Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology
Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology Ara Kirakosyan · Peter B Kaufman Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology 123 Ara Kirakosyan University of Michigan 1150 W Medical Center Dr Ann Arbor MI 48109-0646 USA akirakos@umich.edu Peter B Kaufman University of Michigan 1150 W Medical Center Dr Ann Arbor MI 48109-0646 USA pbk@umich.edu ISBN 978-1-4419-0193-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-0194-1 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0194-1 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2009928135 c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009 All rights reserved This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) We dedicate this book to the memory of Ara Kirakosyan’ parents, Anna and Benik Kirakosyan, and to the memory of Peter B Kaufman’s wife, Hazel Kaufman Preface Plant biotechnology applies to three major areas of plants and their uses: (1) control of plant growth and development; (2) protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses; and (3) expansion of ways by which specialty foods, biochemicals, and pharmaceuticals are produced The topic of recent advances in plant biotechnology is ripe for consideration because of the rapid developments in this field that have revolutionized our concepts of sustainable food production, cost-effective alternative energy strategies, environmental bioremediation, and production of plantderived medicines through plant cell biotechnology Many of the more traditional approaches to plant biotechnology are woefully out of date and even obsolete Fresh approaches are therefore required To this end, we have brought together a group of contributors who address the most recent advances in plant biotechnology and what they mean for human progress, and hopefully, a more sustainable future Achievements today in plant biotechnology have already surpassed all previous expectations These are based on promising accomplishments in the last several decades and the fact that plant biotechnology has emerged as an exciting area of research by creating unprecedented opportunities for the manipulation of biological systems In connection with its recent advances, plant biotechnology now allows for the transfer of a greater variety of genetic information in a more precise, controlled manner The potential for improving plant productivity and its proper use in agriculture relies largely on newly developed DNA biotechnology and molecular markers A number of methods have been developed and validated in association with the use of genetically transferred cultures in order to understand the genetics of specific plant traits Such relevant methods can be used to determine the markers that are retained in genetically manipulated organisms and to determine the elimination of marker genes As a result, a number of transgenic plants have been developed with beneficial characteristics and significant long-term potential to contribute both to biotechnology and to fundamental studies These techniques enable the selection of successful genotypes, better isolation and cloning of favorable traits, and the creation of transgenic organisms of importance to agriculture and industry We start the book by tracing the roots of plant biotechnology from the basic sciences to current applications in the biological and agricultural sciences, industry, and medicine These widespread applications signal the fact that plant biotechnology is increasingly gaining in importance This is because it impinges on so vii viii Preface many facets of our lives, particularly in connection with global warming, alternative energy initiatives, food production, and medicine Our book would not be complete unless we also addressed the fact that some aspects of plant biotechnology may have some risks These are covered in the last section The individual chapters of the book are organized according to the following format: chapter title and contributors, abstract, introduction to the chapter, chapter topics and text, and references cited for further reading This format is designed in order to help the reader to grasp and understand the inherent complexity of plant biotechnology better The topics covered in this book will be of interest to plant biologists, biochemists, molecular biologists, pharmacologists, and pharmacists; agronomists, plant breeders, and geneticists; ethnobotanists, ecologists, and conservationists; medical practitioners and nutritionists; and research investigators in industry, federal labs, and universities Ann Arbor, MI Ann Arbor, MI Peter B Kaufman Ara Kirakosyan Contents Part I Plant Biotechnology from Inception to the Present Overview of Plant Biotechnology from Its Early Roots to the Present Ara Kirakosyan, Peter B Kaufman, and Leland J Cseke The Use of Plant Cell Biotechnology for the Production of Phytochemicals Ara Kirakosyan, Leland J Cseke, and Peter B Kaufman 15 Molecular Farming of Antibodies in Plants Rainer Fischer, Stefan Schillberg, and Richard M Twyman 35 Use of Cyanobacterial Proteins to Engineer New Crops Matias D Zurbriggen, Néstor Carrillo, and Mohammad-Reza Hajirezaei 65 Molecular Biology of Secondary Metabolism: Case Study for Glycyrrhiza Plants Hiroaki Hayashi Part II 89 Applications of Plant Biotechnology in Agriculture and Industry New Developments in Agricultural and Industrial Plant Biotechnology Ara Kirakosyan, Peter B Kaufman, and Leland J Cseke 107 Phytoremediation: The Wave of the Future Jerry S Succuro, Steven S McDonald, and Casey R Lu 119 Biotechnology of the Rhizosphere Beatriz Ramos Solano, Jorge Barriuso Maicas, and Javier Gutierrez Mañero 137 ix x Contents Plants as Sources of Energy Leland J Cseke, Gopi K Podila, Ara Kirakosyan, and Peter B Kaufman 163 Part III Use of Plant Secondary Metabolites in Medicine and Nutrition 10 Interactions of Bioactive Plant Metabolites: Synergism, Antagonism, and Additivity John Boik, Ara Kirakosyan, Peter B Kaufman, E Mitchell Seymour, and Kevin Spelman 213 11 The Use of Selected Medicinal Herbs for Chemoprevention and Treatment of Cancer, Parkinson’s Disease, Heart Disease, and Depression Maureen McKenzie, Carl Li, Peter B Kaufman, E Mitchell Seymour, and Ara Kirakosyan 231 12 Regulating Phytonutrient Levels in Plants – Toward Modification of Plant Metabolism for Human Health Ilan Levin 289 Part IV Risks and Benefits Associated with Plant Biotechnology 13 Risks and Benefits Associated with Genetically Modified (GM) Plants Peter B Kaufman, Soo Chul Chang, and Ara Kirakosyan 14 Risks Involved in the Use of Herbal Products Peter B Kaufman, Maureen McKenzie, and Ara Kirakosyan 15 Risks Associated with Overcollection of Medicinal Plants in Natural Habitats Maureen McKenzie, Ara Kirakosyan, and Peter B Kaufman 16 The Potential of Biofumigants as Alternatives to Methyl Bromide for the Control of Pest Infestation in Grain and Dry Food Products Eli Shaaya and Moshe Kostyukovsky Index 333 347 363 389 405 About the Authors Ara Kirakosyan, Ph.D., D.Sc is an associate professor of biology at Yerevan State University, Armenia, and is currently a research investigator at the University of Michigan Medical School and University of Michigan Integrative Medicine Program (MIM) He received a Ph.D in molecular biology in 1993 and Doctor of Science degree in biochemistry and biotechnology in 2007, both from Yerevan State University, Armenia Dr Kirakosyan’s research on natural products of medicinal value in plants focuses on the molecular mechanism of secondary metabolite biosynthesis in selected medicinal plant models His primary research interests focus on the uses of plant cell biotechnology to produce enhanced levels of medicinally important, value-added secondary metabolites in intact plants, and plant cell cultures These studies involve metabolic engineering coupled with integration of functional genomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics, and large-scale biochemistry He carried out postdoctoral research in the Department of Pharmacognosy at Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu, Japan, under the supervision of Prof Kenichiro Inoue The primary research topic was molecular biology of biosynthesis of several secondary metabolites in plants, particularly this was applied to the sweet triterpene glycyrrhizin in cell cultures of Glycyrrhiza glabra and dianthrones in Hypericum perforatum In addition, he took part in several visiting research investigator positions in Germany First, he was a visiting scientist under collaborative grant project DLR in Heinrich-Heine-University, Dă sseldorf (project leader Prof u Dr W.A Alfermann) The research here concerned a lignan anticancer project, i.e., the production of cytotoxic lignans from Linum (flax) The second involved a carbohydrate-engineering project as a DAAD Fellow in the Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, under supervision of Prof Dr Uwe Sonnewald His collaboration with US scientists started with the USDAfounded project on plant cell biotechnology for the production of dianthrones in cell/shoot cultures of H perforatum (St John’s wort) This research has been carried out with Dr Donna Gibson at USDA Agricultural Research Service, Plant Protection Research Unit, US Plant, Soil, and Nutrition Laboratory, Ithaca, New York, USA In 2002, he was a Fulbright Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Michigan, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology in the Laboratory of Prof Peter B Kaufman Dr Kirakosyan is principal author of over 50 peer-reviewed research papers in professional journals and several chapters in xi 394 E Shaaya and M Kostyukovsky Pilot tests in simulation glass columns filled to 70% volume with wheat, under conditions similar to those present in large grain bins, showed that SEM76 at a concentration of 70 μL·L−1 air (equivalent to 70 g·m−3 ) and days exposure time caused 100% kill of adults of Sitophilus and Oryzaephilus, but not of Rhyzopertha and Tribolium (Table 16.3) Supplementation of 15% CO2 (200 g·m−3 ) caused reduction in the effective volatile concentration A concentration of 50 μL·L−1 air was enough to cause 96–100% kill of all adult insects tested For pupae and larvae of Tribolium and Plodia, a higher concentration is needed (Table 16.3) 16.3 Efficacy of Isothiocyanates (ITCs) as Fumigants for the Control of Pest Infestations in Grain and Dry Food Products Mustard family (Brassicaceae) seeds contain ITCs, volatile essential oils that are known to possess insecticidal activity By screening a number of various species of Brassicaceae seeds, namely, Brassica nigra, B carinata, B tournefortii, Lepidium Table 16.4 The fumigant toxicity of four active isothiocyanates compared with methylthio-butyl ITC against adults of major stored grain insects (Space fumigation) Methylthio-butyl ITC was isolated from the plant Eruca sativa 16 Biofumigants for the Control of Pest Infestation 395 sativa, Sisymbrium irio, Sinapis alba, S arvensis, E sativa, and Diplotaxis spp., only in the last three species was it possible to isolate from the seed oil an unknown ITC at concentrations of 98, 92, and 33%, respectively Later, this compound was identified as methylthio-butyl ITC In space fumigation, the biological activity of this compound was compared with four common ITCs, namely, allyl, methyl, butyl, and ethyl Allyl and methyl ITCs were found to be the most active against adults of four stored-product insects A concentration of μL·L−1 air and exposure time of h were enough to kill all the tested adult insects The activity of methylthio-butyl ITC was comparable to that of allyl and methyl ITCs except for Tribolium, which was found to be much more susceptible to the two ITCs (Table 16.4) In the case of Plodia larva also, a concentration of 1.5 μL·L−1 air of the three active ITCs and exposure time of h were enough to get 100% kill For larvae of Tribolium and Trogoderma, a higher concentration of 2.5 μL·L−1 air and exposure time of h were needed The pupae of these three insect species were the most resistant to the ITCs tested (Table 16.5) Using high columns filled to 70% wheat to evaluate the toxicity of allyl ITC in grain, we could show that 20 μL·L−1 air (=20 g m−3 ) and exposure time of day were not effective in killing the insects at the bottom of the column when the fumigant was applied at the upper layer of the grain Addition of CO2 and circulation caused 100% kill at the different heights Increasing the exposure time to days and cycling was enough to obtain 100% kill (Table 16.6) Table 16.5 The fumigant toxicity of four active isothiocyanates compared with methylthio-butyl ITC against larvae and pupae of major stored grain insects (Space fumigation) Methylthio-butyl ITC was isolated from the plant Eruca sativa Third instar larvae and 3-day old pupae were used 396 E Shaaya and M Kostyukovsky Table 16.6 Toxicity of allyl ITC against stored-product insects, using high columns filled with 70% wheat with and without CO2 16.4 Efficacy of CH I, CS2 , and C7 H6 O as Fumigants for the Control of Stored-Product Insects In space fumigation, CH3 I was very effective against all insect stages tested Exposure to a concentration of 3–5 μL·L−1 for h was lethal and caused 100% mortality of all stages of the test insects, except for Trogoderma larvae (Table 16.7) Adults of Tribolium were found to be the most tolerant, followed by Oryzaephilus, Rhyzopertha, and Sitophilus In the case of larvae and pupae, Trogoderma was the most tolerant, followed by Tribolium and Plodia (Table 16.7) CS2 was less effective than CH3 I and needed a concentration of 6–9 μL·L−1 air for day to achieve total mortality of all the test insects except for Trogoderma larvae In the case of CS2 , adults of Tribolium were found to be the most resistant, followed by Sitophilus, Oryzaephilus, and Rhyzopertha The larvae of Trogoderma were more resistant than Tribolium (Table 16.8) In experiments with 600-mL glass chambers filled to 70% volume with wheat, CH3 I also showed higher activity than CS2 The concentration of CH3 I and exposure time needed to obtain a total mortality of the test insects were comparable to those in space fumigation tests (see Table 16.7) For CS2 , higher concentrations 16 Biofumigants for the Control of Pest Infestation 397 Table 16.7 Toxicity of CH3 I against stored-product insects, in space fumigation and in 600-mL chambers filled with 70% wheat Specific gravity of CH3I –2.28 Third instar larvae and 3-day old pupae were used were needed (see Table 16.8) The large difference in the activity between the two compounds was probably due to higher sorption rate of CS2 in wheat, as compared with that of CH3 I In the pilot tests, in glass columns filled to 70% wheat, CH3 I again showed higher activity than CS2 , when circulation was applied A concentration of μL·L−1 air and exposure time of h were enough to obtain 100% kill (Table 16.9) as compared with 20 μL·L−1 air CS2 and 24 h exposure time (Table 16.10) In gravity applications, CS2 penetrated better than CH3 I, but needed a higher concentration and exposure time to achieve total mortality (Tables 16.9 and 16.10) It should be mentioned that for methyl bromide fumigation the recommended concentration is 30–50 g·m−3 16.5 Conclusions Our findings, as well as those of other researchers, suggest that certain plant essential oils and their active constituents, mainly terpenoids, have potentially high bioactivity against a range of insects and mites They are also highly selective to insects, since they are probably targeted to the insect-selective octopaminergic receptor, a 398 E Shaaya and M Kostyukovsky Table 16.8 Toxicity of CS2 against stored-product insects, in space fumigation and in 600-mL chambers filled with 70% wheat Specific gravity of CS2– 1.26 Third instar larvae were used non-mammalian target The worldwide availability of plant essential oils and their terpenoids, and their use in cosmetics and as flavoring agents in food and beverages, is a good indication of their relative safety to warm-blooded animals and humans They are also classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) The ultimate goal is the introduction of these phytochemicals with low toxicity, which comply with health and environmental standards, as alternatives to methyl bromide and phosphine for the preservation of grain and dry food C7 H6 O was less active than CH3 I and CS2 in space fumigation bioassays A concentration of μL·L−1 air and exposure time of day caused 100% adult mortality of Sitophilus, Rhyzopertha, and Oryzaephilus In the case of Tribolium, 65% mortality for adults and no effect on eggs and pupae were recorded (Table 16.11) In the case of Ephestia, this concentration caused 100% mortality of the eggs, but had no effect on pupae (data not shown) In studies with 600-mL fumigation chambers, a concentration of 50 μL·L−1 air and exposure time of days caused 100% mortality of the adults tested except for Tribolium Increasing the concentration to 100 μL·L−1 air yielded very low mortality of larvae, pupae, and adults of Tribolium (Table 16.11) 16 Biofumigants for the Control of Pest Infestation 399 Table 16.9 Penetration of CH3 I in 120-cm high columns filled with 70% wheat by gravity or circulation ITCs are also potential candidates because only very low concentrations are needed for the control of stored-product insects It should be mentioned that E sativa (salad rocket) is used worldwide as a food supplement, and methyl thiobutyl ITC, the main bioactive component in this plant, has lower mammalian toxicity as compared to the other active ITCs tested The lower toxicity makes this fumigant a promising candidate for the disinfestation of grain and dry food products Comparative studies with CH3 I, CS2 , and C7 H6 O showed that CH3 I was the most toxic compound to stored-product insects, followed by CS2 and C7 H6 O CH3 I was found to be less sorptive and less penetrative in wheat than CS2 CH3 I is toxic to humans and its use in food as a fumigant is therefore limited It should be mentioned that CS2 is flammable and used mainly as a supplement to increase the activity of other fumigants In fact, a mixture of trichloroethylene, carbon disulphide, and carbon tetrachloride (CalandrexR ) in a ratio of 64:26:10, respectively, was developed by us and was found to be effective against stored-product insects (Polachek et al., 1960) C7 H6 O has low toxicity to mammals, but it is less effective against storedproduct insects than all other fumigants tested CH3 I, CS2 , and C7 H6 O may play a role mainly as supplements to increase the activity of other fumigants In this context, we should keep in mind that a general consensus is very difficult to achieve in order to introduce broad-spectrum fumigants like methyl bromide or 72 24 20 20 Gravity Circulation × 45 48 20 Method used Exposure time, h Concentration, μL·L-1 Top 20 120 Bottom Top to bottom Top to bottom Insects’ height, cm (top–bottom) 100 Oryzaephilus 100% mortality of all insects 100% mortality of all insects 100 100 Rhyzopertha % Mortality (7 days after treatment) 100 30 Sitophilus Table 16.10 Penetration of CS2 in 120-cm high columns filled with 70% wheat by gravity or circulation 100 10 Tribolium 400 E Shaaya and M Kostyukovsky 16 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res 47: 14–15 Winburn, T.F 1952 Fumigants and protectants for controlling insects in stored grain Pest control 20: 9–11, 32, 42 Index A ABE fermentation, 186 Abiotic stress, 79, 81, 156–157 Additive, 213 ADME, 214, 216 Agricultural sector, 107–116 Agrol, 175 Alkaloids, 23 Allergenicity, 342 American process, 182 Anabolism, 29 AND/OR logic gates, 218 Angiogenesis, 256 Antagonistic, 213 Anthocyanidins, 297 Anthocyanins, 232, 383 Anti-sense gene, 11, 24, 25, 26–27, 29 technology, 11 Apoplast, 53 Apoptosis, 218, 243 Aspirin, 290 AtNHX1 transcripts, 31 AuroraBlue R , 258, 383 Autoinducers, 156 Auxins, 144 B Bacillus thuringiensis (milky spore bacterium), 66, 334, 340 Bagasse, 164, 170, 173–174 Bean, 73 Bean arc5-I promoter, 52 “B” factor, 187 Bioaccumulation, 120 Bioassays, 392 Biobutanol, 186 Biocontrol, 139 Biodegradable substances, 113 Biodiesel, 187–188 Bioenergy, 164 Biofertilizer, 146, 150 Biofuel, 164 Biogas, 193–200 Biogasoline, 186 Bioheat, 188 Bioinformatics, 20, 21 Biomass, 163 Biomethane, 193–194, 196, 199 Biopharming, 76 Biopriming, 146 Biotechnology, Bliss independence, 219–220 Blocking catabolism or competitive pathways, 29 Botanicals, 390 Brown fields, 119, 120 C Calvin cycle, 70, 80 Camelid serum antibody, 38 Canada oil/Canola, 190 Cancer, 233–262 Carbon neutral, 166 Carotenes, 293 Carotenoids, 233, 293 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB), 343 Case-control study, 354 Catabolism, 29 Catechins, 297 Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (CaMV 35S), 52, 73, 74, 75, 77, 81, 311 Cellulolysis, 181, 183, 185 Cellulose, 26 Cellulosic ethanol, 187 Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), 370 Choline oxidase, 31 C-Jun protein, 253 Classical plant biotechnology, 6–10 405 406 Index Clean coal technology, 172 Codex Alimentarius Commission Codex, 343 Commercial Seed Companies, 376–377 Communities genomics, 157 Competitive pathways, 24, 25, 29 Conservation Data Center Network, 367 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 370 Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for International Food Manufacture and Packaging Science, 115 Cordite, 186 Corn stover, 182 Co-suppression, 334, 341 Coumarins, 232 Coverage, 220 Critical Ecosystems Program, 369 Critically endangered (plant species), 364 Crucifer Genetics Center (CrGC) in Madison, WI, 376 Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase, 237 Cytokinins, 143–144 Cytosolic mevalonic acid pathway, 295 Essential oils (Eos), 392 components: monoterpenes, 232 Ethnopharmacology, 378 Ethylene, 144 Exothermic reaction, 197–198 Expressed sequence tags (ESTs), 381 Exteins, 83 Extinct (plant species), 364 in wild, 364 D Dehulling, 112 DENALI BioTechnologies, LLC (DENALI), 379 Depression, 268–276 Dianthrone derivatives, 232 Diester, 189–190 Diterpenes, 232 DNA microarray, 20–21 Docking targets, 27 Drug, 216 G Generally recognized as safe(GRAS), 51, 398 Gene targeting, 51, 54 Genetically modified(GM) plants, 4, 333 goals ofgenetic engineers in developing, 334 risk assessment, 336 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 10, 11, 45, 108, 116, 320, 340 Gene transfer, 31, 342 Genomics, 19–22, 157 Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 368 Gibberellins, 143–144 Glycine betaine, 31 Gober gas, 195 Green crude, 201–202 Green energy, 165 Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 18, 83, 157 Grow gardens, 110 E Elastin-like peptides (ELPs), 53 Elicitors, 137, 152 Endangered (plant species), 364 Endangered species list, 370 Endothermic reaction, 198 Energy crisis, 164–167 crop, 169 security, 166 Enrichment, 384–385 Ephedra (ma huang), 352 Ephedrine alkaloids, 352, 353 Epidermal growth factor(EGF), 217 Epiphytic, 373 Error function, 224 F FAME, 188 Farm chemurgy movement, 175 Feedback regulation, 27–28 Flavanols, 232, 297 Flavanones, 297 Flavodoxin (Fld), 65, 78–82 Flavones, 297 Flavonoid compounds, 383 Flavonoids, 23, 232, 296–299 Flavonols, 297 Flex-fuel vehicles, 176, 180 French paradox, 303 Functional foods, 158 Functional metabolites, 158, 289, 290 H Henry Doubleday Institute, 377 Heterologous gene overexpression, 28 H/KDEL C–terminal tetrapeptide tag, 53 Human and Indigenous Rights, 378 Hybridoma cell line, 37, 38 Index Hydrated ethanol, 180 Hydroponics, 111 Hyperaccumulators, 128 I IC50 value, 250 Indole alkaloid pathway, 26 Induced systemic resistance(ISR), 146 Induction of Defense Metabolism, 154 Industrial sector, 107–116 Inteins, 83 Intellectual Property Rights, 378 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 375 International Potato Center (CIP) in Lima, 375 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 375 International Rice Research Institute in Los Ba˜ os, Philippines, 375 n International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 364 Inverse metabolic engineering (IME), 29–30 Isoflavones, 232, 297 L Landfill Directive, 197 Least concern, 364 Lignans, 232 Lignocellulose, 173, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 205 Lipid rafts, 218, 219 Loewe additivity, 220 Loewe index, 222 M Maize, 29, 41, 42, 45, 74, 168, 169, 182, 196, 298, 311, 333, 334, 335, 342, 374, 376 Materials and methods (biofumigants), 391–394 Meal, 112 Mechanical gene activation, 52 Median-effect method, 220, 221 Mericloning, 370, 373, 374 Metabolic flux, 23, 24, 26, 317 analysis, 23, 24 Metabolomics, 19–20 Metagenomic approach, 157, 158 Methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, 295 Methyl tertiary butyl ether(MBTE), 176 Missouri Botanical Garden, 370 MixLow method, 221–228 Modern plant biotechnology, 3, 4, 10–12 Molecular switch, 84 407 Monoterpenes, 392 Multidrug resistance, 215 N N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL), 156, 157 NAD(P)H:(quinone-acceptor) oxidoreductase (QR), 237 n-Alkanols, 232 National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation in Fort Collins, CO, 374–375 National Collection of Endangered Plants, 370, 377 National Parks, 365, 369 National Parks and Conservation Association, 365 National Park Service (NPS), 365 National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL), 375 Natural Heritage Program, 367 Natural Resources Defense Fund, 365–366 Nature Conservancy, 365, 367–368 New York Botanical Garden, 369–370, 378 Niche exclusion, 139, 149 Non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs), 197 Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), 294 Nutraceuticals, 290, 382 Nutragenomics, 290 O On/off switch, 218 Oil, 112 Oilgae, 201 Omics, 19, 21 Organic contaminants, 123 Organic farming, 107 advantages, 108 disadvantages, 108 reasons for implementation, 108 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 165 Osmoprotectant compounds, 31 Outcrossing, 342 Oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 256, 259, 302, 354, 383 Oxygen radical scavengers, 383 P Parkinson’s disease(PD), 231–276 People and Plants Initiative, 367 Petrodiesel, 187 Pharmacodynamic, 216 408 Pharmacokinetic, 216 Phenolic corboxylic acids, 232 Phloroglucinol derivatives, 232 hyperforin, secohyperforin, 232 Photomorphogenesis, 293, 313 Photosynthetic electron transport chain (PETC), 79 Phyllosecretion, 49 Phytochemicals, 290 Phytodegradation, 122, 124 Phytoextraction, 122, 127 Phytofiltration, 127 Phytonutrients, 137, 290 Phytoremediation, 12, 119–133, 336, 340 Phytostabilization, 122, 129 Phytosterols, 233 Plackett & Burman, 17 Plant biotechnology, 3–6 Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR), 139 case study, 145–146 direct mechanisms, 139 indirect mechanisms, 139 Plant metabolic engineering, 22–23 Plant systematics and floristics, 365 Plant tissue culture, 370–374 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET/PETE), 116 Polyphenolics, 235, 244, 383 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 114 Potato virus X (PVX), 48 PPLEX, 52 Presscake, 250 Priming, 146 Proanthocyanidin polymers, 383 Proanthocyanidins, 297 Probes, 20–21 Protein A, 55 Protein G affinity chromatography, 55 Proteomics, 19, 21 Pyrolysis, 198 Pyrosequencing, 204 Q Quantitative trait loci (QTLs), 206, 292, 304, 306 Quorum sensing (QS), 156 R Ranching program, 384 properties as a nutraceutical and potential pharmaceutical, 382–385 Ras (protein), 218 Rate-limiting steps, 24, 25, 27–28, 70, 72 Index Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 31, 79, 147, 238, 239, 240, 303 Refining, 112 Refractance Window R Drying, 258, 380 Regiospecificity, 10 Regulatory genes, 293, 296, 299, 303, 304, 316, 317 Reverse genetics, 21 Rhizofiltration, 119, 122, 124, 126–131 Rhizosecretion, 49 Rhizosphere, 124, 137, 138 Ribosomal and biosynthesis-related gene sequence analyses, 381 RNA interference (RNAi), 304 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 367, 370, 377 Rubisco, 70, 318 S Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement of the World Trade Organization (SPS Agreement), 343 Seed Banks in Botanical Gardens Established for International Seed Exchange, 377 Seed Guild, 377 Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), 20 Sespuiterpenes, 232 Sesquiterpenes, 392 Shaman Pharmaceuticals, 379 Shooty teratomas, 49 Siderophores, production of, 141–142 The Sierra Club, 368–369 Soaking (soyabean), 112 Soybean meal, 112, 113 Soybean oil, 112–113 application in industrial products (protective coatings), 113 pure and crude, 112 Standardized preparation, 355 Stereospecificity, 10 Stress-inducible transcription, 31 Structural genes, 293, 297, 299, 303, 309, 311, 315 Subcellular targeting, 53 Superoxide anion, 239 Sustainable Biopreserves for Indigenous Peoples, 366 Synergistic, 213 effect, 311 Systemic acquired resistance(SAR), 147 T Targeted metabolic profiling, 20 Targeted therapy, 214 Terpenoids, 23 Index Terpens: Sesquiterpenes, 232 Terrestrial, 373 Tetraterpenes, 232 Toasting and Grinding, 112 Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), 48 Town gas, 198 Traditional biotechnology, Trans-esterification, 188, 189 Transpiration, 110 Triterpenes, 232 U Ubiquitin-1 (ubi-1) promoter, 52 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 366 Useful genes, 30 U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 38, 268, 274, 275, 276, 352, 353 Utilization of burned stands, 384 Utilization of clear-cut stands, 384 UV-B light, 384 409 V Vacuolar Na super(+)/H super(+) antiport, 31 In vitro bioconversion, In vivo enzymatic bioconversion, Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 197 Vulnerable (plant species), 364 W Water evapo-transpiration, 110 Wilderness Society, 365 Wild Vaccinium species, study, 259–260 Wood gas, 172, 185, 194, 197–199 World Health Organization (WHO), 268, 340 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 366, 368 Wrigley Memorial and Botanical Gardens, 370 X Xanthones, 232 Xanthophylls, 293, 310 Xenobiotics, 236 ... yeast, and plants) in conjunction with creatine or arginine kinase systems (Sauer and Schlattner, 2004) Beyond such applications in bioprocess engineering, engineering of phosphagen kinase systems... plant biotechnology We then trace the history from its earliest beginnings rooted in traditional plant biotechnology, followed by classical plant biotechnology, and, currently, modern plant biotechnology. . .Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology Ara Kirakosyan · Peter B Kaufman Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology 123 Ara Kirakosyan University of