Understanding interaction of visual and verbal grammar in comics using systemic functional linguistics

UNDERSTANDING INTERACTION OF VISUAL AND VERBAL GRAMMAR IN COMICS USING SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS LO WAN NI 2011 A MASTERS THESIS SUBMITTED IN PART FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (ENGLISH LANGUAGE) DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE, SINGAPORE Acknowledgements Heartfelt thanks to the following: Dr Peter Wignell, for being a kind supervisor for the first half of this journey and for your valuable comments; Dr Mie Hiramoto, for your unwavering support and encouragement; The various artists, authors, and publishers who have kindly extended permission for reproduction of copyrighted material in this thesis; and Sarah Khoo, for teaching me to read manga, for the occasional Japanese advisory, and for being my respite in this crazy crazy world ii Table of Contents Table of Contents iii Summary vi List of Tables vii List of Figures viii Introduction 1.1 Definition Literature Review 18 2.1 Past research in comics 18 2.1.1 Content analysis 18 2.1.2 Structure analysis 21 2.2 Analytical tools and framework 25 2.2.1 Multimodality/multi-semiotic 25 Methodology 36 3.1.1 Mise-en-page 36 3.1.2 Panel transition 37 iii 3.1.3 Verbal elements 39 3.1.4 Gesture, Posture and Gaze 41 3.2 Data 43 3.2.1 Descriptors 44 Mise-en-page 47 4.1 Overall Page Configuration 50 4.1.1 Proportions 52 4.1.2 Overlapping Panels 57 4.1.3 Reading Order 62 4.1.4 Framing 73 Panel Transitions 77 5.1.1 McCloud's (1993) Six Transition Relations (TR) 78 5.1.2 AE and VLD 92 Verbal elements 100 6.1 Speech Balloons 100 6.2 Onomatopoeia 123 Gesture, Posture and Gaze 132 iv 7.1 Non-verbal Communication 133 7.2 Facial Expressions 134 7.3 Posture and Gesture 140 7.4 Gaze 147 Discussion and Conclusion 155 8.1 Multi-semiotic Studies 155 8.2 Comparison of American and Japanese comics 160 8.3 Limitations and Further Research 162 8.4 Concluding Remarks 163 List of Referred Cartoons and Comics 165 References 166 v Summary Comics are multi-semiotic in nature; they consist of both visual and verbal grammar The organic partnership of these two grammars is unique to the genre of comics and worth studying This thesis is concerned mainly with the structural aspect of comics from the make-up of a single panel to the organization of a page This thesis examines past cross-disciplinary literature on comic strips and books research including Eisner (1985), McCloud (1993) and Groensteen (2007), and juxtaposes these researches with Systemic Functional Linguistics, which undergird multi-semiotic research Elements analyzed include page configuration (mise-en-page), reading order, speech balloons and onomatopoeias, stance and motion vectors and panel progression By building upon existing scholarship of the comic genre, this thesis also presents a comparison of American English comics and Japanese mangas pertaining to the abovementioned aspects Herein this thesis a fundamental question is answered – how readers read comics and what elements influence the reading experience? vi List of Tables Table 2-1 Functions and systems in painting Taken from O’Toole (1994: 24) 28 Table 2-2 Systems on the Discourse Semantic Stratum Taken from Lim (2002: 62) 34 Table 4-1 Juxtaposition of analytical units in comics 73 Table 5-1 Systems on the Discourse Semantic Stratum Taken from Lim (2002: 62) 92 Table 5-2 Effect of Transition Relations on Time in comics 97 Table 6-1 Summary of processes involved in speech balloon processing 122 Table 6-3 Summary of processes involved in onomatopoeia processing 130 Table 7-1 Summary of emotion devices in comics and corresponding SFL analytical level 140 Table 7-2 Summary of gestures in comics and corresponding SFL analytical level 147 Table 8-1 Multi-semiotic System of Comics 156 Table 8-2 Summary of primary comics reading processes 160 vii List of Figures Figure 1-1 ‘BP Logo’ (8 September 2010) © Copyright Nick Anderson 10 Figure 1-2 Non-sequitur DMV cartoon (8 September 2010) © Copyright Wiley Miller 12 Figure 1-3 ‘Be A Responsible Library User!’ Bookmark © Copyright National Library Board (NLB) 14 Figure 1-4 ‘False Alarm’ (Strip #0472) © Copyright Old Master Q Comics 15 Figure 2-1 Drawing of a cat 29 Figure 2-2 Integrative Multisemiotic Model (IMM) Taken from Lim (2007: 198) 33 Figure 3-1 Transition Relations Taken from McCloud (1993: 74) © Copyright Scott McCloud 38 Figure 3-2 Examples of speech and thought balloons 40 Figure 3-3 Schematic Diagram of typical comics structure 46 Figure 4-1 Shortcomings (2007: 37) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 48 Figure 4-2 Wonder Woman (1995: 24) © Copyright DC Comics 48 Figure 4-3 Spiderman (2009: 14) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 51 Figure 4-4 Dear Boys (2004: 14) © Copyright Hiroki Yagami 52 Figure 4-5 Wonder Woman (1996: 70) © Copyright DC Comics 53 viii Figure 4-6 Schematic diagram of Fig 4-5 54 Figure 4-7 Spiderman (2009: 14) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 55 Figure 4-8 Wonder Woman (1995: 24) © Copyright DC Comics 58 Figure 4-9 KSDO (2007: 12) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 59 Figure 4-10 Wonder Woman (1995: 94) © Copyright DC Comics 61 Figure 4-11 Schematic Diagram of Fig 4-5 64 Figure 4-12 Confusion in panel position Taken from McCloud (2006: 33) © Copyright Scott McCloud 65 Figure 4-13 KSDO (2007: 20) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 66 Figure 4-14 Schematic Diagram of Fig 4-13 66 Figure 4-15 Spiderman (2009: 9) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 68 Figure 4-16 Dear Boys (2003: 45) © Copyright Hiroki Yagami 70 Figure 4-17 Wonder Woman (1995: 39) © Copyright DC Comics 71 Figure 5-1 Transition Relations Taken from McCloud (1993: 74) ©Copyright Scott McCloud 78 Figure 5-2 Shortcomings (2007: 36) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 79 Figure 5-3 Shortcomings (2007:37) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 80 Figure 5-4 Shortcomings (2007: 37) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 82 Figure 5-5 Dear Boys (2003: 7) © Copyright Hiroki Yagami 82 Figure 5-6 KSDO (2007: 26) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 84 ix Figure 5-7 Spiderman (2009: 14) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 84 Figure 5-8Shortcomings (2007: 27) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 85 Figure 5-9 Wonder Woman (1995: 16) © Copyright DC Comics 87 Figure 5-10 Wonder Woman (1995: 101) © Copyright DC Comics 88 Figure 5-11 KSDO (2007: 30-31) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 90 Figure 5-12 KSDO (2007: 32-33) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 90 Figure 5-13 Dear Boys (2003: 7) © Copyright Hiroki Yagami 95 Figure 5-14 Shortcomings (2007: 27) © Copyright Adrian Tomine 96 Figure 6-1 Spiderman (2009: 57) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 101 Figure 6-2 Girls With Slingshots (9 October 2010) © Copyright Danielle Corsetto 102 Figure 6-3 KSDO (2007: 15) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 105 Figure 6-4 KSDO (2007: 20) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 106 Figure 6-5 Spiderman (2009: 57) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 108 Figure 6-6 Dear Boys (2003: 14) © Copyright Hiroki Yagami 109 Figure 6-7 Wonder Woman (1996: 113) © Copyright DC Comics 111 Figure 6-8 Wonder Woman (1996: 113) © Copyright DC Comics 111 Figure 6-9 Wonder Woman (1996: 114) © Copyright DC Comics 112 Figure 6-10 KSDO (2007: 13) © Copyright Mitsuki Miko 113 Figure 6-11 Spiderman (2009: 66) © Copyright Marvel Entertainment 114 x Discussion and Conclusion 8.1 Multi-semiotic Studies I have shown that comics are multi-semiotic, being made up of visual and verbal information Gestalt theory in art suggests that the meaning of the whole is greater, or different than the sum of the individual parts (Koffka 1955: 176) In comics, it is also prudent to consider how meaning of the individual semiotic resources- visual and verbal form ‘the whole’, or in Lemke’s (1998) terms, ‘multiplied’ This seems to contradict Eisner (1985)’s belief that the visual precedes and overrides the verbal in comics A multi-semiotic approach should be based on the interplay of semiotic resources, not their individualization However, if we considered Eisner’s belief in conjunction with O’Toole’s (1994) framework which suggests that the three Metafunctions (Representational, Interpersonal and Modal) can have differing salience in every visual text, then perhaps we can derive a more informed study of the interaction of visual and verbal in comics Based on my findings in the previous chapters, the visual aspect of comics does not simply fall under the Representational metafunction Indeed, what the drawings represent in terms of the characters and objects portrayed are paramount, without which there is no narrative, the Interpersonal and Compositional metafunction cannot be discounted 155 As the label suggests, the Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with how the comics ‘interact’ with the readers In chapters to 7, I have explored the components of panel structures panel transitions, speech and onomatopoeia and non-verbal communication and how these components affect reading order and experience Suppose we consider the reading experience as the primary concern of the Interpersonal metafunction, we see that different effects are brought about at different analytical levels from the Member to Work The table below, in the fashion of O’Toole (1994)’s framework, summarizes the key components in comics that were discussed in this thesis Table 8-1 Multi-semiotic System of Comics Work (Page) Representational Interpersonal/Modal Compositional Time(?) Transition Relations(?) Time(?) Prominence Reading order Reading order Frames Frames Overlaps Episode (Panel) Figure Balloons Gesture and Stance vectors Stance Balloons Balloons Member Facial expressions Gestures (Endocentric) Motion vectors Onomatopoeia Emotion Emblems Gaze (IG, EG, RG) Onomatopoeia 156 This table is preliminary; some aspects are provisionally classified, such as Time and Transition Relations, as marked with a question mark (?) in parentheses, while other aspects seem to traverse all three metafunctions, such as Balloons In Section 6.1, I have exposited on how speech balloons seem to be both verbal and visual They functionally serve to demarcate speech and thoughts (verbal), but concurrently they carry Representational meaning The process of fully understanding what is implied by a balloon is complicated, and the complexity results in balloons traversing all three metafunctions Lim (2006) juxtaposes Transition Relations with the Logical metafunction (part of Ideational/Representational) in that TR form logical links between panels, as would conjunctions for clauses and passages I have shown that Transition Relations are related to how Time is perceived in comics and arguably, and Time can be the product of logical relationships For example, the conjunction ‘subsequently’ juxtaposes two events on a timeline Similarly, the use of TR in comics can achieve similar effect In this vein, Time in comics can be bent at will using TR as I have exemplified, similar to how narrative time can be manipulated using text Based on this, it is prudent and appropriate to classify TR under Representational However, what about Time as an entity in comics? It is a feature that is not directly portrayed (except in cases of explicit verbal narration), but implicitly conveyed through TR In SFL studies thus far, there does not seem to be 157 any research on how Time functions in a multi-semiotic system Furthermore, Time requires a perceiver, or reader, in comics in order to ‘exist’ Without a reader understanding how TR affects passage of Time, Time does not pass This may sound abstract; simply put, the reader asserts his own understanding of Time onto what is implied in the comics Hence, I have also provisionally classified Time under the Interpersonal metafunction, for it relates to reader interaction The other elements classified in Error! Reference source not found have mostly been explained in the previous chapters This table provides a good way for us to consider, from a multi-semiotic approach, how comics work in relation to readership One aim of this paper is to uncover how readers read comic publications in terms of the resources available and how different aspects, as listed above, work together in a cohesive system of comics By this juncture, I have shown adequately the complexities involved in reading comics A reader has to establish the reading order through the arrangement and shapes of panels, and the directionalities provided by vectors While reading order is largely dictated by the language norm, there are manners through which it is further signaled in comics Next, the identification of the largely Representational content on the comics, such as characters and setting, followed by re-identification of these recurring elements throughout the strip and book The concepts crucial to these are AE and VLD The third step involves processing the speech balloons, gestures 158 and verbal content In Chapter 6, a more detailed understanding of the process of decoding balloons has been presented (Error! Reference source not found.), highlighting the complex nature of reading multi-semiotic text Also, verbal content here refers to words used in narration and utterances in comics The analysis of this verbal content has not been presented in this paper because they mostly resemble those from mono-modal texts The intricacies involved in understanding utterances and words escapes the scope of this thesis Furthermore, the understanding of verbal content in a multi-semiotic text (comics) is best achieved under Halliday’s (1985, 1994) framework functional grammar, which is the basis of O’Toole’s (1994) analytical framework of displayed art In that vein, the metafunctions involved are the same and hence, without going into the details of SFL textual analysis I intend to group these sub-processes together in Step The fourth step involves following the visual cues of panel transitions, which form cohesive devices from panel to panel within comic strips and books Visual cues of this nature include stance and gesture vectors and motion vectors These four primary processes are recursive and show the bare minimum required Error! Reference source not found below provides a summary of the primary processes involved in reading 159 Table 8-2 Summary of primary comics reading processes Processes Identification of reading order Analytical level Work Corresponding Metafunction Compositional, Interpersonal Representational Identification of Figure, Member (recurrent) characters, objects and setting Processing balloons, Figure, Member gestures and verbal content Representational, Interpersonal, Compositional Interpersonal Following visual cues of Figure, Member panel transitions (and Time progression) 8.2 Comparison of American and Japanese comics At the beginning of this thesis I highlighted that comparing American and Japanese comics as one of the aims The country of origin and their corresponding cultures formed, on the outset, a seeming large difference However, through my analysis, it appears that they have more similarities In Chapter 4, I showed that reading direction in comics of both origins differ in accordance to the reading direction of their languages, however, the manner in which panels are arranged in a page for best reading ‘ergonomics’ does not differ at all for the both In Chapter 5, on the issue of panel transitions, again, no great difference is observed Even though McCloud (1993)’s quantitative studies may have shown a differing 160 occurrence of TR types in the two types of comics, the crux of issue still lies in how TR and panel progression are signaled in comics In that aspect, there are no perceivable differences Furthermore, there are examples showing how Time is made flexible in similar manners in the two comics traditions In Chapter 6, I focused on balloons and onomatopoeias I found some minute differences in terms of the use of symbols in the two languages, but the similarities pertaining to balloon shapes and placement far outweigh the differences Chapter explored the components of stances, gestures and gaze and how they contribute not only to portraying the emotions and intentions of characters but also vectors that aid reading It was also shown that both comic traditions use these devices in similar manners I expounded on the difference between how emotions are portrayed in Japanese comics through the more rampant use of emblems as compared to American comics Conclusively, there are more similarities between American and Japanese comics in terms of structural components and organization Representational content remain the biggest difference between them, largely cultural-specific references, such as gestures, and language Reading direction, an inherited difference due to language difference, is also another distinctive factor In summary, there are elements of comics that are arguably universal, or at least, common to American and Japanese comics These elements are of interest in a 161 study of comics for they form a base for research for universality of comic elements 8.3 Limitations and Further Research This thesis has shown researches in comics from different viewpoints and integrated work from different scholars into a hopefully conclusive study of comics as a visual and verbal medium Arguably, it is difficult to compile an exhaustive list of elements of interest in comics since there exist many different types of comics worldwide that may differ from the two I have studied in this thesis Furthermore, I not claim to have a comprehensive sample; I delved into the typical in hope that they reflect the normative Also, as mentioned previously, I have not devoted a section to analyzing verbal content in comics, such as dialogue Written words have admittedly been analyzed in many SFL studies Additionally, written text is not an obligatory element of comics Coupled with their ephemerality in accordance to plot requirement, it is difficult to pose them as an enduring, or even recurrent, element of comics for a broader view With limitations comes room for further research; widening the scope will be appropriate As mentioned, there are elements which have not been covered in details in this thesis, such as the use of colors and intricacies involving written language These may contain additional comics-only information that is worth studying Apart from widening the scope in terms of the elements studied, it may 162 also prove valuable to focus attention on one singular element across a larger sample of comics The possible research in terms of comics as a multi-semiotic text is near boundless given how prolific this branch of text is This thesis is but a small introductory step towards studying this medium 8.4 Concluding Remarks This thesis has presented an overview of comics studies as a discipline in the literature review and how these researches can be married with SFL to provide a more objectively way to consider elements within comics Table 8-1 summarizes the features of comics studied in this thesis encompassed in four main areas – page configuration, panel and time transition, verbal content of word balloons and onomatopoeia, and non-verbal communications Table 8-2 is an outline of the general processes involved in reading comics I have also achieved my aim stated in showing how the various elements in comics alter reading experience Two guiding questions to this thesis are consistently posed and answered They include: ‘What are the processes involved in reading comics, especially in terms of understanding the graphical representations alongside the verbal?’ and ‘Are there structural features to help us read comics, or are comics free-form?’ These questions form the bases of this thesis as a whole At the beginning of this thesis I highlighted how comics are commonly viewed negatively as reading material While I did not set out to change that 163 perception, I hope that my thesis has provided a better understanding of the complex nature of comics As a text, comics make use of different semiotic resources to invoke different meanings and emotions, no different from other 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Adopting a Wittgenstein approach to definitions (in which Wittgenstein considered the definition of games3), Varnum and Gibbons propose that the different comics. .. attention of viewers Also, O’Toole likens Modal to Modality in grammar, referring to the class of verbs or adverbs that augment meanings of verbs and include in them information of certainty or