G B green beam focusing coils V Time sawtooth voltage for timebase Figure 8.5.4 V Time mask fluorescent screen fluorescent screen electron beams holes in mask Figure 8.5.6 guns A colour CRT television set has three electron that will only strike their respective coloured phosphor dots with the aid of a shadow mask sinusoidal vertical voltage A sawtooth voltage waveform on the horizontal beam deflection plates of a CRO sweeps the electron waveform across the screen to display the sinusoidal on the vertical deflection plates used the principles of the cathode ray Cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets are now being superseded by plasma tube for most of the 20th century These which use different operating principles and liquid crystal display television sets, sharper image However, the CRT and allow a larger display area with a place in this form of television holds quite a significant historical communication television set is shown in Figure 8.5.5 A schematic diagram of a colour CRT of the CRO The main difference is the Its basic elements are similar to those field coils placed outside the tube method of deflecting the electrons Magnetic fields inside it The magnitude and produce horizontal and vertical magnetic degree and direction of electron beam direction of the current determine the rule for the force on charged particles deflection Recall your right-hand palm field will deflect the electrons in a magnetic field The vertical magnetic deflect them vertically horizontally; the horizontal field will scanning the beam from left to right The picture on the screen is formed by the television switches the beam on and and top to bottom The electronics in in order to reproduce the transmitted off at the appropriate spots on the screen images, colour television sets need to picture However, to reproduce colour green phosphors on the screen Three and blue red, of intensity the control one aimed at one particular colour The separate electron guns are used, each in groups of red, blue and green dots coloured dots on the screen are clustered cannot be distinguished by eye that are very close to each other and generally For this reason a method of guiding the without the aid of a magnifying glass coloured dots was devised A metal different electron beams to their respective 8.5.6) and consisting of an array of sheet, known as a shadow mask (Figure hole guides the three beams to Each screen holes, is placed behind the phosphor the beams move horizontally and vertically their respective coloured phosphor as need the shadow mask since they had Black and white television sets did not 168 phosphor dots on screen vacuum beam to move up or down in The vertical deflection plates cause the For example, a sinusoidal voltage will synchronisation with an input voltage as a trace) on the screen display a sinusoidal waveform (known electron beam deflecting coils try this! Do not aDjust your horizontal! If you have access to an old black and white TV set or an old style monochrome computer monitor, try holding a bar magnet near the front of the screen and watch how the image distorts This occurs because the magnetic field deflects the electrons that strike the screen DO NOT this with a colour TV set This can magnetise the shadow mask and cause permanent distortion of the image and its colour You can move a bar magnet near the back of a colour TV set to deflect the electrons from the electron gun and therefore distort or shift the image without causing permanent damage to the TV set used Can an osCillosCope be as a television set? ray oscilloscope (CRO) and CRT he similarity between the cathode be used as a television set In television suggests that a CRO can that have made use of the CRO as fact, there have been some devices in principle, it can be used as a you would a computer monitor So, ‘why did they need to deflect the television One is then forced to ask fields rather than with electric beam in a television set with magnetic T fields as in the CRO?’ be made in the same design as In principle all television sets could with and cheaper to deflect the beam a CRO; however, it is much easier the tube rather than embed electrodes a magnetic field on the outside of is a little trickier So now in the glass and inside the vacuum—this deflect the beam of the CRO using another question arises: ‘why not CROs?’ in cheaper magnetic fields, wouldn’t it result instruments The horizontal Cathode ray oscilloscopes are precision to very high frequencies in order sweep rate must be able to be increased to quickly Electric fields can be made to detect signals that change very extra power requirements change very quickly without significant system requires higher and higher However, a magnetically deflected in and vertical deflection frequencies voltages with increasing horizontal same the in the coils, and therefore, order to maintain the same current a significantly greater power angle of beam deflection – thus having sets, however, only operate at requirement Cathode ray tube television horizontal and vertical frequencies fixed and relatively low scanning the mass market to deflect with a Thus it is simpler and cheaper for magnetic field CheCkpoint 8.5 Outline the purpose of a CRO List the main parts of a CRO in the CRO Describe the role of each of these parts the cathode ray tube CRO and CRT TV State the similarities and differences between 169 in2 Physics @ HSC Activity Manual Chapter from cathode rays to television MODULE • A write-in workbook that provides a structured approach to the mandatory practical experiences, both first-hand and secondary-source investigations • Dot point and skills focused from ideas to tion implementa Chapter from Cathode rays to television aCtivity 8.1 first-hand investigation Changing pressure of discharge tubes the occurrence of different striation first-hand information to observe Perorm an investigation and gather discharge tubes patterns for different pressures in Physics skills in this activity include: The skills outcomes to be practised 12.1 perform first-hand investigations 12.2 gather first-hand information 14.1 analyse information syllabus grid on pages vi–viii skills outcomes can be found in the The complete statement of these Aim To observe the striation patterns for different different patterns that Because of this development, could be seen depended on the pressure the air molecules To this, but it can be made to conduct by ionising Normally air is considered to be an insulator, an electric field) At high pressures these that are always in air are accelerated (with to ionise the air energy the very small fraction of free electrons sufficient gain not losing their energy and, as a result, electrons collide frequently with the air, molecules, thereby acquiring enough travel further before colliding with air they are atoms As pressure is reduced, these electrons in turn, can ionise other atoms When will produce more free electrons that, energy to ionise the air molecules This show (known as a discharge) The lower to be absorbed by atoms, we see a light discharge a able to travel far enough to gain the energy producing and can travel before colliding with gas molecules the pressure, the further the electrons excited (increasing in energy) and electrons around the gas atom becoming will also The light that is emitted is a result of the energy they can have in an atom) Light lowest (the state ground the to return re-emitting the photon of light as they ground state, emitting photons As every with ions and the electrons return to the be produced when free electrons recombine the element with which the electron collides the colour of light seen will vary with element has a distinct set of energy levels, be passed through air The it was found that electric current could Equipment The patterns are can carry out the experiment first hand If you have the apparatus at school, you is very dark • discharge tubes at different pressures • induction coil • DC power supply • connecting wires Alternatively, you can use the simulations them Risk assessment Method 8.1.1 Set up the equipment as shown in Figure in the tube Observe the patterns and note the pressure series Replace the tube with the next in the and Repeat the process of observing the patterns your set in tubes the noting the pressure for each of DC power supply tube Figure 8.1.1 Induction coil and discharge pressures in discharge tubes Hypothesis in Part B and make observations from hard to see unless the room HAZARD The voltages necessary to operate the coils and may produce unwanted X-rays used, High voltages are produced by induction the tube Generally, the higher the voltage the tube and the pressure of the gas in tubes depend upon the dimensions of of unwanted X-rays the greater the danger of the production a minimum of m away from the equipment Use the lowest possible voltage and stand Theory which the pressure could be reduced Plücker collaborated to create a tube in Ever since Heinrich Geissler and Julius ray tube have advanced tremendously atom and developing uses for the cathode substantially, our understanding of the 69 68 in2 Physics @ HSC Teacher Resource • Editable teaching materials, including teaching programs, so that teachers can tailor lessons to suit their classroom • Answers to student book and activity manual questions, with fully worked solutions and extended answers and support notes • Risk assessments for all first-hand investigations in2 Physics @ HSC companion website Visit the companion website in the student lounge and teacher lounge of Pearson Places • Review questions— auto-correcting multiple-choice questions for each chapter • Web destinations—a list of reviewed websites that support further investigation For more information on the in2 Physics series, visit www.pearsonplaces.com.au vii How to use this book in2 Physics @ HSC is structured to enhance student learning and their enjoyment of learning It contains many outstanding and unique features that will assist students succeed in Stage Physics These include: • Module opening pages introduce a range of contexts for study, as well as an inquiry activity that provides immediate activities for exploration and discussion Context • Key ideas are clearly highlighted with a and indicate where domain dot points Syllabus flags appear in the student book The flags are placed as closely as possible to where the relevant content is covered Flags may be repeated if the dot point has multiple parts, is complex or where students are required to solve problems Motors and Generators l v = l0 − tv = mv = Figure 4.0.2 of interference of electromagnetic radiation, and examine how this was applied to crystals using X-rays Then we will see how the BCS theory of superconductivity made use of the crystal structure of matter try thiS! CheCkpoInT 11.1 Crystals in the kitChen Explain what is meant by the crystal structure of matter Look at salt grains through a magnifying lens Each grain is a single crystal that is made from the basic arrangement of sodium and chlorine atoms shown in Figure 11.1.1 Although the grains mostly look irregular due to breaking and chipping during the manufacturing process, occasionally you will see an untouched cubic or rectangular prism that reflects the underlying crystal lattice structure 11.2 Wave interference The wave nature of light can be used to measure the size of very small spaces Recall that two identical waves combine to produce a wave of greater amplitude when their crests overlap, as shown in Figure 11.2.1a (see in2 Physics @ Preliminary sections 6.4 and 7.4) The overlapping waves will cancel to produce t=0s a resulting wave of zero amplitude when the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of the other (Figure 11.2.1b) This addition and subtraction is called constructive and destructive interference respectively and is a property of all wave phenomena t=1s As an example, two identical circular water waves in a ripple tank overlap (see Figure 11.2.2) The regions of constructive and destructive interference radiate outwards along the lines as shown Increasing the spacing between the sources t = s (Figure 11.2.2b) causes the radiating lines to come closer together a Figure 11.2.1 Two identical waves (red, green) travelling in opposite directions can add (blue) t=1s (a) constructively or (b) destructively.t = s The interference of identical waves from two sources can also be represented by outwardly radiating transverse waves (see Figure 11.2.3) The distance that a twave = s travels is known as its path length t = s Constructive interference occurs when the difference in the path length of the two waves is equal to 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ or any other integer multiple of the wavelength λ Destructive interference occurs when the two waves are half a wavelength out of step This corresponds to t=4s t=7s a path length difference of λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2 etc t=5s lines of destructive interference lines of constructive interference t=4s t=0s 11.1 The crystal structure of matter a b waves in phase destructive interference constructive interference 204 t=7s evil tWinS T he most extreme mass–energy conversion involves antimatter For every kind of matter particle there is an equivalent antimatter particle, an ‘evil twin’, bearing properties (such as charge) of opposite sign Particles and their antiparticles have the same rest mass When a particle meets its antiparticle, they mutually annihilate—all their opposing properties cancel, leaving only their mass‑energy, which is usually released in the form of two gamma‑ray photons Matter– antimatter annihilation has been suggested (speculatively) as a possible propellant for powering future interstellar spacecraft  v2  ≈ m0c  + ×  = m0c + m0v 2 c   E = mc Figure 3.4.6 One of the four ultra-precise superconducting spherical gyroscopes on NASA’s Gravity Probe B, which orbited Earth in 2004/05 to measure two predictions of general relativity: the bending of spacetime by the Earth’s mass and the slight twisting of spacetime by the Earth’s rotation (frame-dragging) In general relativity, Einstein showed that gravity occurs because objects with mass or energy cause this 4D spacetime to become distorted The paths of objects through this distorted 4D spacetime appear to our 3D eyes to follow the sort of astronomical trajectories you learned about in Chapter ‘Explaining and exploring the solar system’ However, unlike Newton’s gravitation, general relativity is able to handle situations of high gravitational fields, such as Mercury’s precessing orbit around the Sun and black holes General relativity also predicts another wave that doesn’t require a medium: the ripples in spacetime called ‘gravity waves’ where m is any kind of mass In relativity, mass and energy are regarded as the same thing, apart from the change of units Sometimes the term mass-energy is used for both m0 c is called the rest energy, so even a stationary object contains energy due to its rest mass Relativistic kinetic energy therefore: m0c mv c − m0c = − m0c v2 1− c Whenever energy increases, so does mass Any release of energy is accompanied by a decrease in mass A book sitting on the top shelf has a slightly higher mass than one on the bottom shelf because of the difference in gravitational potential energy An object’s mass increases slightly when it is hot because the kinetic energy of the vibrating atoms is higher Because c is such a large number, a very tiny mass is equivalent to a large amount of energy In the early days of nuclear physics, E = mc revealed the enormous energy locked up inside an atom’s nucleus by the strong nuclear force that holds the protons and neutrons together It was this that alerted nuclear physicists just before World War II to the possibility of a nuclear bomb The energy released by the nuclear bomb dropped on Hiroshima at the end of that war (smallish by modern standards) resulted from a reduction in relativistic mass of about 0.7 g (slightly less than the mass of a standard wire paperclip) Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction for space travel Worked example qUESTIon When free protons and neutrons become bound together to form a nucleus, the reduction in nuclear potential energy (binding energy) is released, normally in the form of gamma rays Relativity says this loss in energy is reflected in a decrease in mass of the resulting atom • Each chapter concludes with: – a chapter summary – review questions, including literacy-based questions (Physically Speaking), chapter review questions (Reviewing) and physics problems (Solving Problems) Syllabus verbs are clearly highlighted as and where appropriate – Physics Focus—a unique feature that places key chapter concepts in the context of one or more prescribed focus areas b Figure 11.2.2 Interference of water waves for two sources that are (a) close together and (b) further apart 19 Imaging with gamma rays PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES ChAPTER 19 This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical experiences outlined in the syllabus For detailed instructions and advice, use in2 Physics @ HSC Activity Manual Figure 11.2.3 Constructive and destructive interference between Activity 19.1: Bone scAns identical transverse waves from two sources Perform an investigation to compare a bone scan with an X-ray image 205 • Chapters are divided into short, accessible sections— the text itself is presented in short, easy-to-understand chunks of information Each section concludes with a Checkpoint—a set of review questions to check understanding of key content and concepts A bone scan is performed to obtain a functional image of the bones and so can be used to detect abnormal metabolism in the bones, which may be an indication of cancer or other abnormality Because cancer mostly involves a higher than normal rate of cell division (thus producing a tumour), chemicals involved in metabolic processes in bone tend to accumulate in higher concentrations in cancerous tissue This produces areas of concentration of gamma emission, indicating a tumour Compare the data obtained from the image of a bone scan with that provided by an X-ray image Discussion questions Identify the best part of the body for each of these diagnostic tools to image Compare and contrast the two images in terms of the information they provide Figure 19.6.1 a Chapter summary • • • • • • The number of protons in a nucleus is given by the atomic number, while the total number of nucleons is given by the mass number Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of that element Many elements have naturally occurring unstable radioisotopes In alpha decay an unstable nucleus decays by emitting an alpha particle (α-particle) In beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and a high-energy electron that is emitted as a beta particle (β-particle) In positron decay, a positron—the antiparticle of the electron—is emitted b Activity 19.2: HeAltHy or diseAsed? Typical images of healthy bone and cancerous bone are shown The tumours show up as hot-spots Use the template in the activity manual to research and compare images of healthy and diseased parts of the body Discussion questions Examine Figure 19.4.2 There is a hot-spot that is not cancerous near the left elbow Explain In the normal scan (Figure 19.6.2a), the lower pelvis has a region of high intensity Why is this? (Hint: It may be soft tissue, not bone Looking at Figure 19.6.2b might help you with this question.) State the differences that can be observed by comparing an image of a healthy part of the body with that of a diseased part of the body PHysicAlly sPeAking Below is a list of topics that have been discussed throughout this chapter Create a visual summary of the concepts in this chapter by constructing a mind map linking the terms Add diagrams where useful Radioactive decay 350 Radiation Radioisotope Neutron Proton Beta decay Gamma decay Antimatter Bone scan Positron decay Half-life Bones scans of (a) a healthy person and (b) a patient with a tumour in the skeleton • mEdICAL PhySICS When a positron and an electron collide, their total mass is converted into energy in the form of two gamma-ray photons In gamma decay a gamma ray (g) is emitted from a radioactive isotope The time it takes for half the mass of a radioactive parent isotope to decay into its daughter nuclei is the half-life of the isotope Artificial radioisotopes are produced in two main ways: in a nuclear reactor or in a cyclotron A gamma camera detects gamma rays emitted by a radiopharmaceutical in the patient’s body PET imaging uses positron-emitting radiopharmaceuticals to obtain images using gamma rays emitted from electron–positron annihilation • • • • • Review questions Comparison of an X-ray and bone scan of a hand Gather and process secondary information to compare a scanned image of at least one healthy body part or organ with a scanned image of its diseased counterpart Figure 19.6.2 viii − 73 constructive interference t=6s 72 Figure 11.1.1 Crystal structure of sodium chloride The red spheres represent positive sodium ions, and the green spheres represent negative chlorine ions − Rearrange: mvc – m0c = (mv – m0)c ≈ m0v 2 In other words, at low speeds, the gain in relativistic mass (mv – m0) multiplied by c equals the kinetic energy—a tantalising hint that at low speed mass and energy are equivalent It can also be shown to be true at all speeds, using more sophisticated mathematics In general, mass and energy are equivalent in relativity and c is the conversion factor between the energy unit (joules) and the mass unit (kg) In other words: c2 here are two more invariants in special relativity Maxwell’s equations (and hence relativity) requires that electrical charge is invariant in all frames Another quantity invariant in all inertial frames is called the spacetime interval You may have heard of spacetime but not know what it is One of Einstein’s mathematics lecturers Hermann Minkowski (1864–1909) showed that the equations of relativity and Maxwell’s equations become simplified if you assume that the three dimensions of space (x, y, z) and time t taken together form a four‑dimensional coordinate system called spacetime Each location in spacetime is not a position, but rather an event—a position and a time Using a 4D version of Pythagoras’ theorem, Minkowski then defined a kind of 4D ‘distance’ between events called the spacetime interval s given by: s = (c × time period)2 – path length2 = c 2t – ((∆x)2 + (∆y)2 + (∆z)2) Observers in different frames don’t agree on the 3D path length between events, or the time period between events, but all observers in inertial frames agree on the spacetime interval s between events from ideaS to implementation A crystal is a three-dimensional regular arrangement of atoms Figure 11.1.1 shows a sodium chloride crystal (ordinary salt also called rock salt when it comes as a large crystal) The crystal is made from simple cubes repeated many times, with sodium and chlorine atoms at the corners of the cubes Crystals of other materials may have different regular arrangements of their atoms There are 14 types of crystal arrangements that solids can have The regular arrangement of atoms in crystals was a hypothesis before Max Von Laue and his colleagues confirmed it by X-ray diffraction experiments William and Lawrence Bragg took this method one step further by measuring the spacing between the atoms in the crystal Let us first look at the phenomenon  v2  m0c  −  c   T Surprising discovery crystal, constructive interference, destructive interference, path length, diffraction grating, Bragg law, phonons, critical temperature, type-I superconductors, type-II superconductors, critical field strength, vortices, flux pinning, BCS theory, Cooper pair, coherence length, energy gap, spin v  v2  = m0c  −  c   m0c v2 1− c Using a well-known approximation formula that you might learn at university, (1 – x )n ≈ – nx for small x: The history of physics InQUIRY ACtIVItY • Chapter openings list the key words of each chapter and introduce the chapter topic in a concise and engaging way Just as an improved understanding of the conducting properties of semiconductors led to the wide variety of electronic devices, research into the conductivity of metals produced quite a surprising discovery called superconductivity This is the total disappearance of electrical resistance below a certain temperature, which has great potential applications ranging from energy transmission and storage to public transport An understanding of this phenomenon required a detailed understanding of the crystal structure of conductors and the motion of electrons through them mv c = m0 TwISTIng SPACETImE And YoUR mInd A simple homopolar motor 83 Superconductivity c2 c2 1− 82 11 v2 v2 PHYSICS FEATURE Many of the devices you use every day have electric motors They spin your DVDs, wash your clothes and even help cook your food Could you live without them, and how much you know about how they work? The essential ingredients for a motor are a power source, a magnetic field and things to connect these together in the right way It’s not as hard as you think All you need is a battery, a wood screw, a piece of wire and a cylindrical or spherical magnet Put these things together as shown in Figure 4.0.2 and see if you can get your motor to spin Be patient and keep trying Then try the following activities Test the effects of changing the voltage you use You could add another battery in series or try a battery with a higher voltage Try changing the strength of the magnet by using a different magnet or adding another What does this affect? Try changing the length of the screw, how sharp its point is or the material it is made from Does it have to be made of iron? A generator produces electricity in each of these wind turbines The kinetic energy formula K = mv doesn’t apply at relativistic speeds, even if you substitute relativistic mass mv into the formula Classically, if you apply a net force to accelerate an object, the work done equals the increase in kinetic energy An increase in speed means an increase in kinetic energy But in relativity it also means an increase in relativistic mass, so relativistic mass and energy seem to be associated Superficially, if you multiply relativistic mass by c you get mv c 2, which has the same dimensions and units as energy But let’s look more closely at it t0 1− The first recorded observations of the relationship between electricity and magnetism date back more than 400 years Many unimagined discoveries followed, but progress never waits Before we understood their nature, inventions utilising electricity and magnetism had changed our world forever Today our lives revolve around these forms of energy The lights you use to read this book rely on them and the CD inside it would be nothing but a shiny coaster for your cup We use magnetism to generate the electricity that drives industry, discovery and invention Electricity and magnetism are a foundation for modern technology, deeply seated in the global economy, and our use impacts heavily on the environment The greatest challenge that faces future generations is the supply of energy As fossil fuels dry up, electricity and magnetism will become even more important New and improved technologies will be needed Whether it’s a hybrid car, a wind turbine or a nuclear fusion power plant, they all rely on applications of electricity and magnetism Space How does this formula behave at low speeds (when v 2/c is small)? Mass, energy and the world’s most famous equation Solve problems and analyse information using: E = mc2 BUIld YoUR own eleCtRIC motoR Figure 4.0.1 Seeing in a weird light: relativity Isotope reviewing Recall how the bone scan produced by a radioisotope compares with that from a conventional X-ray Analyse the relationship between the half-life of a radiopharmaceutical and its potential use in the human body Explain how it is possible to emit an electron from the nucleus when the electron is not a nucleon Assess the statement that ‘Positrons are radioactive particles produced when a proton decays’ Discuss the impact that the production and use of radioisotopes has on society Describe how isotopes such as Tc-99m and F-18 can be used to target specific organs to be imaged Use the data in Table 19.6.1 to answer the questions: a Which radioactive isotope would most likely be used in a bone scan? Justify your choice b Propose two reasons why cesium-137 would not be a suitable isotope to use in medical imaging Nucleon Alpha decay PET Table 19.6.1 Scintillator Properties of some radioisotopes Radioactive souRce Radiation emitted Half-life C-11 Tc-99m TI-201 I-131 Cs-137 U-238 β+, g g g β, g α α 20.30 minutes 6.02 hours 3.05 days 8.04 days 30.17 years 4.47 × 109 years 351 How to use this book Other features • Module reviews provide a full range of exam-style questions, including multiple-choice, short-response and extended-response questions from ideas to implementation The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to the HSC Physics examination Marks are allocated to each question up to a total of 25 marks It should take you approximately 45 minutes to complete this review Experimental data from black body radiation during Planck’s time showed that predicted radiation levels were not achieved in reality Planck best described this anomaly by saying that: A classical physics was wrong B radiation that is emitted and absorbed is quantised C he had no explanation for it D quantum mechanics needed to be developed extended response Figure 11.13.4 shows a cathode ray tube that has been evacuated Which answer correctly names each of the labelled features? III Explain, with reference to atomic models, why cathode rays can travel through metals (2 marks) Outline how the cathode ray tube in a TV works in order to produce the viewing picture (2 marks) Give reasons why CRT TVs use magnetic coils and CROs use electric plates in order to deflect the beams, given that both methods work (2 marks) In your studies you were required to gather information to describe how the photoelectric effect is used in photocells a Explain how you determined which material was relevant and reliable b Outline how the photoelectric effect is used in photocells (3 marks) II I multiple choice (1 mark each) Predict the direction of the electron in Figure 11.13.1 as it enters the magnetic field A Straight up B Left C Right D Down A B Figure 11.13.1 An electron in a magnetic field C The diagrams in Figure 11.13.2 represent semiconductors, conductors and insulators The diagrams show the conduction and valence bands, and the energy gaps Which answer correctly labels each of the diagrams? A B C D Figure 11.13.4 An evacuated cathode ray tube – I II III Conductor Insulator Insulator Semiconductor Insulator Conductor Semiconductor Conductor Semiconductor Semiconductor Conductor Insulator D I A B C D I II III Critical temperature Superconductor material Critical temperature Normal material Superconductor material Critical temperature Normal material Normal material Superconductor material II Figure 11.13.2 The graph in Figure 11.13.3 shows how the resistance of a material varies with temperature Identify each of the parts labelled on the graph Superconductor material Critical temperature II III Cathode Striations Anode Cathode Anode Faraday’s dark space Striations Faraday’s dark space 10 Justify the introduction of semiconductors to replace thermionic devices (4 marks) 11 Magnetic levitation trains are used in Germany and Japan The trains in Germany use conventional electromagnets, whereas the one in Japan uses superconductors Compare and contrast the two systems (3 marks) 12 a b Determine the frequency of red light, which has a wavelength λ = 660 nm (Speed of light c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1) Calculate the energy of a photon that is emitted with this wavelength (Planck’s constant h = 6.63 × 10–34 J s) (4 marks) I Figure 11.13.3 • Physics for Fun—Try This! activities are short, handson activities to be done quickly, designed to provoke discussion • Physics Features are a key feature as they highlight contextual material, case studies or prescribed focus areas of the syllabus III II Normal material I Striations Faraday’s dark space Crooke’s dark space Cathode • A complete glossary of all the key words is included at the end of the student book Energy bands Resistance (Ω) • Physics Philes present short, interesting items to support or extend the text III Temperature (K) Resistance varies with temperature 224 225 Practical experiences The accompanying activity manual covers all of the mandatory practical experiences outlined in the syllabus in2 Physics @ HSC Activity Manual is a write-in workbook that outlines a clear, foolproof approach to success in all the required practical experiences Within the student book, there are clear cross-references to the activity manual: Practical Experiences icons refer to the activity number and page in the activity manual In each chapter, a summary of possible investigations is provided as a starting point to get students thinking These include PRACTICAL the aim, a list of equipment and EXPERIENCES Activity 10.2 discussion questions Activity Man • The final two chapters provide essential reference material: ‘Skills stage 2’ and ‘Revisiting the BOS key terms’ • In all questions and activities, except module review questions, the BOS key terms are highlighted in2 Physics @ HSC Student CD This is included with the student book and contains: • an electronic version of the student book • interactive modules demonstrating key concepts MODULE ual, Page 94 Chapter motors: magnetic fields make the world go around motors and generators aCtIVItY 6.2 First-hand investigation • the companion website on CD Risk assessment Motors and torque Solve problems and analyse information about simple motors using: τ = nBIA cos θ Method Physics skills Cut a length of cotton-covered wire so that the wire is long enough to wrap around the exterior of a matchbox three times (as shown in Figure 6.2.2) Leave a straight piece (approx 10 cm long) hanging out and then wind the remainder of the wire around the box 2½ times Leave another straight piece the same length as at the start, on the opposite side Wrap the straight pieces around the loops so that they tie both ends Fan out the loops so that you get equally spaced loops and that it looks like a bird cage (see Figure 6.2.3) Push out the middle of the paper clip as shown and Blu-Tack to the bench Slip the straight pieces of wire through the paper clip supports Unwrap the cotton from these parts Connect an AC power supply to the paper clips Place two magnets so that a north pole and a south pole face on opposing sides of the cage Turn on You may need to give the cage a tap to get it spinning The skills outcomes to be practised in this activity include: 12.4 process information 14.1 analyse information The complete statement of these skills outcomes can be found in the syllabus grid on pages vii–viii Aim Hypothesis Theory The motor effect means that a current-carrying wire experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field This is the basis for the workings of a motor For a motor to work as needed, the motion resulting from the motor effect needs to be circular and the force needs to be adjusted so the direction of rotation does not change Question Figure 6.2.1 shows the simplified workings of a motor that you will be making Label all the parts of the motor 48 insulated wire from which insulation can be removed easily magnets magnetic field sensor and data logger (if available) paperclips matchbox wire b loop wire through Figure 6.2.2 Equipment set-up cage fanned out paper clip alligator clip wires power source Figure 6.2.3 Equipment set-up Record your observations of the motor The complete in2 Physics @ HSC package How did adding more magnets affect how the motor ran? Remember the other components of the complete package: When the current is increased, what changes occurred? Results N S C: D: Figure 6.2.1 Simplified motor • Blu-Tack • connecting wires with alligator clips • power supply • a link to the live companion website (Internet access required) to provide access to the latest information and web links related to the student book A: B: Equipment • • • • a • in2 Physics @ HSC companion website at Pearson Places 49 • in2 Physics @ HSC Teacher Resource ix Stage Physics syllabus grid Prescribed focus areas The history of physics H1 evaluates how major advances in scientific understanding and technology have changed the direction or nature of scientific thinking Feature: pp 12, 29, 72 The nature and practice of physics H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in physics have been tested and validated Focus: p 79 Applications and uses of physics H3 assesses the impact of particular advances in physics on the development of technologies Feature: pp 12, 29, 307, 334, 346 Focus: pp 25, 246, 299 Focus: pp 57, 79, 129, 173, 223, 246, 259, 278 Implications for society and the Environment H4 assesses the impacts of applications of physics on society and the environment Feature: pp 29, 307, 344 Current issues, research and developments in physics H5 identifies possible future directions of physics research Feature: pp 391, 410 Focus: pp 113, 173, 353 Focus: pp 79, 113, 173, 223, 353, 386 Module Space The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and around it Students learn to: Page Students: define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field 13 perform an investigation and gather information to determine a value for Act 1.2 acceleration due to gravity using pendulum motion or computer-assisted technology and identify reason(s) for possible variations from the value 9.8 m s–2 Page explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done 16 gather secondary information to predict the value of acceleration due to gravity on other planets Act 1.3 define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field: mm EP = G r 16 analyse information using the expression: Act 1.3 F = mg to determine the weight force for a body on Earth and for the same body on other planets Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch, maintain a stable orbit and return to Earth Students learn to: Page Students: Page describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earth’s gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components 7, 9, 23, 24 solve problems and analyse information to calculate the actual velocity of a projectile from its horizontal and vertical components using: vx2 = ux2 v = u + at vy2 = uy2 + 2ay ∆y ∆x = ux t ∆y = uyt + 12 ay t 2 describe Galileo’s analysis of projectile motion perform a first-hand investigation, gather information and analyse data to calculate initial and final velocity, maximum height reached, range and time of flight of a projectile for a range of situations by using simulations, data loggers and computer analysis explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the: – gravitational constant – mass and radius of the planet 18 identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on the contribution 29 of one of the following to the development of space exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Act 2.1 Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, O’Neill or von Braun x Act 1.1 Stage Physics syllabus grid outline Newton’s concept of escape velocity 18 identify why the term ‘g forces’ is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut during launch 31 discuss the effect of the Earth‘s orbital motion and its rotational motion on the launch of a rocket 34 analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the: – Law of Conservation of Momentum – forces experienced by astronauts 30, 33 analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects, including satellites orbiting the Earth 25, 32, solve problems and analyse information to calculate the centripetal force acting 34, 37, on a satellite undergoing uniform circular motion about the Earth using: 54, 55 mv F = r compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits 43 define the term orbital velocity and the 36, 40, solve problems and analyse information using: quantitative and qualitative relationship 56 r3 GM = between orbital velocity, the π2 T gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit using Kepler’s Law of Periods account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit 46 discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere and landing on the Earth’s surface 47 identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft into the Earth’s atmosphere and the consequences of failing to achieve this angle 47 37, 54, 55 Act 2.2 39, 43, 56 The solar system is held together by gravity Students learn to: Page Students: Page describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms of its effects on other masses in it 13 present information and use available evidence to discuss the factors affecting the strength of the gravitational force Act 1.3 define Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: mm F = G 22 d 11 solve problems and analyse information using: mm F = G 22 d 23, 24, 25, 37, 54, 55 discuss the importance of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding and calculating the motion of satellites 35, 38 identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes 44 xi Glossary magnitudes a measure of the brightness of a star in which magnitudes represents a factor of 100 in brightness; brighter objects have smaller (or negative) magnitudes neutron star a remnant of a supernova explosion with a mass about that of the Sun in an object typically only 10 km across Manhattan Project the code name for the US secret atomic bomb project during World War II non-coherent fibre bundle a bundle of optical fibres for which the order of fibres is not same at both ends, making it unsuitable for imaging but suitable for remote illumination mass number the total number of nucleons in a nucleus mass-energy many physicists dislike the definition of ‘relativistic mass’ and prefer not to distinguish mass and energy, but rather lump them together as a single quantity called ‘mass-energy’ massive possessing mass mass–luminosity relationship a relationship between the mass M of a main sequence star and its luminosity L that can be approximately fitted by the relationship L ∝ M3.5 Maxwell’s equations four equations (in their modern versions) that summarise all possible phenomena of electromagnetism mechanical medium any material (e.g air or water) through which a mechanical wave can travel medium Earth orbit orbit higher than a low Earth orbit but lower than a geostationary orbit meson a particle belonging to the hadron family; it is comprised of one quark and one antiquark nodes the null points on a standing wave non-periodic variables intrinsic variable stars whose variation in brightness repeats at irregular intervals novae a smaller outburst than a supernova, produced when a Sunlike star leaks enough gas onto a close white dwarf companion to generate a surface nuclear explosion; classified as a non-periodic intrinsic variable star n-type semiconductor a doped semiconductor that results in extra unbonded electrons in the crystal lattice nuclear reactor a device in which a controlled nuclear chain reactions occurs at a sustained and steady rate The energy can be used to produce electricity and the neutrons emitted can be used for industrial and medical purposes nucleon the name given to protons and neutrons when they are present in a nucleus nuclides the name given to a specific isotope of an element Michelson–Morley experiment the historical experiment designed to measure the effect of aether wind on the speed of light null result when a well-designed, carefully performed experiment fails to observe an expected effect microprocessor the main component of a computer that is at the centre of all computer operations optical fibre a thin, highly transparent (usually silica) fibre that conducts light with little loss because of total internal reflection at the outer boundary Mira variable star a pulsating variable red giant or supergiant star with a period of between 80 and 1000 days M-mode scan a rapid series of B-mode scans displayed side by side to represent echo intensity versus depth as a function of time; used to detect organ motion optical telescope a telescope designed to image optical (visible) light orbit the path an electron takes around the nucleus in classical atomic theory moderator a material used in a nuclear fission reactor to slow down neutrons and so improve their chance of being captured by a nucleus orbital decay decrease in the orbital radius as orbital kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy, e.g by drag MOSFET metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor oscilloscope a device used to measure the variation of voltage in time across an electrical component motor a device that converts electrical potential energy into kinetic energy motor effect the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field muon a lepton; it is the heavier cousin of the electron in the Standard Model mutual annihilation the process in which two antiparticles meet (e.g electrons and positrons), their opposite properties cancelling, leaving only their rest mass-energy, which is released in the form of two gamma rays nebula the portion of the interstellar medium where interaction with starlight reveals the gas and dust negative glow the luminous region in a discharge tube next to the Crookes dark space and before the Faraday dark space neutron uncharged subatomic particle neutron scattering the neutron can be fired into sample materials and analysis of the resulting interactions can determine the motion, spacing, magnetic structure and inner structure of many materials 460 orbital velocity the tangential velocity of a satellite in orbit osteoporosis a condition of weakened bone due to low bone density parabola the shape of the graph of a quadratic equation paraffin a common name for a hydrocarbon wax parallax the apparent change in position of a nearby object relative to a more distant background caused by a change in viewing position, such as the apparent change in position of nearby stars caused by the Earth’s orbital motion parallel when one vector points in the same direction as another parsec the distance of a hypothetical star that has a parallax angle of arc second: 1 pc ≈ 206 265 AU ≈ 3.2616 ly ≈ 3.0857 × 1016 m particle accelerator a device for accelerating charged particles path length distance travelled by a wave payload the cargo, instruments or passengers delivered into space by a vehicle periapsis in a two-body system, the position of closest approach of a satellite to the central mass perigee in a satellite’s orbit around the Earth, the position of closest approach Glossary perihelion in a satellite’s orbit around the Sun, the position of closest approach periodic variables intrinsic variable stars whose variation in brightness repeats with a regular period period–luminosity relationship a relationship between the period of variation of a Cepheid variable star and its luminosity L that allows the luminosity and hence the distance of the star to be estimated perpendicular area the area of a wire loop perpendicular to the magnetic field lines passing through the loop PET positron emission tomography phonons lattice vibrations with discrete energy; analogous to photons photocathode an electrode that emits electrons in an evacuated vessel when struck by electromagnetic radiation photocell a device that converts light to an electrical signal photoelectric effect electron emission from the surface of metals when irradiated with electromagnetic radiation, mostly visible or ultraviolet emitting isotope is used to identify the position of diseased tissue A tomogram is built up by deducing the original positions of the positrons by detecting pairs of gamma rays that result from mutual annihilation with surrounding electrons postulate a fundamental principle assumed to be true but for which there is no direct proof, which forms the basis upon which a theory can be built potential difference a measure of the difference in electrical potential energy between two points in a circuit This quantity is measured in volts and is often replaced by the term voltage power station an industrial facility for the generation of electric power precession the conical motion of the axis of rotation that results when an external torque is applied to a spinning object precision a precise measurement is one with a small random error prefix mathematical word that can be added in place of scientific notation principle of relativity physical laws remain invariant in all inertial frames of reference photoelectrons the electrons emitted from an electrode in an evacuated vessel when struck by electromagnetic radiation prism a wedge-shaped glass block that disperses visible light into its component colours using refraction within the glass photometry the measurement of the brightness of a light source projectile an object (e.g a cannonball) projected through open space photomultiplier tube an evacuated tube with a photocathode, anode and dynodes used to convert light to an electrical signal photons radiant electromagnetic energy consisting of concentrated bundles of energy; a ‘particle’ of light photovoltaic cells semiconductor devices used to convert light into electricity piezoelectric effect the phenomenon in which some materials produce a voltage when squeezed and conversely become slightly compressed (or expanded) when a suitable voltage is applied piezoelectric transducer a transducer (often used to generate ultrasound) composed of a material (such as PZT) that exhibits the piezoelectric effect pion the lightest meson pixel abbreviation of ‘picture element’; the smallest dot represented in a digital image Planck curve or black body curve is the distribution of light versus wavelength produced by a black body, an idealised example of a hot object The shape, peak wavelength and intensity depend simply on the temperature of the object Planck’s constant a fundamental constant h = 6.63 × 10–34 J s planetary nebula a short-lived, small cloud of gas expelled by a low mass star to reveal its core as a white dwarf star plate part of a thermionic device used to collect the electron current polarisation the direction of the electric field in an electromagnetic wave propellant material (usually combustible) used to generate exhaust through a rocket nozzle, hence producing thrust proper length the length of an object as measured by an observer stationary relative to that object proper mass see rest mass proper motion the apparent motion of a star across the sky due to its the transverse motion through space proper time the time interval between two events that take place in the same position as measured by an observer stationary relative to those events proton–proton chain the chain of reactions that dominates the conversion of hydrogen into helium in the relatively ‘cool’ cores of lower mass stars like the Sun protostar the hot core of a collapsing fragment of a gas cloud, perhaps destined to form a star p-type semiconductor a doped semiconductor that results in a deficiency of electrons in the crystal lattice pulsar a neutron star that is visible because beams of radiation produced near its magnetic poles sweep across the Earth to be seen as a pulse as the pulsar rotates PZT lead-zirconate-titanate, a material commonly used in piezoelectric transducers quanta the emission or absorption of energy in discrete units positron an antimatter electron quantum mechanics a set of principles that describe physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic (electrons, protons and even smaller particles), including the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behaviour of matter and radiation (wave–particle duality) positron decay subset of beta decay involving emission specifically of a positron quantum number a set of numbers used to describe quantities in a quantum system positron emission tomography a form of imaging in which a biologically accumulating substance tagged with a positron quark a set of particles developed to explain the properties of a family of particles called hadrons positive column largest luminous region in a discharge tube and the most prominent feature of the discharge; situated near the anode 461 Glossary R Coronae Borealis star a yellow supergiant star that fades significantly at irregular intervals as carbon-rich dust clouds obscure the surface; classified as a non-periodic intrinsic variable star relativistic mass the phenomenon in which the mass of an object moving relative to the observer is appears to increase radiation particles or waves that propagate outwards from a source resistive heating heating that occurs in a conductor when energy is transferred from the moving charges of an electric current to the atoms of the conductor radiation shielding protects people and the environment against excessive radiation and prolongs the working life of a nuclear reactor facility relaxation the process of a previously aligned system (e.g nuclear spin) to gradually become misaligned radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic radiation frequencies in the range (roughly) 3 kHz to 300 GHz resonance the tendency for one object possessing a natural frequency of oscillation to oscillate strongly in the presence of an external source at that same frequency radio telescope a telescope designed to collect radio wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation rest mass the mass of an object as measured by an observer who is stationary relative to that object radioactive any nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay reverse bias connecting the negative and positive terminals of a power supply to the p and n sides of a p–n junction respectively radioactive decay the process whereby certain unstable atomic nuclei approach a more stable state by releasing alpha, beta or gamma rays RF transceiver coils the coils that both transmit the RF pulse and receive the RF echo of relaxing nuclei in MRI radiograph the oldest form of X-ray image; produced by exposing film using a broad beam of X-rays passing through a patient or specimen rotor coils the central rotating component of a motor or generator consisting of wire coils wound around a laminated iron frame attached to an axle or shaft radiographer a technician who takes medical images of patients RR Lyrae variables pulsating variable stars, commonly found in globular clusters, that vary up to magnitudes with periods less than 1 day radioisotopes atoms that have an unstable ratio of protons to neutrons and will decay via alpha or beta decay to attain a more stable configuration; may also emit gamma radiation radiopharmaceuticals radioisotopes incorporated into compounds that are used in medicine and can be classified into diagnostic and therapeutic RV Tauri star a pulsating variable yellow supergiant star with a period of between 20 and 100 days Rydberg’s constant constant with a value of 1.097 × 107 m–1 used in the calculation of hydrogen spectral line wavelengths radiotherapy a medical procedure in which radiation emitted from a radioactive source is directed at an area of diseased tissue satellite any object in orbit under the gravitational influence of a much larger body random error an uncertainty in a measurement governed by random statistical fluctuations sawtooth the waveform of the potential difference across the horizontal plates inside the tube of a cathode ray oscilloscope range the maximum horizontal displacement of a projectile scintillation the rapidly changing effects of tiny, rapidly changing temperature variations in the Earth’s atmosphere that are apparent as rapid changes in the brightness of a star; commonly known as ‘twinkling’ reaction device any device (such as a rocket) that is driven along by the reaction force from material being expelled real-time image when image data are collected and processed so rapidly that the delay between an event and its displayed image is negligible receiver apparatus used to detect an electromagnetic wave red giant a star that has evolved off the main sequence and grown in size and luminosity, having largely exhausted the hydrogen fuel in its core re-entry the process of bringing a spacecraft back through the atmosphere reflecting telescope a telescope that uses a mirror as the objective element to gather the light (not just visible light) The mirror reflects the light and brings it to a focus reflection nebulae a portion of the interstellar medium in which we see the light scattered by the dust, especially at blue wavelengths refracting telescope a telescope that uses a lens as the objective element to gather the light (almost always visible light) The lens refracts the light and brings it to a focus refraction bending of the path of a wave as it passes from one medium to the next at an angle with respect to the surface (interface) of these media 462 scintillator any substances that produces light flashes when struck by ionising radiation sector scan fan-shaped ultrasound beam that emanates from a convex array transducer The wavefronts of ultrasound are launched at different angles at separate times, to avoid simultaneously detecting confusing echoes from different directions seeing rapidly changing effects of tiny, rapidly changing temperature variations in the Earth’s atmosphere that are apparent as motion and blurring of the image produced by a telescope semiconductors materials used for the manufacture of modern day electronic components semimajor axis the distance between the apoapsis of an orbit and the centre of the orbit semi-regular variable star a pulsating variable red giant or supergiant star with an irregular period of between 80 and 1000 or more days semi-synchronous an orbit with the semimajor axis chosen so the orbital period equals half the rotational period of Earth sensitivity (light-gathering power) describes the ability of a telescope system to ‘see’ faint objects; depends on how much light the telescope collects and how much of that light is delivered to the detector Glossary shaded pole induction motor an induction motor in which four small copper shading rings are inserted into the stator on each side of the rotor on opposite poles The currents induced in these shading rings act to delay the magnetic flux passing through the rotor, producing an asymmetric magnetic field shadow mask a metal sheet with an array of holes that is placed behind the phosphor screen of a CRT television screen Each hole guides the three beams to their respective coloured phosphor as the beams move horizontally and vertically shock wave the wavefront of sharp pressure increase that builds up in front of an object moving through a gas at speeds faster than the speed of sound in the gas simultaneity the state of being simultaneous—two or more phenomena taking place at the same time as seen by an observer single-phase AC refers to the distribution of AC electric power using a system in which only a single voltage oscillation is supplied to the user; used for household power supply slingshot effect see gravity assist solid state physics branch of physics that includes the study of properties of solid materials sonogram an image created using ultrasound source one of the three components of a field-effect transistor spacetime a 4D set of coordinate axes consisting of the usual x, y and z axes of space plus an extra axis representing time The equations of special relativity and Maxwell’s equations are expressed in these four dimensions special relativity Einstein’s theory applied to inertial reference frames in which the speed of light is assumed to be invariant and the principle of relativity is assumed to apply to all physical laws It expands on Galileo and Newton’s laws of mechanics spectral classes groups of stars with similar spectral lines, indicating similar surface temperatures spectrograph an instrument that disperses light into its component wavelengths to be recorded by a detector spectrometer an instrument that measures the intensity of electromagnetic radiation for a range of wavelengths spectroscope an instrument that disperses visible light into its component colours to be viewed by eye spectroscope binary stellar systems that reveal their binary nature by the motion of spectral lines in the spectrum spectroscopic parallax a poor name for a stellar distance estimated by identifying the type of star from the characteristics of its light spectroscopy the study of the light from objects to reveal their composition and physical characteristics spectrum the pattern that results when light from a source is spread into its component wavelengths (colours if visible light) spin the property of subatomic particles that gives them a magnetic moment It is (very roughly) the microscopic equivalent of the spin of a spinning top squirrel cage rotor the rotor of an AC induction motor containing parallel conducting bars around its circumference Standard Model the current, scientifically accepted model to describe the nature of matter standing wave a wave that remains in a constant position It consists of two equivalent waves overlapping and travelling in opposite directions so that the maximum amplitude and null points on the wave not move in space stationary state a definite energy; in atomic theory relates to a stable orbital stator the stationary part of a motor or generator surrounding the circumference of the rotor step-down transformer a transformer that produces an output voltage that is less than the input voltage step-up transformer a transformer that produces an output voltage that is greater than the input voltage stopping potential the potential difference required to stop electrons from leaving the surface of a photocathode strong force the nuclear force holding the nucleus together substation a subsidiary station of an electrical distribution network where voltage is either stepped up or down using transformers superconductivity total disappearance of electrical resistance in a material when it is cooled to below a certain temperature supernova a cataclysmic explosion of a star, producing a massive outburst of light that fades over many weeks They are sometimes classified as non-periodic intrinsic variable stars There are two major types: type I—accretion of gas onto a white dwarf from its companion leads to a runaway nuclear explosion; type II—collapse of the core of a massive star supernova remnant the cloud of gas that was expelled by a star and made to glow by a supernova explosion supersonic speeds greater than the speed of sound in a gas supply emf the emf applied to a circuit symbiotic star a close binary composed of red giant and white dwarf stars, with irregular outbursts from the red giant falling onto the white dwarf; classified as a non-periodic intrinsic variable star synchrotron a type of particle accelerator systematic error consistent error that is in every measurement T Tauri star a very young star with an accretion disc that varies irregularly in brightness as it approaches the main sequence; classified as a non-periodic intrinsic variable star telescope a device that collects electromagnetic radiation (‘light’) and focuses it to create an image on a detector that is brighter and with greater spatial resolution than could be achieved using the detector alone test mass a small mass used (in practice or in theory) to measure the gravitational field Its mass should be so small as to make a negligible contribution to the gravitational field being measured thermionic device a cathode ray tube device used to control the flow of electrons three-phase AC three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at different times, resulting in constant power transfer over each cycle of the current; used by high power or industrial machines thrust the reaction force exerted back onto a rocket by the exhaust gas it expels; this reaction is responsible for driving the rocket time dilation the phenomenon in which the time between ticks on a clock moving relative to the observer is observed to increase time of flight the time elapsed between the launch of a projectile and when it hits a barrier 463 Glossary timebase the time (x) axis on an oscilloscope controlled by the timebase dial tomogram a 3D image in the form of a stack of 2D slices produced by any form of tomography tomography any imaging technique that produces tomograms torque the turning effect (or turning moment) of a force total internal reflection the complete reflection that occurs when light in a higher index material meets a boundary with a lower index material at an angle of incidence larger than the ‘critical angle’ trace the plot of voltage against time displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope uncontrolled nuclear reaction chain reaction occurs when the production of neutrons goes unchecked and the fission reactions increase at an accelerating rate universal gravitational constant G the constant G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 that appears in Newton’s equation for gravitational force; it is assumed to be constant throughout the universe valence band range of energy levels of electrons bound to an atom valence electron bound outer electron of an atom valence level the energy of a valence electron while being bound to its atom variable star a star or star system that appears to vary in brightness transducer any device that converts energy from one form to another vertical and horizontal components two vectors parallel to the vertical and horizontal directions respectively that add up to the vector being analysed transformer a device that alters the voltage and current of AC electricity visual binary a binary star system that can be seen as two stars by a telescope under sufficiently good seeing conditions transistor a semiconductor device used to finely control the flow of electrical current in a circuit voltage the SI unit for potential difference; voltage is also commonly used to replace the term potential difference transition the movement between two orbitals or energy states vortices swirls of electrical current surrounding a normally conducting region that are embedded in a type II superconductor trajectory the path of a projectile in flight transmission tower typically a steel tower used to support wires for the long distance transmission of electricity transmitter apparatus used to generate an electromagnetic wave transmutation the process of changing one element into another transverse relaxation time constant T2 a measure of the time taken for the magnetic component perpendicular (transverse) to the external field to return to zero, after the initial RF pulse triode a thermionic device used to finely control the flow of electric current triple alpha process the chain of reactions that describes the conversion of helium into carbon in the hot core of a red giant star twin paradox a thought experiment that explores the symmetry of time dilation by supposing one identical twin takes a journey in a spacecraft travelling at high speed while the other stays on Earth type I superconductor one in which the internal magnetic field remains zero until a critical applied magnetic field strength is reached, at which a sudden transition to the normal state occurs type II superconductor one that has two critical magnetic field strengths and the superconductivity can be maintained up to the upper critical field, but there is partial penetration of the field into the superconductor at between these fields ultraviolet catastrophe the erroneous prediction by classical theory that the intensity of radiation from a black body will increase towards infinity at the ultraviolet end of the electromagnetic spectrum uncertainty principle the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that there is a limit to how precisely you can measure pairs of quantities such as position–momentum, and energy–time and that both cannot be known to arbitrary precision 464 voxel volume element; the smallest part of a three-dimensional image (or tomogram) wave function a solution to Schrodinger’s wave equation; the square of this function provides you with a probability density that allows you to predict the likelihood of finding a particle wave mechanics commonly used interpretation of quantum mechanics wavefronts a line or surface joining all points of equal phase in a wave, e.g the circular crest of a single ripple in a pond white dwarf the core of a low mass star revealed when the outer layers are gently blown away, and visible as a faint ‘star’ slowly cooling off over tens of billions of years work function energy required to just remove the electrons from the surface of a metal X-ray binary a binary system in which one star is so close to its neutron star or black hole companion that it pours mass onto the companion and emits X-rays from the infalling gas X-rays a form of electromagnetic radiation (photons) with wavelength 10 nm Zeeman effect the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of a magnetic field zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) the line on the Hertzsprung– Russell diagram where collapse stops and a newborn star is powered entirely by nuclear reactions in its core Index Index A-mode ultrasound scans 312 ablating materials 49 absolute magnitude, of stars 399 absorption spectra, lines in 232, 393 AC electric motors 121–4 synchronous 130–1 AC generators compared with DC 135 simple 131–3 AC generators and transformers, affect on society 146–7 AC induction motors activity 126 single-phase 124 three-phase 122–3 AC power generation and delivery 142–4 losses during transmission and distribution 144–6 accelerated particle beams, uses of 288 acceleration due to gravity, activities 20–1 acceptor energy level 193 accuracy in experiments 445 acoustic coupling 312 acoustic impedance (Z) 310–12 active optics in telescope mirrors 377–8 adaptive optics in telescopes 379–80 aether drag 64 aether model for light transmission 61–2 agricultural radioisotopes 284 air resistance (drag) Airy disc 376 Algol (β Persei) eclipsing binary star system 412 alpha decay 264, 341 alpha (α) particles 341 alternating current (AC) 85 electric motors 121–4 amplification of currents using triodes 198 Anderson, Carl, and cosmic rays 286 angle (θ), in motor effect 93 Ångström, Anders, and hydrogen spectrum 233 angular resolution of telescopes 376–7 anode glow 158 ANSTO (Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation) Bragg Institute at 272 Echidna neutron diffractometer 285 National Medical Cyclotron at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital 282 OPAL reactor facility at Lucas Heights 272, 282, 345 radiopharmaceutical production at 353 antennae, radio 175–6 apparent magnitude of stars 398 apparent weight 31–2 artefact standards of mass and length 79 Aston dark space in discharge tubes 158 astrometric binary stars 411 astrometry 388–9 astronauts, forces on during take-off 31–5 astronomical unit (AU) of distance 389 asymptotic giant branch 428 ATLAS particle detector in Sydney 290–1 atom Bohr’s postulates for model of 235–6 Rutherford’s model 228–30 atomic bombs 279 atomic mass, and the neutron 261 atomic mass number (A) 262 atomic mass unit (amu) 266 atomic number (Z) 262 atomic piles 270 atomic spectra for hydrogen 232–5 for larger atoms 239 atoms, historical understanding 229 Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA), for interferometry 381 Avogadro project (CSIRO) 79 B-mode ultrasound scans 313 back emf in DC electric motors 120 ballistic trajectories Balmer, Johann Bohr’s explanation of series 236–8 emission spectrum series for hydrogen 233 band gap (forbidden energy gap) 189 barium emission spectrum 239 barium meal X-ray procedure 325 baryons 292 BCS (Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer) theory 215, 217 Bessel, Friedrich, and stellar parallax motion 388 beta (β) particles 341 beta decay 260, 341–2 positron production 342 beta (minus) and (plus) decay 264 β Centauri A and B orbits 410 bias, forward and reverse 194–5 binary stars 407–10 β Centauri 410 types of 411–12 binding energy of nucleus 268–9 bipolar transistors 198–9 black body absorbers and emitters 178 black body radiation 178–9 black holes 431, 432 blood flow and Doppler effect 315–16 Bohr, Nils explanation of Balmer series for hydrogen 236–8 postulates for atomic model 235–6 and Rutherford’s atomic model 230 bone-density measurement using ultrasound 315 bone scans with gamma camera 346–7 BOS key terms 448–51 Bragg, William Henry, particle properties of X-rays 208, 248 Bragg, William Lawrence (Sir), law of 208, 248 Bragg Institute at ANSTO OPAL reactor facility 272 brain, MRI scans of 360, 362 brain function 303 braking using eddy currents 112–13 Bremsstrahlung 323 brightness of stars see magnitudes brushless DC motors 115 bungee jumping 441 Bunsen, Robert, and spectral lines 390 calcium emission spectrum 239 carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle 425–6 Cassegrain, Laurent, telescope 372 CAT (computed axial tomography) 321 CAT scans benefits over other methods 329 process and image construction 327–8 CAT X-ray images 326–9 cataclysmic variables 412 cathode glow 158 cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) 167–8 cathode ray tubes, history of 156–7 cathode rays nature of 157, 160 see also electrons Cavendish, Henry, measuring density of Earth 25 CDs and DVDs as diffraction gratings 206 as spectrometers 155 Centaurus-A galaxy images 382 centripetal force 36 Cepheid variable stars 415–17 Chadwick, James, discovers neutron 260–1 chain reaction game 227 chain reactions 270–1 characteristic X-rays 323 charge to mass ratio of electron 166 charged particles in electric fields 160–3 forces on in magnetic fields 89, 164–5 circular orbits 41–2, 57 classical theory approach to black body radiation 178–9 closed orbits 41 coherence length between Cooper pairs 215, 217 coherent bundles of optical fibres 335–6 coil, torque on 116–17 Colour Doppler imaging 315 colour index of stars 400–1 compact fluorescent lights 173 Compte, August, knowledge of stellar objects 389–90 465 Index computed axial tomography see CAT conduction bands 189–90 conduction level 189 conic sections as orbits 42 conservation of energy, law of 105 continuous spectra 390, 392 contrast agents in X-ray imaging 325 control rods in nuclear reactors 281 conventional current 85 convex array transducers 308–9 coolant in nuclear reactors 281 Coolidge, William, X-ray tube 320 Coolidge X-ray tubes 321–2 Cooper pairs 215, 217 core losses, in transformers 140 core of nuclear reactor 280 Cormack, Allan McLeod, and tomography 321 cosmic rays 286 critical angle in optical fibres 334 critical field strengths (Bc1 and Bc2) 213 critical mass 271 critical temperature (Tc) for superconductors 211 Crookes, William (Sir), and cathode rays 157 Crookes dark space, in discharge tubes 158 Crookes magnetic deflection tube 90 crystal structure, and X-ray diffraction gratings 208–9 crystal structure of metals, and electrical conductivity 209–10 crystals, plane spacing (d) in 209 Curie, Jacques, and piezoelectric effect 308 Curie, Pierre, and piezoelectric effect 308 current amplification by triode 198 current-carrying loop (coil), torque on 116–17 current (I) in motor effect 93 currents, electric 84–8 cut-off frequency (f0) in photoelectricity 182 cyclotron motion 164 cyclotrons 287 producing radioisotopes in 282, 345 dark nebulae 422 Davisson, Clinton, and electron waves 251 Davy, Humphrey (Sir), mentor of Faraday 100 DC electric motors 114–20 back emf in 120 DC generators compared with AC 135 simple 133–4 de Broglie, Louis (Prince) hypothesis confirmed 251–2 matter wave equation 248–50 De Forest, Lee, invents triode 198 decay series for uranium-238 265 deceleration during space shuttle re-entry 48 degenerate electron pressure 429 depletion regions 194 diffraction of waves 250–1 of X-rays 207 466 diffraction angle (θ) 209 diffraction gratings 206–7, 391 diffusion of charges, in semiconductors 194 diodes (p–n junctions) 193–5 direct current (DC) 85 electric motors 114–20 transmission at high voltage 146 discharge tubes, structure of 158–9 Discovery space shuttle, re-entry problems 49 distance modulus for stars 399, 400 donor energy level 192 doping of semiconductors 191–3 Doppler shift (Δλ) of spectral lines 396 Doppler ultrasound imaging 306 for blood flow 315–16 drag (air resistance) dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA) 315 dynodes 184 Earth, weighing of 25 Echidna (high-resolution neutron powder diffractometer) at OPAL 285 echocardiography 316 eclipsing binary stars 412 eddy currents 106–8 braking in trains and roller-coasters 112–13 in induction cooking 108 losses in transmission lines due to 145 resistive heating due to 140 Edison, Thomas and DC electricity 141 and incandescent lamps 198 Einstein, Alfred and photoelectric effect 182–3 principle of relativity 58–9 proposal of photons 179, 181 special theory of relativity 64–8 electric current 84–8 control of 197–200 electric field lines 161 electric field strength (E) 160–1 between parallel plates 161–3 electric motors activity 126 alternating current 121–4 characteristics of different types 125 compared with generators 135 direct current 114–20 home-made 83 universal 122 electric power (P) generation and delivery 142–4 losses during transmission and distribution 144–6 and resistance 86 in transformers 138 electrical conduction and energy bands 189–90 electrical conductivity of metals, and crystal structure 209–10 electrical resistance see resistance, electrical electricity supply network 143 electromagnetic induction 100–3 without relative motion 103 see also induction cooking; induction motors electromagnetic wave emitter energy 180 electromagnetic wave theory, Maxwell’s 174–5 electromagnetism, exploring 136 electron capture 265 electron orbits, as standing waves 252–3 electron spin 217 electron volt (eV) 190, 343 electrons charge to mass ratio 166 de Broglie’s hypothesis of wave nature 248–52 electrons (cathode rays) 165–6 electrostatic particle accelerators 286 elliptical orbits deductions from perturbations of 40 of Halley’s Comet 39 Kepler’s laws for 37–9 properties 37 emf (ε) 85, 102 in DC electric motors 120 emission nebulae 422 emission spectra for emission nebulae, normal galaxies and quasars 394 lines in 232, 392–3 endoscopy 333, 335 medical uses 336–7 energy, equivalence with mass 72–4 energy band diagrams 189–90 energy gap 189–90, 217 environment, effect of widespread electricity generation 147 equal areas, Kepler’s second law of 38–9 escape velocity (ve) 18–19 Esnault-Pelterie, Robert (REP), space trip calculations 27 evolution of stars 425–7 excitation of hydrogen proton by RF pulses 357 exclusion principle, Pauli’s 255 experimental errors 445–6 extremely large telescopes (ELTs) 382 extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors 193 extrinsic variable stars 414 Faraday, Michael dark space in discharge tubes 158 law of 100–3 Fermi, Enrico and controlled nuclear reactions 270 and transuranic elements 269 Fermilab Tevatron 288 fictitious forces 59, 60 field-effect transistors (FETs) 200 fission, nuclear 269 fission reactors 280–1 Fitzgerald, George, and aether 63 Fleming, John Ambrose, builds first diode 198 Index flight time of projectile fluorescence, in discharge tubes 156–7 fluorescent lights 173 flux leakage, in transformers 139 flux pinning, in magnetic levitation 214 focal length of lens 371–2 food irradiation 284 forbidden energy gap (band gap) 189 force carriers 292 formulae, linearising 447 forward bias in p–n junctions 194–5 forward-biased LEDs 195 4D ultrasound 314 frames of reference, inertial and non-inertial 58–9 Fraunhofer, Joseph von, lines in spectrum of Sun 390 Friedman, Jerome, and quarks 292 Fritsch, Otto, and radioactive isotopes 269 fuel rods in nuclear reactors 280 functional MRI images 362 fundamental physical property standards of mass and length 79 fusion bombs 280 g-force 31–4 galactic recycling system 423 galaxies (normal), emission spectra for 394 Galilean transformation Galileo Galilei 4–5 and telescope 368, 370–2 Galileo space probe, use of gravity assist 45 galvanometers 119 gamma camera 346–7 gamma photons 184 gamma radiation 265 gamma ray emitters 342–3 γ Crucis, distance of 402 gastroscopy see endoscopy Geiger, Johannes, and model of atom 229–30 Geissler, Heinrich, and vacuum pump for discharge tubes 156–7 Geissler tubes 156 Gell-Mann, Murray, and quarks 292 generators, electricity 130–5 compared with motors 135 comparing AC and DC 135 geographic poles 88 geostationary satellites 43 geosynchronous satellites 43 Germer, Lester, and electron waves 251 giant molecular clouds 423 Glashow, Sheldon, and electro-weak theory 292 global positioning system (GPS) receivers 67 satellites 43–4 globular star clusters 433–4 Goddard, Robert, US rocket physicist 27 gradient coils in MRI scanners 361 gravitational fields variations in 14–15 weight in 13–14 gravitational potential energy (GPE) 16–19 gravity 10–15 activity 20 effect on orbits 35–40 gravity assist (slingshot effect) 44–5 hadrons, properties 294 Hahn, Otto aand radioactive isotopes 269 and beta decay 265 half-life of radioisotopes 282, 343 Halley, Edmund, comet of 39 Harriot, Thomas, and telescope 368 heart imaging by echocardiography 316 heat shields 49 heating during space shuttle re-entry 48–50 Heaviside, Oliver, and Maxwell’s equations 61 Heisenberg, Werner, uncertainty principle of 254–5 helium flash 428 Herschel, William, and reflector telescope 373 Hertz, Heinrich and cathode rays 157 discovers photoelectric effect 182 measures speed of radio waves 61, 175–7 verifies electromagnetic wave theory 174–5 Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram 395–6 activity on star clusters 435 and distance of γ Crucis 402 life of star on main sequence 427 showing evolutionary tracks for protostars 424 showing variable stars 414 for star clusters 434 Higgs particle 291 high-mass stars, evolution of 430–1 high-temperature superconductors 216 high-voltage DC (HVDC) transmission 146 Hipparchus, and star magnitudes 397 Hohmann transfer orbits 57 holes in valence bands 191 hollow structures, X-ray images of 325 homopolar electric motor 83 Hooke, Robert, law of 15 Hounsfield, Godfrey, and tomography 321, 327 hydrogen atom Balmer series for 233 emission spectrum 239 spectra and energy levels of 232–5 hydrogen bomb 280 hydrogen proton as energy carrier 285 precession of 356 spin in magnetic field 355–6 subjected to RF pulses 357–9 hyperbolic orbits 41–2 hypersonic flight 48–9 impedance matching 312 induction cooking 108 see also electromagnetic induction induction motors single-phase AC 124 see also electromagnetic induction industrial radioisotopes 283 inertial frames of reference 58–9 inertial and non-inertial frames of reference activity 75 infra-red light 197 insulators energy band diagrams for 189–90 in high-voltage AC power transmission 145–6 integrated circuits (ICs) 200 interference, constructive and destructive 205 interferometry in Michelson–Morley experiment 62–4 in radio telescopes 380–1 International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), superconductors in 218 interstellar medium (ISM) 422–3 intrinsic variable stars 414 inverse square law 11 isotopes of atoms 262–3, 341 radioactive decay of 340–3 James Webb space telescope (JWST) 382 Jansky, Carl, and background radiation 373 Joliot-Curie, Irene, and radioactive isotopes 269 junction transistors 198–9 Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike, liquefies helium 211 Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), and temperature scale 210 Kendall, Henry, and quarks 292 Kepler, Johannes laws of planetary motion 35–9 telescope 371–2 third law 409 Kirchhoff, Gustav, and spectral lines 390 Korolyov, Sergey (aka Sergei Korolev), USSR space program leader 28 Kronig, Ralph, and electron spin 240 Lagrange points 29 landing of spacecraft 50–1 Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN 288, 290–1 Larmor frequency 356 laser diodes 195 Laue, Max von, X-ray diffraction patterns 207–9 launch angle of projectile law of universal gravitation 11 in finding new planets 40 in predicting small deviations in planetary orbits 39 Lawrence, Ernest, and linear accelerator 287 length contraction 69–70 length (l ) in motor effect 93 Lenz, Heinrich application to DC motors 121 law of 104–5 467 Index leptons 292–4 levitated magnets 213–14 Lewis, Gilbert, names photons 231 light aether theory of transmission 61–2 infra-red 197 intensity and wavelength 178 speed of 65 as wave and particles 179 wave properties of 206–7 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 195 light-year (ly) distance unit 389 lighting, fluorescent and neon 173 lightning protection 147 linear array transducers 309 linear electric motors 129 linear generator principle 133 linear particle accelerators 286–7 linearising formulae 447 Livingston, Stanley, and linear accelerator 287 longitudinal relaxation time constant (T1) 358 Lorentz, Hendrik and aether 63 factor (γ) 67 loudspeaker-making activity 126 loudspeakers 91, 93 low Earth orbits (LEOs) 43 luminiferous aether 61 luminosity classes 395–6 Lyman, Theodore, spectral series for hydrogen atom 233–4 M-mode ultrasound scans 313 Mach, Ernst (1838–1916), and ratio of speed of sound 48 magnetic field strength (B) as magnetic flux density 101 in motor effect 92 magnetic fields and electric currents 87 forces on charged particles in 89 magnetic flux (B) 101–3 magnetic hysteresis losses in induction cookware 108 in transformers 140 magnetic levitation (maglev) 213–14 trains 129, 218–19 magnetic moment 355 magnetic poles 88 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 217–18 applications 362 behaviour of hydrogen proton in 357 see also MRI scanners magnetism, and spin of atomic particles 354–5 magnification of telescopes 371, 374–5 magnitudes of stars 397–400 main sequence stars, properties relative to Sun 425 mammograms 325 Manhattan Project 279–80 Mariner 10, use of gravity assist by 45 Marsden, Ernest, and model of atom 229–30 468 mass equivalence to energy 72–4 relativistic 71 mass defect 267 mass–energy 73 mass–luminosity relationship 413 massive stars, fate of 430–1 matter, crystal structure of 204–5 matter waves, de Broglie’s equation 248–50 Maxwell, James Clerk electromagnetic wave theory 174–5 equations of 61–2 medical radioisotopes 283 medium Earth orbits (MEOs) 43 Meissner effect 212 Meitner, Lise and beta decay 265 and radioactive isotopes 269 mesons 292 metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) 200 metals, crystal structure and electrical conductivity 209–10 methamphetamines, brain tissue loss in users 302 metric prefixes 442–3 Michell, John, weighing the Earth 25 Michelson, Albert, and speed of light 62 Michelson–Morley experiment 62–4 results interpretation activity 75–6 microscopes, optical to electron 259 Minkowski, Hermann, and spacetime 72 moderators in nuclear reactor 281 molybdenum-99 production by ANSTO 353 momentum conservation, in slingshot effect 44 Moore’s law 223 Morley, Edward, and speed of light 62 Moseley, Henry 247 and model of atom 230 motion, components of motor effect (F) 90–3 activity 97 MRI scanners operation of 360–1 see also magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) muons 286 n-type semiconductors 192 National Medical Cyclotron at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, radioisotope production at 282, 345, 353 nebulae, types 422 negative glow 158 neon lights 138, 173 neutrinos, Pauli’s proposal 265–6 neutron, discovery of 260–1 neutron diffractometers, ANSTO’s Echidna 285 neutron scattering, applications of 272, 278 neutron stars 431, 432 neutrons, number (N) in atomic nucleus 262–3 Newcomb, Simon, on future of astronomy 434 Newton, Isaac composition of light 390 law of universal gravitation 10–11 telescope of 372 non-coherent bundles of optical fibres 335–6 non-elliptical orbits 41–2 non-inertial frames of reference 59 non-periodic variable stars 414 nuclear chain reactions, controlled and uncontrolled 270–1 nuclear fission 269 nuclear fission reactors, components 280–1 nuclear fusion energy generation 218 nuclear reactors, producing radioisotopes in 345 nucleons, gravitational attraction of 261–2 numerical calculation skills 443–4 Oberth, Herman, space flight and travel 27 Ohm’s law, and electrical resistance 86 O’Neill, Gerard, US physicist 28–9 OPAL nuclear research reactor Bragg Institute at 272 Echidna at 285 radioisotope production at 282, 345 open orbits 41–2 open star clusters 433–4 optical fibres 334 in endoscopy 333, 335–7 orbital decay 46–7 orbital velocity 36 of Earth 35 orbits elliptical 37–9 manoeuvres between 57 of planets 35–40 of satellites 43–4 types 41–2 osteoporosis detection using ultrasound 315 p–n junctions (diodes) 193–5 as solar cells 196 p-type semiconductors 192 parabolic orbits 41–2 parabolic trajectories 3–7 parallax angle (p) 388–9 parallax measurement of star distance 388–9 parallel wires, forces between 93–6 parsec (pc) distance unit 389 particle accelerators and radioisotopes 282 types 286–9 particle detectors 289 path length of waves 205 Pauli, Wolfgang exclusion principle 255 and neutrino 266 pendulum, oscillation period T 13 period–luminosity relationship, for Cepheid stars 416 periodic variable stars 415 periods, Kepler’s third law of 38 Index Perrin, Jean, and cathode rays 160 PET see positron emission tomography phonons 210 photocathode and photoelectrons 182 photocell 184 photoelectric effect applications 184–5 discovery 182–3 photometry, astronomical 397 photomultiplier tube 184 photon energy (E) 393 photons, Einstein’s proposal 179, 181 photovoltaic cells (PVs) 196 piezoelectric effect and transducers 308–9 Planck, Max and black body radiation curve 179 constant (h) 181, 231–2 and electromagnetic wave emitter energy 180 planetary nebula 429 planets, finding new 40 Plücker, Julius, and vacuum discharge tubes 156–7 ‘plum pudding’ model of atom 229 plutonium-239 atomic bomb 279 Pogson, Norman, and star magnitude scale 397 Poincaré, Jules Henri, and speed of light 65 polarised electromagnetic waves 177 poles, geographic and magnetic 88 positive column 158 positron decay 342 positron emission tomography (PET) 184–5, 283, 347–9 potential difference 86 power, electric see electric power (P) power generation, transmission and storage using superconductors 219 power-line transmission structures 145–6 precession in rotation of magnetic moment 356 precision in experiments 445 prefixes, metric 442–3 presenting research 446–7 pressurised water reactor 281 principle of relativity, Einstein’s 58–9 projectile motion 4–10 activity 20 proper length 69 proper mass (rest mass) 71 proper time 67 proton–proton chain 425–6 protons, electrostatic repulsion of 261–2 protostars, evolution of 424 pulsars 432 quanta of energy 179 quantum computers 223 quantum mechanics, Solvay Conference (1927) 247–8 quantum number (n) 231 of wavelengths in Bohr orbit 253 quantum physics 226 quarks 292–4 quasars, emission spectra for 394 racing magnets 107 radiation shielding, in nuclear reactors 281 radio antennae 175–7 radio frequency (RF) waves 356 radio telescopes 372–3 radio transmitters and receivers 174–5 radio waves, speed of 175–7 radioactive decay of isotopes 340–3 radioactive tracers 282 radiographs, conventional 324 radioisotopes decay of 340–3 half-life of 343 production of 345 range of uses 282–4 radiopharmaceuticals 283 choice of 344–5 radiotherapy 283 random error 445 Reber, Grote, and radio telescope 373 rectifiers 195 re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere 46–50 safe corridors 47–8 reflecting telescopes 372–3 reflection nebulae 422 refracting telescopes 371–2 regenerative braking 134 relativistic mass and speed 71 relativity, Einstein’s principle of 58–9 relaxation of hydrogen protons after cessation of RF pulse 358–9 relaxation time constants (T1 and T2) of body tissues 359–60 research, presenting 446–7 resistance, electrical from crystal structure 210 losses in transmission lines due to 144–5 and Ohm’s law 86 and power 86 resistive heating (Q) in induction cooktops 108 in transformers 140 resonance 358 rest mass (proper mass) 71 reverse bias in p–n junctions 195 RF transceiver coils in MRI scanners 361 right-hand grip rule 878 right-hand palm (or push) rule 89, 90–1, 123 rocket engines and stages 30–1 rocketry history of 26–7, 29 researchers in 20th century 27–9 rockets forces during take-off 334 thrust on 30 roller-coasters, eddy current braking in 112–13 Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad, discovers X-rays 207 RR Lyrae variable stars 415–16 on HR diagram 414 Rutherford, Ernest, atomic model of 228–30 Rutherford–Bohr model of atom 236 limitations of 239–40 Rydberg, Johannes, constant (R) of 233 Salam, Abdus, and electro-weak theory 292 satellites, orbits of 43–4 Savitch, Pavle, and radioactive isotopes 269 sawtooth waveform on CRO 167–8 scans MRI 217–18, 360–1, 362 ultrasound 312–14 Schrodinger, Erwin and de Broglie’s hypothesis 250 wave function of 253–4 seeing in telescopes 378–9 Segré chart for uranium-238 decay series 264 semi-synchronous satellites 43 semiconductor devices 193–6 semiconductors, explanation 190–3 sensitivity of telescopes 375–6 shaded-pole AC induction motors 124 shock waves from projectiles 49 silicon doping 192 simple DC motors, operation of 117–19 simultaneity, relativity of 65–6 single-emission computed tomography (SPECT) 347 single-phase alternating current 121 induction motors 124 sinusoidal waveform (trace) on CRO screen 168 slingshot effect (gravity assist) 44–5 solar cells 196 solid-state devices, compared with thermionic devices 199 solid state physics 190 Solvay conference (1927) participants 248 sonograms 306 Space Shuttle launch, g-force during 34 Space Shuttle re-entry and landing 48–51 spacecraft, launching 26–35 spacetime interval 72 special relativity, Einstein’s theory 64–8 spectra, continuous 390, 392 spectral classes 395 spectral lines fine and hyperfine 240 relative intensity of 239 and size of stars 396–7 spectrographs 391 spectrometers and black body radiation 180 spectroscope binary stars 411–12 spectroscopes, CDs and DVDs as 155 spectroscopes (spectrometers) 232 and spectrographs 391 spectroscopic parallax, for star distance 401–2 spectroscopy, astronomical 390 spin of atomic particles, and magnetism 354–5 spin of electrons 217 springs, behaviour of 15 Square Kilometre Array (SKA) telescope 382 469 Index squirrel-cage rotors 123 stable orbits 41 Standard Model of matter 292–4 standards for mass and length 79 standing waves 175–6 as electron orbits 252–3 Stanford linear accelerator 287 star catalogues 369 star clusters activity 435 age of 433–4 stars ageing of 425–7 binary 407–10 birth of 423–4 colour index 400–1 composition of 389–94 distance modulus 399–400 evolution 425–7 evolution of low to medium mass 429 evolution of massive 430–1 magnitude measurement 397–9 naming 415 size from spectral lines 396 spectroscopic parallax 401–2 variable 413–17 step-down and step-up transformers 137 Stoney, George Johnston, names electron 166 Strassman, Fritz, and radioactive isotopes 269 strong nuclear force 262 strontium emission spectrum 239 substations 142–3 Sun future of 428–9 life on main sequence of HR diagram 427 superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) 218 superconductors applications 217–19 critical temperature (Tc) 211 discovery of 211 high-temperature 216 Meissner effect in 212 type-I and type-II 212–13 supergiant stars 421 supernova 431 supersonic flight 48–9 supply emf in DC electric motors 120 surface-conduction electron-emitter (SCE) display TV sets (SED-TVs) 173 synchronous AC motors 130–1 synchrotrons 288 systematic error 445 Szilard, Leo, and chain reactions 270 tangential velocity at rocket launch 34–5 Taylor, Richard, and quarks 292 technetium-99m, generation and use 346 telescopes angular resolution 376–7 early optical 370–3 of the future 382 interferometry in 380–1 470 magnification 374 methods of sharpening images 377–80 radio 372–3 sensitivity 375–6 television CRT tubes used in 168–9 LCD, plasma and SED-TVs 173 Tesla, Nicola, and AC motors and generators 141 thermionic devices, compared with solidstate devices 199 thermionic diodes and triodes (valves) 198 thermonuclear bombs 280 Thomson, George P, and electron beam diffraction 252 Thomson, Joseph John 160 discovery of electron 165–6 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), and temperature scale 210 three-phase AC induction motors 122–3 three-phase alternating current 121–2 3D real-time ultrasound images 314 thrust on rocket (FT) 30 time dilation 66–7 time of flight of projectiles torch without batteries 133 torque (τ) on a rotating coil 115–17 total internal reflection, in optical fibres 334 trains, eddy current braking in 112–13 trajectories components 5–7 transducers piezoelectric 308–9 for ultrasound 305 transformers efficiency and design 137–40 in electricity distribution 144–5 in the home 144 principles 136–7 transistors 198–9 transmission towers for high-voltage AC power 145–6 transmutation, artificial and natural 263–5 transverse magnetisation (Bxy) 359 transverse relaxation time constant (T2) 359 triodes as current amplifiers 198 triple alpha process 428 Tsiolovsky, Konstantin, rocket equation 27 twin paradox 68 2D real-time ultrasound scans 313–14 2D slice image construction from CAT scanning 327–8 type-I and type-II superconductors 212–13 ultrasound 304–5 reflection at tissue boundaries 310–12 ultrasound imaging and acoustic impedance 310–11 limitations 307–8 in obstetrics 307 principles 305–7 types of scans 312–16 using piezoelectric transducers 308–9 ultrasound scans, types 312–14 ultraviolet catastrophe 179, 180 uncertainty principle, of Heisenberg 254–5 uniform circular motion, activity 52 universal electric motors 122 universal gravitation Newton’s law of 10–11 see also law of universal gravitation universal gravitational constant G 11 uranium-235 atomic bomb 279 V838 Monocerotis, supergiant star 421 valence bands 189–90 holes in 191 valence electrons 189 valence level 189 Vallebona, Alessandro, and tomography 321 valves (thermionic devices) 198 Van de Graaff accelerator 288 variable stars 413–15 observed changes in 421 vascular structures, X-ray images of 325 verbs, use of 448–51 visual binary stars 411 voltage (V) 86 von Braun, Werner, Moon mission leader 28 vortex states, in magnetic levitation 214 Voyager and space missions 46 wave function, Schrodinger’s 254 wave interference 205–7 wave mechanics of Schrodinger 250 wave nature of electrons, de Broglie’s hypothesis 248–52 wave properties of light 206–7 wavelength of X-rays (λe) 209 waves, path length 205 weak nuclear force 266 weight in gravitational fields 13–14 weightlessness effect 31 Weinberg, Steven, and electro-weak theory 292 Westinghouse, George, and AC electricity 141 white dwarfs 429 Wollaston, William, and lines in Sun spectrum 390 work and gravitational potential energy 16–17 WR 104 star system 386–7 X-ray binary stars 412 X-ray detector technology 326 X-ray diffraction by crystals 207 X-ray images production 324–5 types 320–1 X-ray tubes 321–2 X-rays, types and properties 322–3 Zeeman, Pieter, effect of 240 zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) 424 Zweig, George, and quarks 292 Acknowledgements We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs, texts and illustrations The following abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom, c = centre, l = left, r = right Barnaby Norris: pp 368, 375, 391 Physics Stage Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales, 2007: pp x–xxiii, Formulae and Data sheet: p 473, Periodic Table of the Elements: p 474 The Board of Studies does not endorse model answers prepared by or for the Publisher and accompanying the material The Office of the Board of Studies takes no responsibility for errors in the reproduction of the material supplied by the Office of the Board of Studies to the Publisher BioMed Central: p 313 Images.com: p Brian James: p 96 Institut International de Physique Solvay: p 248 CartoonStock: p 299 Intel: p 223 CERN: pp 226, 288, 289, 293 iStockphoto: pp 138, 139, 142, 178, 217, 307, 326, 338, 348br, 350tl, 380b, 441 AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives: p 216 Alamy Pty Ltd: p 259r Andrew Dunn: p 372b ANSTO – Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organisation: p 345/Vanessa Peterson: pp 278, 285 Australia Telescope National Facility: pp 378l, 431l Corbis: pp 61, 303 CSIRO Publishing: p 188 Damian Peach: p 376 Dave McKinnon: p 411 David Malin Images: pp 369, 400, 401 Dreamstime: pp 14, 314b, 324l, 352tl, 356, 360 ITER: pp 218 Jason Lee: p 290 Jim Mosher: p 372t John Rowe Animation: p 412 Lorojon Pty Ltd: p 197b Peter Tuthill and WM Keck Observatory: p 386 NASA: pp 17, 26, 28t, 28b, 33, 36, 49a,b,d, 50, 60, 72, 382, 421, 423, 429, 431r D Smyth: p 381l NRAO/AUI/NSF: p 373 Fourmilab: p 11 Fundamental Photographs, NYC: p 251l PA/Jeff Stanger: pp 83, 90, 115, 118, 124, 132, 133, 144r /John O’Byrne: p 381r Gemini Observatory: p 378r Palomar Observatory, Caltech: p 380t Greg Konkel: p 383 Photolibrary Pty Ltd: pp 3, 12, 13, 15, 27, 28c, 91, 114, 119, 122, 127, 141, 146, 154b, 155, 167, 176, 180, 185, 197t, 204, 207, 210, 213, 227, 228, 235, 246, 249, 251c, 251r, 252, 254, 255, 260, 271, 306, 308, 309, 314t, 314c, 315, 319, 324r, 325tr, 328, 332r, 333, 337, 348tl, 349, 352tr, 362, 367, 390b, 392, 422, 433, 440 Harald Hess: p 214 471 Acknowledgements Sebastian Terfloth: p 112 The Picture Source: p Radiation Oncology Department of the Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick NSW: p 366 Rod Nave: p 241 Reproduced with permission from the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Italy/Biblioteca Nazionale Central, Firenze: p Sebastian Egner: p 379 Shutterstock: pp 59, 82, 86, 121, 129, 144l, 145, 154t, 259l, 325tl, 332l, 365l, 377 Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum: p 49 (Soyuz) U.C.L.A./Dr Paul Thompson: p 302 University of Arizona/Tim Hunter: p 324c UBC & Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute/ Department of Radiology: pp 347, 352br Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright However, should any infringement have occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite copyright owners to contact them 472 Formulae and data sheets FORMULAE SHEET v =fλ F = qvB sinθ m1m2 r Ep = − G F = mg I FORMULAE SHEET continued E = d2 v1 sin i = v2 sin r vx = ux E = F q v = u + at R= V I vy = uy + 2ay Δ y T2 aav = v−u Δv therefore aav = t Δt F = Σ F = ma F = Ek = mv r mv 2 a t2 y 4π Gm1m2 d2 E = mc v2 lv = l0 1− c2 t0 tv = v2 1− v2 c2 p = mv Impulse = Ft F l = k I1I d F = BIl sinθ d = p M = m − 5log IA IB τ = Fd τ = nBIA cosθ Vp Vs = np ns d 10 ( mB − mA ) = 100 m1 + m2 = = Rf Ri [ Z2 − Z1] [ Z2 + Z1] Charge on electron, qe –1.602 × 10–19 C Mass of electron, me 9.109 × 10–31 kg Mass of neutron, mn 1.675 × 10–27 kg Mass of proton, mp 1.673 × 10–27 kg Speed of sound in air 340 m s–1 Earth’s gravitational acceleration, g 9.8 m s–2 Speed of light, c 3.00 × 108 m s–1 Magnetic force constant, k = c2 m0 mv = = − DATA SHEET GM 1− W = Fs Ir I0 Δy = uy t + = Vin Z = ρv Energy = VIt r3 Vout Vin c = fλ Δ x = ux t Δr Δt V d Vout E = hf P = VI vav = A0 = 4π 2r μ0 2π 2.0 × 10–7 N A–2 Universal gravitational constant, G 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 Mass of Earth 6.0 × 1024 kg Planck constant, h 6.626 × 10–34 J s Rydberg constant, R (hydrogen) 1.097 × 107 m–1 Atomic mass unit, u 1.661 × 10–27 kg 931.5 MeV/c2 eV 1.602 × 10–19 J Density of water, ρ 1.00 × 103 kg m–3 Specific heat capacity of water 4.18 × 103 J kg–1 K–1 GT 1 = R 2− λ n f ni λ = h mv 473 474 20 Ca 40.08 38 Sr 87.62 56 Ba 137.3 88 Ra [226] 19 K 39.10 37 Rb 85.47 55 Cs 132.9 87 Fr [223] Francium Caesium Rubidium Potassium Sodium Radium Barium Strontium Calcium Magnesium 12 Mg 24.31 Beryllium 11 Na 22.99 Lithium Be 9.012 Li 6.941 Hydrogen H 1.008 Thorium Protactinium Uranium 92 U 238.0 Neptunium 93 Np [237] Promethium 61 Pm [145] Plutonium 94 Pu [244] Samarium 62 Sm 150.4 Hassium 108 Hs [277] 107 Bh [264] Bohrium 76 Os 190.2 Osmium Ruthenium 44 Ru 101.1 Iron 26 Fe 55.85 75 Re 186.2 Rhenium Technetium 43 Tc [97.91] Manganese 25 Mn 54.94 Americium 95 Am [243] Europium 63 Eu 152.0 Curium 96 Cm [247] Gadolinium 64 Gd 157.3 110 Ds [271] Platinum 78 Pt 195.1 Palladium 46 Pd 106.4 Nickel 28 Ni 58.69 Copper Gold Berkelium 97 Bk [247] Terbium 65 Tb 158.9 111 Rg [272] 79 Au 197.0 Silver 47 Ag 107.9 29 Cu 63.55 Name of element Symbol of element Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium 109 Mt [268] Iridium 77 Ir 192.2 Rhodium 45 Rh 102.9 Cobalt 27 Co 58.93 Gold 79 Au 197.0 KEY Californium 98 Cf [251] Dysprosium 66 Dy 162.5 Mercury 80 Hg 200.6 Cadmium 48 Cd 112.4 Zinc 30 Zn 65.41 Einsteinium 99 Es [252] Holmium 67 Ho 164.9 Thallium 81 Tl 204.4 Indium 49 In 114.8 Gallium 31 Ga 69.72 Aluminium 13 Al 26.98 Boron B 10.81 Fermium 100 Fm [257] Erbium 68 Er 167.3 Lead 82 Pb 207.2 Tin 50 Sn 118.7 Germanium 32 Ge 72.64 Silicon 14 Si 28.09 Carbon C 12.01 Mendelevium 101 Md [258] Thulium 69 Tm 168.9 Bismuth 83 Bi 209.0 Antimony 51 Sb 121.8 Arsenic 33 As 74.92 Phosphorus 15 P 30.97 Nitrogen N 14.01 Nobelium 102 No [259] Ytterbium 70 Yb 173.0 Polonium Lawrencium 103 Lr [262] Lutetium 71 Lu 175.0 Astatine Iodine 53 I 126.9 Bromine 35 Br 79.90 Chlorine 17 Cl 35.45 Fluorine F 19.00 Radon Xenon 54 Xe 131.3 Krypton 36 Kr 83.80 Argon 18 Ar 39.95 Neon 10 Ne 20.18 Helium He 4.003 84 85 86 At Rn Po [209.0] [210.0] [222.0] Tellurium 52 Te 127.6 Selenium 34 Se 78.96 Sulfur 16 S 32.07 Oxygen O 16.00 For elements that have no stable or long-lived nuclides, the mass number of the nuclide with the longest confirmed half-life is listed between square brackets The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Periodic Table of the Elements (October 2005 version) is the principal source of data Some data may have been modified Actinium 91 Pa 231.0 90 Th 232.0 Actinoids 89 Ac [227] 60 Nd 144.2 Seaborgium 106 Sg [266] Tungsten 74 W 183.8 Molybdenum 42 Mo 95.94 Chromium 24 Cr 52.00 Praseodymium Neodymium Cerium Lanthanum Dubnium 59 Pr 140.9 Rutherfordium Actinoids 105 Db [262] Tantalum 73 Ta 180.9 Niobium 41 Nb 92.91 Vanadium 23 V 50.94 Lanthanoids 57 58 La Ce 138.9 140.1 104 Rf [261] Hafnium 72 Hf 178.5 Zirconium 40 Zr 91.22 Titanium 22 Ti 47.87 89–103 Lanthanoids 57–71 Yttrium 39 Y 88.91 Scandium 21 Sc 44.96 Atomic Weight Atomic Number PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS