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GENETICS OF NEPHROTIC SYNDROME IN
SINGAPORE PAEDIATRICS PATIENTS
NG JUN LI
(BSC), NUS
A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PAEDIATRICS
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2012
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my thankfulness to:
My supervisor, Professor Yap Hui Kim, for her guidance throughout these years.
My co‐supervisor, Associate Professor Heng Chew Kiat, for his statistical advices.
Dr Ng Kar Hui, for her continuous help and support.
Dr Isaac Liu and Dr U Mya Than, for their help in collecting the clinical data of the
patients.
Dr Leow Koon Yeow, for his technical advices on the use of high resolution melting for
screening.
Chan Chang Yien, Joni, Chong, Liang Ai Wei, Lauretta Low, Sun Zijin, Seah Ching Ching
and Toh Xue Yun, for their company and help that they provided.
My family for their continuous support and encouragement.
This work was supported by grants NKFRC/2007/09 from National Kidney Foundation
and NMRC IRG07 May 104 from the National Medical Research Council, Singapore.
i
Table of contents
1.
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Nephrotic syndrome ............................................................................................ 1
1.1.1.
Epidemiology and histological features of childhood NS ............................. 1
1.1.2.
Clinical course of childhood NS ..................................................................... 3
1.1.3.
Pathogenesis of nephrotic syndrome ........................................................... 7
1.2. Podocytes: Their role in nephrotic syndrome .................................................... 11
1.2.1.
The slit diaphragm ...................................................................................... 12
1.2.2.
Cytoskeletal proteins .................................................................................. 18
1.2.3.
Cell matrix adhesion complexes ................................................................. 19
1.2.4.
Podocytes and Nephrotic syndrome .......................................................... 20
1.3. Genetics of nephrotic syndrome ........................................................................ 22
1.3.1.
NPHS1: The gene encoding for nephrin ...................................................... 28
1.3.2.
NPHS2: The gene encoding for podocin ..................................................... 32
1.3.3.
The two closely related partners: NPHS1 and NPHS2 ................................ 39
1.4. Gaps in current knowledge ................................................................................ 43
1.5. Objectives of the study ...................................................................................... 44
2.
Methods and Materials ............................................................................................. 46
2.1. Study Subjects .................................................................................................... 46
ii
2.2. Data collection.................................................................................................... 47
2.3. Genomic DNA (gDNA) extraction ....................................................................... 48
2.4. Primer design and melting domain analysis ...................................................... 48
2.5. PCR amplification ............................................................................................... 53
2.6. High Resolution Melting ..................................................................................... 54
2.7. Direct Sequencing .............................................................................................. 55
2.8. Genotyping by tetra‐primers ARMS PCR ............................................................ 56
2.9. Genotyping by RFLP ........................................................................................... 60
3.
2.10.
Statistical analysis ........................................................................................... 62
2.11.
Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants ............................................. 63
2.12.
Protein sequence alignment ........................................................................... 64
Results ....................................................................................................................... 66
3.1. Clinical Characteristics ........................................................................................ 66
3.2. Genetic variants in NPHS1 .................................................................................. 69
3.2.1.
Screening for variants in NPHS1 using HRM ............................................... 69
3.2.2.
Statistical analysis of the genetic variants in NPHS1 .................................. 74
3.2.3.
Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants .......................................... 81
3.3. Genetic variants in NPHS2 .................................................................................. 85
3.3.1.
Screening of NPHS2 using direct sequencing ............................................. 85
iii
3.3.2.
Statistical analysis of the genetic variants in NPHS2 .................................. 87
3.3.3.
Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants .......................................... 91
3.4. Phenotype‐genotype associations ..................................................................... 93
3.5. Analysis of composite genotypes of genetic variants in NPHS1 and NPHS2 ..... 97
3.6. Contribution of rare alleles to nephrotic syndrome ........................................ 101
4.
Discussion................................................................................................................ 112
4.1. Polymorphisms and their association with nephrotic syndrome .................... 114
4.2. Phenotype‐genotype correlations of the genetic variants .............................. 118
4.3. Gene‐gene interaction of NPHS1 and NPHS2 .................................................. 120
4.4. Contribution of rare variants to nephrotic syndrome ..................................... 122
5.
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 127
6.
Reference ................................................................................................................ 128
iv
Summary
Background
Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is the most common glomerulonephritis in childhood, 20% of
which are steroid‐resistant. Mutations in podocyte‐related genes have been shown to
cause idiopathic NS in Caucasian populations, whereas Asian studies are lacking. The
aims of this study are firstly to identify genetic variants in nephrin(NPHS1) and
podocin(NPHS2), two important podocyte‐associated genes, in paediatric patients with
idiopathic NS in Singapore, secondly to determine the presence of disease associations
with these genetic variants, and lastly to investigate if there are any gene‐gene
interactions.
Methods
Genetic screening of NPHS1 and NPHS2 was performed on 121 patients (97Chinese,
24Malays) with disease onset at a mean age of 5.69±4.43 years. High Resolution Melting
was used to detect genetic variants in NPHS1, and these were validated by bi‐directional
sequencing. Direct sequencing was used to detect genetic variants in NPHS2. All genetic
variants identified were genotyped in cord blood controls (125Chinese; 96Malays) by
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, Tetra‐primer Amplification Refractory
Mutation System PCR and sequencing. Data from the Singapore Genome Variation
Project involving healthy individuals (96Chinese; 89Malays) and SNP arrays from the
Genome Institute of Singapore involving 1682 Chinese controls were used for our
analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using SNPstats and SPSS v17. Multiple
v
logistic regression analysis (codominant, dominant, recessive and log‐additive models)
was done to determine the significance of genetic variants and phenotype associations.
Computer prediction programs were used to predict the functional effects of these
genetic variants.
Results
Sixteen genetic variants in NPHS1 were found in our cohort of nephrotic patients, of
which 5 was novel. c.294C>T, and c.2289C>T were significantly associated with NS in
both Chinese and Malay patients, whereas c.349G>A was significantly associated with
NS in only Chinese patients. c.349G>A resulted in an amino acid substitution of glutamic
acid to lysine at position 117. c.294C>T, c.349G>A and c.2289C>T have been found to
affect the ESE and/or ESS sites.
We found 8 genetic variants in NPHS2, of which 1 was novel. In our Chinese patients, c.‐
51G>T was significantly associated with NS. c.288C>T was observed to have a protective
effect against NS, whereas c.‐51G>T and c.1038A.G were associated with steroid
resistance. c.1038A>G was also associated with cyclosporine resistance.
Binary logistic regression showed that the composite genotypes of GG/CC/CT and
GT/CC/CT for NPHS2 c.‐51G>T and c.288C>T and NPHS1 c.2289C>T were significantly
associated with NS. The composite genotypes of GG/CC/TT and GT/CC/CC were also
associated with steroid resistance.
vi
Additionally, we have shown a significant accumulation of rare variants in nephrotic
patients compared to controls, and also in nephrotic patients with poor prognosis
compared to those who responded well to therapy.
Conclusion
Genetic variants in podocyte‐related genes were present in paediatric patients with
idiopathic NS in Singapore, and they occurred at frequencies which differed from
Caucasian populations. Phenotype association studies implicated NPHS2 polymorphisms
with steroid and cyclosporine resistance, whereas rare variants accumulation was
associated with poor prognosis. Additionally, gene‐gene interactions between NPHS1
and NPHS2 were observed in our nephrotic population. Functional studies are required
to better understand the mechanisms of the genetic variants in the pathogenesis of NS.
vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of genetic involvement in pathogenesis of nephrotic syndrome. ...... 24
Table 2: NPHS1 and NPHS2 genetic variants identified in familial and sporadic nephrotic
syndrome. ................................................................................................................. 25
Table 3: Primers used for the screening of NPHS1 using HRM. ....................................... 50
Table 4: Primers used for the screening of NPHS2 using direct sequencing. ................... 52
Table 5: Primers used in tetra‐ARMS PCR for the genotyping of NPHS1 SNPs. ............... 58
Table 6: Restriction enzymes used for the genotyping of NPHS1 SNPs. .......................... 61
Table 7: General characteristics of Chinese and Malay patients with idiopathic sporadic
nephrotic syndrome and/or FSGS. ............................................................................ 68
Table 8: Genetic variants identified in NPHS1 using HRM. ............................................... 70
Table 9: Allele frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Chinese (n=97). ......................................... 77
Table 10: Genotype frequency for NPHS1 SNPs in Chinese (n=97). ................................. 77
Table 11: Association analysis of NPHS1 genotypes with nephrotic syndrome in Chinese.
................................................................................................................................... 78
Table 12:Allele frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Malay (n=24). .......................................... 79
Table 13: Genotype frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Malay (n=24). .................................. 79
Table 14: Association analysis of NPHS1 genotypes with nephrotic syndrome in Malay
(n=24). ....................................................................................................................... 80
Table 15: Prediction of the effect of amino acid substitution of the various genetic
variants on the protein using SIFT and PolyPhen2. .................................................. 82
Table 16: Effect of the individual NPHS1 SNPs on ESE/ESS sites. ..................................... 84
Table 17: Genetic variants identified in NPHS2 using direct sequencing. ........................ 85
viii
Table 18: Allele frequencies of NPHS2 variants in Chinese (n=97). .................................. 89
Table 19: Genotype frequencies of NPHS2 variants in Chinese (n=97). ........................... 89
Table 20: Association analysis of c.‐51G>T and c.288C>T in Chinese patients (n=97). .... 90
Table 21: Effect of the individual NPHS2 SNPs on ESE/ESS sites. ..................................... 92
Table 22: Genotype‐phenotype association in Chinese patients for NPHS2. .................. 95
Table 23: Allele frequencies for NPHS2 SNPs with phenotype‐genotype associations in
Chinese patients. ....................................................................................................... 96
Table 24: Composite genotype analysis of patients, with race as co‐variant. ................. 98
Table 25: Composite genotype analysis for SRNS patients, with race as co‐variant...... 100
Table 26: Rare NPHS1 and NPHS2 variants identified in NS patients and their minor allele
frequencies in patients and controls. ..................................................................... 102
Table 27: Non‐synonymous NPHS1 and NPHS2 rare variants identified in nephrotic
syndrome patients and their predicted effects ...................................................... 103
Table 28: Rare variants accumulation in nephrotic syndrome patients and controls ... 104
Table 29: Accumulation of rare variants in patients with poor prognosis. .................... 106
Table 30: Clinical characteristics of patients with rare variants. .................................... 107
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Histology of the glomerulus in (A) MCNS and (B) FSGS (Periodic acid‐Shiff stain).
..................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: MCNS and FSGS are the most common histological patterns seen in steroid‐
resistant nephrotic syndrome. .................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: The glomerular filtration barrier. ......................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Distribution of the histological profile in the nephrotic patients. ..................... 69
Figure 5: Normalized high resolution melting curves and the corresponding difference
plots. .......................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 6: Electrophoretograms of the various genetic variants. ...................................... 72
Figure 7: Genotyping results of c.2289C>T and c.3315A>G. ............................................ 73
Figure 8: Electrophoretograms of the various genetic variants. ...................................... 86
Figure 9: Pedigree of Patient 94. .................................................................................... 111
x
List of Abbreviations
ACTN4
Alpha actinin 4
AIC
Akaike Information
ARMS
Amplification refractory mutation system
CD2AP
CD2‐associated proteins
CNF
Congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type
CNI
Calcineurin inhibitors
CNS
Congenital nephrotic syndrome
CsA
Cyclosporine
DAG
Diacylglycerol
DMS
Diffuse mesangial sclerosis
EDTA
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic
ESE
Exon splicing enhancer
ESRD
End stage renal disease
ESS
Exon splicing silencer
FGS
Focal global sclerosis
FMPGN
Focal mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis
FSGS
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
GBM
Glomerular basement membrane
gDNA
Genomic DNA
HRM
High resolution melting
IP3
Inositol 1,4,5‐triphosphate
xi
IQGAP‐1
IQ motif–containing GTPase‐activating protein 1
ISKDC
International Study of Kidney Diseases in Children
MCNS
Minimal change nephrotic syndrome
MPGN
Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis
NS
Nephrotic syndrome
NUH
National University Hospital of Singapore
PCR
Polymerase chain reaction
PFS
Potentially Functional SNP
PI3K
Phosphoinositide 3‐OH kinase
RFLP
Restriction fragment length polymorphism
Rs number
RefSNP accession ID
SD
Slit diaphragm
SDNS
Steroid dependent nephrotic syndrome
SGVP
Singapore Genome Variation Project
SIFT
Sorting intolerant from tolerant
SNP
Single nucleotide polymorphism
SRNS
Steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome
SSNS
Steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome
suPAR
Serum soluble urokinase receptor
TRP
Transient receptor potential
USF
Upstream stimulatory factor
xii
List of Appendices
Appendix I: Clinical characteristics and genotype profile of the patients……………………146
Appendix II: Hardy‐Weinberg Results for NPHS1 and NPHS2 variants………………………..158
Appendix III: Linkage disequilibrium results for NPHS1 and NPHS2 variants……………….163
Appendix IV: Protein sequence alignment for nephrin and podocin…………………………..167
xiii
List of conference abstracts and awards
6th Congress of Asian Society for Paediatrics Research, Taipei, 2010
Title: Comparison of NPHS2 polymorphisms and their associations with end‐stage renal
disease in Chinese and Malay children.
Award: Best Poster Award
11th Asian Congress of Paediatrics Nephrology, Fukuoka, 2011
Title: Nephrin gene variants may account for ethnic differences in susceptibility to
sporadic Nephrotic Syndrome in Singapore children.
Award: Travel grant
8th Congress of Asian Society for Paediatrics Research, Seoul, 2012
Title: Multiple Rare Alleles in Nephrin and Podocin Contribute to Poor Prognosis in
Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome in Singapore.
Nominated for Young Investigator Award
xiv
1. Introduction
1.1. Nephrotic syndrome
Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is a common cause of kidney disease in children. It is
characterized by heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminaemia, oedema and hyperlipidaemia
(Yu et al., 2005). There have been various definitions used to describe nephrotic‐range
proteinuria, including urinary protein excretion ≥3 g/day/1.73m2 or a spot urinary
protein:creatinine ratio ≥0.2 g/mmol (Yap and Lau, 2008).
NS in children can be congenital, which is presented at birth or during first 3 months of
life, or presented in later part of their life. Childhood NS is due to either primary or
secondary causes. Some examples of primary causes are genetic disorders or defects in
the glomerular filtration barrier. Infections, drug usage and immunological or allergic
disorders are some of the secondary causes of childhood NS (Eddy and Symons, 2003).
In this literature review, the main focus would be primary NS in children.
1.1.1. Epidemiology and histological features of childhood NS
The reported incidence of idiopathic NS is 2 to 7 cases per 100 000 children. It has a
prevalence of approximately 16 cases per 100 000 (Eddy and Symons, 2003). The two
distinct histological features of primary idiopathic NS in children are minimal change
nephrotic syndrome (MCNS), and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (Figure 1).
1
Fiigure 1: Histtology of the
e glomerulus in (A) MCN
NS and (B) FFSGS (Period
dic acid‐Shifff
sttain).
MCNS,
M
which
h is characte
erized by minor
m
morphhological alteration in p
podocytes, is the
most
m
commo
on pathologiical type in childhood nnephrotic syyndrome. (Zhu et al., 2
2009,
Laahdenkari et al., 2005). On light microscopy,
m
tthe glomeru
ulus for MCN
NS looks no
ormal,
whereas
w
elecctron microscopy show
ws the preseence of efffacement off the glomeerular
epithelial foo
ot processes during relap
pses of the ddisease (Kum
mar et al., 20
003)
FSSGS is characterized byy a commo
on pattern oof glomerulaar injury that is defineed by
se
egmental sclerotic lesions invading a populatioon of glomerruli (Tsukagu
uchi et al., 2
2002).
This is often associated with tubulaar scarring aand interstittial fibrosis. Five varian
nts of
FSSGS have been defined
d according to their paathology: co
ollapsing, ceellular, tip leesion,
perihilar and not‐otherw
wise‐specified
d (Thomas eet al., 2006)). FSGS is also an impo
ortant
mary nephrottic syndrome in adults. FFSGS carriess a poor proggnosis with more
caause of prim
th
han 25% of cchildren and
d adults proggressing to eend stage reenal diseasee (ESRD) in w
within
five years of onset of NSS (McKenzie et al., 20077). It has beeen observed
d that there is an
2
increased incidence of FSGS in both children and adults, especially in black individuals in
the United States (Eddy and Symons, 2003, Mollet et al., 2009).
1.1.2. Clinical course of childhood NS
Steroids are the mainstay of therapy for children with NS. The initial steroid treatment is
prednisone 60 mg/m2 per day for 4 weeks, with the maximum dosage to be 80mg. This
is followed by prednisone 40 mg/m2 on alternate days for 4 weeks, with a steroid taper
over 3 to 6 months (Eddy and Symons, 2003). Steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome
(SSNS) is defined as patients being able to enter remission in response to corticosteroid
treatment alone. Steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) is the inability to induce
remission after 8 weeks of corticosteroid treatment. Steroid dependent nephrotic
syndrome (SDNS) is the initial response to corticosteroid treatment by entering
complete remission but the development of relapse either while still receiving steroids
or within 2 weeks of discontinuation of treatment following a steroid taper. Patients
with SDNS require the continued low‐dose treatment with steroids to prevent
development of relapse (Gbadegesin and Smoyer, 2008).
A multicenter International Study of Kidney Diseases in Children (ISKDC) study was
performed on more than 521 children with idiopathic NS in the late 70s and early 80s.
The study revealed that approximately 80% of children with idiopathic NS respond to
steroid therapy. Steroid responsiveness was observed in 93% of the children with MCNS,
compared to only 30% of children with FSGS (Gbadegesin and Smoyer, 2008).
3
Twenty percent of children with NS are resistant to steroid therapy. They fail to respond
to corticosteroids (Schwaderer et al., 2008). According to the study by ISKDC, for the
103 children who were steroid‐resistant, MCNS, FSGS and membranoproliferative
glomerulonephritis (MPGN) were the most prevalent lesions present, each accounting
for approximately 25% of the histological findings (ISKDC, 1981) (Figure 2). In Singapore,
renal biopsies of 47 children with SRNS showed that MCNS (30%) and FSGS (49%) were
the two main causes of SRNS (Yap, 2005) (Figure 2). The prognosis for children with
SRNS is often poor. They usually rapidly progress to end stage renal disease within 10
years from diagnosis (Kitamura et al., 2006, Schultheiss et al., 2004). These children are
also more prone to more complicated clinical and therapeutic course, which will result
in ESRD in 30 to 40% (Schwaderer et al., 2008) .
4
Fiigure 2: MC
CNS and FSG
GS are the m
most commo
on histologiccal patternss seen in steeroid‐
re
esistant nep
phrotic syndrome.
CGN: Chronicc glomerulonephritis. DMH:
D
Diffusee mesangial hypercellullarity. FGS: Focal
global glome
erulosclerosis. FSGS: Focal segmenttal glomeru
ulonephritis. MCNS: Min
nimal
ch
hange neph
hrotic syndrrome. Mem
mbGN: Mem
mbranous glomerulonep
phritis. MessPGN:
Mesangial
M
proliferativve glomerulonephritiis. MPGN
N: Membranoproliferrative
glomerulonep
phritis.
5
Despite the fact that most patients with MCNS are steroid sensitive, the treatment of
MCNS remains a great challenge to nephrologists as up to 70% of them experienced
frequent relapses. Furthermore, some patients could not achieve complete remission
with steroid treatment (steroid‐resistant) (Koskimies et al., 1982, Tarshish et al., 1997)
and therefore have to be treated with immunosuppressive drugs such as tacrolimus,
cyclophoshamide and cyclosporine (Li et al., 2009, Hino et al., 1998, Gulati et al., 2008).
Nevertheless, the prolonged use of corticosteroids results in adverse side effects such as
growth retardation, obesity, infections, hypertension, osteoporosis and cataracts. In
addition, use of alternative drugs such as alkylating agents and calcinuerin inhibitors
carry with it the potential risk of infections, infertility, malignancy and nephrotoxicity.
This indicated a need for better therapeutic approaches (Kyrieleis et al., 2009, Hodson
et al., 2004, Gipson et al., 2009).
Interestingly, there is a small group of patients who responded well to steroids initially
but later became resistant to steroids in their clinical course. This late steroid resistance
is a rare phenomenon, and its pathophysiology is still not well studied. Patients with late
steroid resistance have clinical findings quite similar to that of SSNS rather than SRNS.
They also respond to cytostatic drugs with good prognosis of stable maintenance of
renal function (Schwaderer et al., 2008).
6
1.1.3. Pathogenesis of nephrotic syndrome
The cause of idiopathic NS is usually due to either structural defects or immunological
imbalance.
Immunology and nephrotic syndrome
Idiopathic NS was histologically thought to be an immunological disorder. Infections and
immunological disorders, such as Epstein‐Barr virus infection (Blowey, 1996, Araya et al.,
2006) and Hodgkins’ lymphoma (Peces et al., 1991) which causes lymphadenopathy and
lymphoproliferation, were found to be associated with NS. Efficacy using
immunosuppressants to alleviate proteinuria and induce remission further suggested an
immunologic basis in the pathogenesis of NS.
MCNS is hypothesized to be caused by immunological imbalance as MCNS patients
responded robustly to immunosuppression and their relapse is usually due to
immunological events such as infection and allergic reaction (Shono et al., 2009). The T‐
cell mediated immunity is hypothesized to be involved in the pathogenesis of MCNS.
The imbalance of T‐helper cells in MCNS patients leads to an increase in cytokine
secretions. These cytokines serve as circulating factors that alter the glomerular
permeability of the glomerular capillary wall (Shono et al., 2009, Lahdenkari et al., 2004).
However, the molecular identification of these humoral factors and the mechanisms by
which they compromise the filtration barrier remain unknown (Shono et al., 2009).
7
Recurrence of proteinuria occurs in approximately 30 to 40% of FSGS patients after
renal transplantation. Proteinuria can recur immediately after transplantation or can be
delayed for days to weeks. Plasmapheresis or immunoadsorption reduces proteinuria
and may also stabilize renal function in recurrent FSGS. Plasma from these recurrent
FSGS patients, when injected into experimental animals can induce proteinuria or
albuminuria. All these suggested the presence of plasma circulating factor that may be
involved in glomerular damage and the initiation of glomerular events which contribute
to the development of proteinuria in FSGS (Sharma et al., 1999, Sharma et al., 2004) .
Cardiotrophin like cytokine‐1 has been identified as a possible candidate for the FSGS
permeability factor(McCarthy et al., 2010). More recently, serum soluble urokinase
receptor (suPAR) was identified as a circulating factor as a cause for both primary and
recurrent FSGS. Elevated suPAR was observed in patients with FSGS and this elevated
suPAR concentration was associated with an increased risk of recurrent FSGS after
transplantation (Wei et al., 2011).
Glomerular filtration barrier and nephrotic syndrome
The glomerular filtration barrier is the principle structure within the glomerulus, which
mediates the filtration of proteins. A dysfunction in the glomerular filtration barrier
results in the increased permeability to plasma proteins to the glomerular capillary wall.
This eventually leads to proteinuria, a hallmark of NS.
8
The glomerullar filtration barrier is m
made up of thhree layers, the glomeru
ular endotheelium
ce
ells, the glom
merular basement mem
mbrane (GBM
M) and visceeral epitheliaal cells which are
also known as podocytess (Figure 3).
Fiigure 3: The glomerularr filtration baarrier.
The glomerullar filtration barrier is m
made up of tthe capillaryy endotheliaal cells, GBM
M and
w
their fo
oot processses. The sliit diaphragm
m connectss the podo
ocytes
podocytes with
ogether. The
e slit diaphragm‐associiated moleccules includee nephrin, podocin, CD
D2AP,
to
TRPC6 and NEPH. The G
GBM is comp
posed of thee collagen tyype IV, lamiinin and hep
paran
su
ulphate pro
oteoglycan agrin.
a
Integrrins are hetterodimeric transmemb
brance receptors
which specifi
w
cally connecct the TVP co
omplex (talinn, vinculin and paxillin) tto laminin. TThe α
and β dystrogglycans conn
nect utrophiin to agrin. ((Adapted fro
om: Kriz, W.. 2005. TRPC
C6 ‐ a
new podocyte gene invollved in focal segmental gglomeruloscclerosis. Tren
nds Mol Med
d, 11,
527‐30 (Kriz, 2005))
9
The glomerular endothelial cells are flattened and highly fenestrated. They form the
interface between blood and tissue components. They are also responsible for the
regulation of vasotone, homeostasis and trafficking of leucocytes. Their role in the
selective filtration seem to be insignificant as they are highly fenestrated and highly
permeable to water and small solutes (Ballermann, 2005). All of the filtration barrier
structures (endothelium cell glycocalyx, GBM and podocyte glycocalyx) demonstrate
anionic charges, indicating that all structures act together for the total selectivity of the
barrier. This means that the glomerular endothelium could have a function for
glomerular permeability. Previous studies done by Jeansson and Haraldsson indicated
that digestion with chondroitinase decreased the thickness of the glomerular
endothelium glycocalyx. This resulted in increased fractional clearance for albumin due
to the change in the charge selectivity (Jeansson and Haraldsson, 2006).
The layer surrounding the endothelium is the glomerular basement membrane. The
GBM is thicker compared to other basement membranes because of the dense
structure of the extracellular matrix components. This is to provide structural support
for the capillary wall that is necessary for the maintenance of the local high blood
pressure. The GBM is made up of mainly collagen type IV, laminins, nidogen, and
proteoglycans that contribute to the selective permeability of the GBM based on size
and charge (Levidiotis and Power, 2005). Initially the GBM was thought to be the
important structure of the glomerular filtration barrier. Hence, many studies were
focused on its structure. Structural abnormalities of the GBM may result in proteinuria
10
and hematuria, as observed in the X‐linked form of Alport’s syndrome that is due to
mainly collagen IVα5 chain mutations and also collagen IV α3 and α4 chains (Barker et
al., 1990). Severe or truncating mutations in the LAMB2 gene, which encodes for laminin
β2 in GBM, result in congenital NS (CNS) associated with microcoria (Zenker et al., 2004,
VanDeVoorde et al., 2006). In recent years, the identification of several novel proteins
involved in the glomerular permeability has identified the podocytes as an important
constituent of the glomerular filtration barrier.
1.2. Podocytes: Their role in nephrotic syndrome
Podocytes are highly specialized and terminally differentiated epithelial cells that line
the outer surface of the GBM. Differentiated podocytes are mesenchymal‐like cells
which arise from epithelial precursors during renal development. They are made up of
three morphological and functionally different segments, namely the cell bodies, the
major processes and lastly the foot processes. The foot processes are derived from the
splitting of the major processes from the cell bodies. These foot processes consist of an
actin cytoskeleton which linked to the GBM in focal contacts. The foot processes form a
tight interdigitating network with their neighbouring podocytes foot processes that are
connected by a continuous membrane‐like structure known as the slit diaphragm (SD)
(Mundel and Kriz, 1995).
11
1.2.1. The slit diaphragm
The SD is an important structure that regulates the selectivity of size in the glomerular
filtration barrier. It restricts the protein passage through the filter, therefore being
responsible for a largely protein free filtrate (Reiser et al., 2000). The three‐dimensional
molecular architectural of the SD observed under electron microscopy revealed that it is
made up of a convoluted network of irregularly shaped pores emanating from a central
dense region (Wartiovaara et al., 2004). The intercellular space connected by the SD is
30 to 40nm wide. The rectangular pores of the zipper have an approximate size of an
albumin molecule (Rodewald and Karnovsky, 1974). The SD is a modified adherens
junction, sharing some typical morphological features, such as wide intercellar gap,
presence of a central dense line in grazing sections, with an adherens junction (Reiser et
al., 2000).
Several molecules have been identified to be associated with the structure of the SD.
The first molecule that was reported was ZO‐1, which is located in the epithelial foot
processes at the points of insertion of the SD (Schnabel et al., 1990). Nephrin was
discovered to be a component of the slit diaphragm (Patrakka et al., 2000). P‐cadherin
was detected at the slit diaphragm together with ZO‐1. Resier et al. suggested that P‐
cadherin to be the core protein of the slit diaphragm (Reiser et al., 2000). Other
molecules associated with the SD include Neph 1, FAT, TRPC6, coupled with podocin and
CD2‐associated proteins (CD2AP) linked to the actin cytoskeleton of podocytes (Figure 3)
(Reiser et al., 2000, Schwarz et al., 2001).
12
CD2AP
CD2AP is an adapter molecule which is originally identified as a ligand for the T‐cell
adhesion protein CD2. It is an 80kDa cytoplasmic protein that has three Src homology 3
(SH3) domains at the N terminus and a coiled domain at the C‐terminus. It is expressed
in all the tissues, except for the brain (Gigante et al., 2009). The expression of CD2AP is
limited to podocytes within the glomeruli. However, it is also expressed in the collecting
duct cells and some proximal tubular cells (Li et al., 2000). Mice with CD2AP knockout
developed NS and later died of renal failure at 6 to 7 weeks of age (Shih et al., 1999).
Mice with CD2AP haploinsufficiency exhibited glomerular change at 9 month of age and
had increased susceptibility to glomerular injury. This suggested that the intracellular
degradation pathway could be impaired; implicating that CD2AP could be a determinant
of human susceptibility to glomerular disease (Kim et al., 2003). In SD, CD2AP may
function as an adaptor protein to anchor the C‐terminal cytoplasmic domain of nephrin
and/or podocin to the actin cytoskeleton. CD2AP is also involved with nephrin and
podocin in cell signaling pathway (Mao et al., 2006).
Nephrin
Nephrin is a transmembrane protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. It
has an N‐terminal signal peptide, an extracellular domain that containing eight
immunoglobulin motifs, a fibronectin type III‐like domain, a transmembrane domain and
lastly a cytosolic C‐terminal domain (Kestila et al., 1998, Lenkkeri et al., 1999). Nephrin is
localized within normal human kidney and is distinctly localized at the SD of the
13
glomerular podocytes (Holthofer et al., 1999, Patrakka et al., 2000). Mice with nephrin
knockout have no slit diaphragm and died at the age of birth with massive proteinuria
(Putaala et al., 2001).
Nephrin plays an important role in the signaling pathways of the podocytes which are
essential for podocytes function, survival and differentiation (Patrakka and Tryggvason,
2007). Nephrin, together with CD2AP, associates with the p85 regulatory subunit of
phosphoinositide 3‐OH kinase (PI3K). Together with podocin, the PI3K‐dependent AKT
signaling was stimulated, controlling the growth, migration and survival of podocytes
(Huber et al., 2003a). The tyrosine residues at the cytoplasmic end of nephrin are
phosphorylated by Src kinases (Fyn‐dependent phosphorylation). This signals the
development of podocytes foot processes which involve actin microfilaments
polymerization and interconnection between proteins at slit diaphragm (Lahdenpera et
al., 2003, Li et al., 2004). Phosphorylation of nephrin by Fyn initiates a cascade of
effectors which inactivated pro‐apoptotic factor Bad (Huber et al., 2003a) and therefore
promotes anti‐apoptotic signals (Asanuma et al., 2007). This protects the podocytes
from apoptosis.
Podocin
Podocin is a 383 amino acid protein, which has a molecular size of 42kDa. It belongs to
the stomatin protein family. It is made up of an N‐terminal domain, a short
transmembrane domain and a cytosolic C‐terminal domain, forming a hairpin like
14
structure (Boute et al., 2000). Podocin was found to be localized to the podocytes foot
processes membrane, at the insertion of the slit diaphragm (Schwarz et al., 2001, Roselli
et al., 2002). Mice that were deficient in podocin exhibited massive proteinuria at birth.
The podocyte foot processes were occasionally observed. These mice died a few days
later from renal failure caused by massive mesangial sclerosis (Roselli et al., 2004). The
inactivation of podocin in the mature kidney of mouse led to a different phenotype.
These mice had progressive renal disease and showed the features of NS, such as
hyperlipidemia, hypertension and renal insufficiency (Mollet et al., 2009).
Podocin forms homo‐oligomers and associates with the lipid rafts (Schwarz et al., 2001).
Podocin acts as a scaffolding protein that mediates the recruitment of nephrin into the
specialized microdomains of the plasma membrane of podocytes. It provides nephrin
with a specialized lipid environment which is necessary for nephrin signal
transduction(Huber et al., 2003b). Podocin has been found to increase the efficiency of
nephrin signaling without the recruitment of other signaling molecules. The cytoplasmic
tail of nephrin binds to podocin and this interaction is mediated by the C‐terminal
domain of podocin (Huber et al., 2001). The phosphorylation of nephrin also increases
the binding of nephrin and podocin (Li et al., 2004).
TRPC6
TRPC6 is a member of the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of cation
selective ion channels. TRP (TRPC1 – TRPC7) subfamily is a group of calcium permeable
15
cation channels which are important in the increase of intracellular calcium
concentration after the engagement of G‐protein coupled receptors and receptor
tyrosine kinase. They can also form homo‐ and hetero tetramers that can interact with a
variety of proteins. TRPC6 is expressed in podocytes and is a component of the
glomerular SD (Reiser et al., 2005). TRPC6 deficient mice have been generated.
However, the young mice that are deficient in TRPC6 did not show an overt kidney
phenotype. This could be due to the late onset of TRPC6‐related NS; hence there could
be a need to study aged deficient mice. Another hypothesis is that the mice could only
develop NS in a stressed condition such as hypertension in the absence of TRPC6
channel (Moller et al., 2009).
TRPC6 has been found to interact with nephrin and podocin but not CD2AP. TRPC6 was
found to be clustered and regulated by a podocin‐lipid complex. The absence of nephrin
in a nephrin knockout mouse induced the expression of TRPC6 and led to altered
cellular localization of TRPC6 (Reiser et al., 2005). TRPC6 is a target of phosphorylation
by Fyn, enhancing its channel activity. TRPC6 assembles in complex with nephrin and
Fyn at the SD. This complex is partially regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation of nephrin
and/or TRPC6 (Hisatsune et al., 2004). The roles of TRPC6 in the podocin‐TRPC6
mechnosensor complex and nephrin‐Fyn‐TRPC6 complex suggest that TRPC6 is
important in the maintenance of the integrity of SD. These complexes relate the calcium
signaling cascade into the foot processes of podocytes that are essential in the dynamic,
contractile podocytes actin cytoskeleton.
16
PLCε1
PLCε1 belongs to the phospholipase C family of proteins. These proteins have an
essential role in the coupling of G‐protein coupled receptors by catalyzing the hydrolysis
of polyphosphoinositides such as phosphatidylinositol‐4,5‐bisphosphate to generate the
second messengers inositol 1,4,5‐triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3
releases calcium from intracellular storage. The elevated calcium level leads to a series
of signaling cascades. DAG activates protein kinase C, which in turn modulates the
activity of many proteins by phosphorylation. All these are essential for cell growth and
differentiation. PLCε1 has both RasGEF and Ras‐associating domains and may serve as
an activator and an effector of small GTPases (Zhou and Hildebrandt, 2009). PLCε1 was
found to be expressed in the glomeruli, dominantly in the cell bodies of podocytes. The
expression of PLCε1 appears at the S‐shaped stage of glomerular development and is
highly expressed during the early capillary loop stage (Hinkes et al., 2006).
A zebrafish with PLCε1 knockdown model was generated to investigate the role of
PLCε1 in the maintenance of the podocyte filtration barrier during development.
Characteristic pathological features of NS, together with foot process effacement and
severe disorganization of SD were observed in zebrafish with knockdown PLCε1. The
absence of PLCε1 has been found to be associated with a significant reduction in
nephrin expression and may arrest the development of glomerulus at the capillary loop
stage. PLCε1 has been identified to interact with IQ motif–containing GTPase‐activating
protein 1 (IQGAP‐1), which is known to interact and co‐localize with nephrin. IQGAP‐1 is
17
a podocyte cell junction‐associated protein. Its expression is observed in the S‐staged
and capillary loop stages of glomerular development. This suggests that PLCε1 may have
a role as an assembly scaffold for the organization of a multimolecular complex involved
in morphogenetic processes of glomerular development at the capillary loop stage
(Hinkes et al., 2006).
1.2.2. Cytoskeletal proteins
Actin cytoskeletal proteins play an important role in the regulation of the plasticity of
the podocyte cytoskeleton. Therefore they are important in the maintenance of the
filtration barrier. Alpha actinin 4 (ACTN4) is an actin bundling protein that is responsible
for the integrity of the podocyte cytoskeleton associated with cell motility. Actinin
proteins are widely expressed in human tissues, but only ACTN4 is significantly
expressed in the human kidney. Kos et al. generated mice that were ACTN4 deficient,
which developed severely damaged podocytes and progressive kidney disease. The
deficiency in ACTN4 increased the fluidity of podocytes and also altered the cell motility
and cell adhesion. This study showed that ACTN4 is important for cell movement and
also normal podocyte function (Kos et al., 2003). Dandapani et al. showed the
interaction of ACTN4 with GBM molecules. ACTN4‐deficient mice had lesser amount of
podocytes per glomerulus and podocyte markers were detected in their urine. The
podocyte cells line derived from these mice also showed less adherence to the GBM
components, collagen IV and laminins‐10 and laminin‐11. ACTN4 maintains the
glomerular architecture and prevents disease (Dandapani et al., 2007).
18
Cathepsin L is a lysosomal protease which has an important role in intracellular protein
degradation and activation of enzyme precursors. Podocytes express low levels of
cathepsin L in their lysosomes under normal physiological condition. Resier et al.
reported that the increased expression and activity of capthepsin L was associated with
the onset of proteinuria. The increased activity of cathepsin L is functionally significant
as it is required for podocyte migration and detachment from the extracellular matrix.
Cathepsin L may alter the size‐ and charge‐selective properties of the filtration barrier. It
also may modify extracellular moieties to engage a subset of integrins or dystroglycans
on the foot processes of podocytes allowing the foot processes to spread on the GBM,
thus establishing podocyte effacement (Reiser et al., 2004).
1.2.3. Cell matrix adhesion complexes
The two major adhesion complexes found at the podocyte‐GBM interface are α3β1‐
integrins (Adler, 1992), and α/β‐dystroglycans (Oh et al., 2004, Raats et al., 2000). Figure
3 illustrates the molecules at the podocytes‐GBM interfaces and linkage to the foot
processes actin cytoskeleton.
Integrins are heterodimeric transmembrance receptors which anchor the cell to the
extracellular matrix by binding to their ligands in the GBM. They play a role in signal
transduction, relaying information about adhesion to control cell growth and structure.
α3β1‐integrin knockout mice were observed to be unable to form mature foot
processes, displaying GBM fragmentation and abnormal lung maturation (Kreidberg et
19
al., 1996). Since no podocyte detachment was seen, it is hypothesized that α3β1‐
integrin does not have a primary adhesion function. The signaling of α3β1‐integrin
through kinases at the adhesion site also modulates actin polymerization (Blattner and
Kretzler, 2005).
Dystroglycans are expressed specifically at the basal cell membrane of the foot
processes of podocytes. It is synthesized as a large precursor that is post‐translationally
cleaved into two different forms that are noncovalently linked to each other: α‐
dystroglycan and β‐dystroglycan (Oh et al., 2004). The cytoplasmic tail of β‐dystroglycan
directly interacts with actin filaments of the cytoskeleton. Regele et al. investigated the
expression of dystroglycan in MCNS and FSGS. The density of α‐dystroglycan was
significantly reduced in patients with MCNS, but normal in healthy kidneys and FSGS.
The expression of β‐dystroglycan was reduced even more significantly in MCNS patients
(Regele et al., 2000). The gene expression level of dystroglycan was also found to be
reduced significantly in an IL‐13 overexpression rat model (Lai et al., 2007).
1.2.4. Podocytes and Nephrotic syndrome
The phenotypes of podocytes and the expression of SD proteins may be different in
different form of NS. In MCNS, the podocytes have a switch in their phenotype from
cells with foot processes protruding from its basal surface to cells without basal
processes. They instead have acquired microvillus protrusions on their apical cell surface
(microvillus transformation) (Wiggins, 2007). Horinouchi et al. had reported that the
20
expression of podocin did not decrease in patients with MCNS (Horinouchi et al., 2003).
Mao et al. reported that although a normal level of nephrin mRNA was observed in
patients with MCNS, the amount of nephrin in glomerulus was reduced. The expression
of nephrin was granular and the degree of granulation depends on the degree of foot
process effacement. In addition, a decreased level of CD2AP mRNA and protein was also
observed in MCNS patients. This could suggest that nephrin and CD2AP are two
important molecules in the complex of molecules that assemble and stabilize the SD
(Mao et al., 2006). There was no loss in the number of podocytes present in MCNS
patients. This could explain why patients might have a good prognosis for renal function.
Since the podocytes in MCNS only undergo a change in the phenotype, patients
therefore responded well to glucocorticoids as podocytes can revert back to their
normal phenotypes (Wiggins, 2007).
FSGS is a heterogeneous condition that is commonly associated with podocyte injury.
Hara et al. had reported in their study urinary loss of podocytes in FSGS and MCNS
patients. They observed that the urinary loss of podocytes in FSGS was higher compared
to those with MCNS. This suggested that the podocyte injury in FSGS patients was more
serious, explaining why the prognosis in FSGS was poorer. The effacement of podocytes
was identified as the initial event in FSGS. Podocytes have a limited ability to repair and
were unable to replicate postnatally. This is why there is no increase in podocytes
numbers during post natal and compensatory growth (Hara et al., 2001). Horinouchi et
al. reported that podocin expression in 74% of FSGS cases was either decreased or
21
absent. In FSGS, patients with sufficient podocin expression tended to have a better
prognosis that those without podocin expression (Horinouchi et al., 2003). Over the
years, several podocyte‐associated genes have been identified to contribute to the
development of FSGS.
1.3. Genetics of nephrotic syndrome
In recent years, podocyte‐associated proteins have come into focus with regards to the
pathogenesis of NS. Different genes have been associated with different forms of NS
(Table 1). Nephrin was first identified to be the causative gene for congenital nephrotic
syndrome of the Finnish type. Podocin was found to be associated with the autosomal
recessive SRNS and also sporadic cases of SRNS. CD2AP mutations were found to be
associated with sporadic NS and FSGS. However, the reports on CD2AP mutations are
scarce and complete segregation data are unavailable in cases with heterozygous
mutations. Hence, the exact role of CD2AP is still unknown. Mutations in ACTN4 and
TRPC6 were associated with the autosomal dominant form of familial FSGS. Mutated
ACTN4 proteins demonstrated higher affinity to F‐actin, and hence may change the
mechanical characteristics of podocytes (Kaplan et al., 2000). Mutations in TRPC6
resulted in a gain of function. Mutations in WT1 affect the DNA‐binding affinity of WT1
to the target gene. Heterozygous de novo mutations in WT1 resulting in the inability of
zinc fingers to bind to DNA, are seen in Denys‐Drash syndrome, a condition associated
with CNS, male pseudohermphroditism, ambiguous genitalia, 46XY karyotype and Wilms’
tumour (Natoli et al., 2002). Mutations in the donor splice site in intron 9 of the WT‐1
22
gene results in the Frasier syndrome, and leads to alternative splicing and loss of the
+KTS isoform the protein. This syndrome is characterized by nephrotic syndrome due to
FSGS, and associated with male pseudohermphroditism with normal female external
genitalia, streak gonads and 46XY karyotype, without the risk of Wilms’ tumor (Klamt et
al., 1998). PLCE1 is identified to be involved in familial early‐onset NS and ESRD.
Recently, Kopp et al. have identified MYH9 as a major effect risk gene for FSGS in African
Americans (Kopp et al., 2008). In this literature review, the role of NPHS1 and NPHS2 in
NS will be discussed in detail. Table 2 summarizes some common genetic variants
identified in NPHS1 and NPHS2 in studies carried out on patients with familial NS and/or
sporadic NS.
23
Slit diaphragm
Table 1: Summary of genetic involvement in pathogenesis of nephrotic syndrome.
Clinical Diseases
Mode of
Inheritance
Finnish type
Congenital NS
Autosomal
recessive
Autosomal
recessive
Autosomal
recessive
SRNS
FSGS
SR‐FSGS
Glomerular
Basement
membrane
Podocyte cell body
Familial FSGS
Autosomal
dominant
Autosomal
dominant
Autosomal
recessive
Early‐onset familial
NS
Denys‐Drash
de novo
syndrome and Frasier
dominant
syndrome
Autosomal
FSGS
dominant
Autosomal
FSGS
dominant
Pierson syndrome
Autosomal
recessive
Protein encoded
Gene
Gene Locus Reference Authors
NPHS1
19q13.1
(Kestila et al., 1998)
NPHS2
1q25‐q31
(Boute et al., 2000)
CD2AP
6
(Gigante et al., 2009)
Transient receptor
Influx of Ca2+ activating signalling
potential cation channel
cascade
6
TRPC6
11q21‐q22
(Reiser et al., 2005)
Alpha actinin 4
Mediators of actin signalling cascade
ACTN4
19q13
(Kaplan et al., 2000)
Phospholipase C epsilon
Regulator of Ca2+ influx from TRPC6
PLCE1
10q23
(Hinkes et al., 2006)
Wilms tumor 1
Transcription factor that regulates
podocyte proteins
WT1
11q13
(Kreidberg et al., 1993,
Natoli et al., 2002)
Synpo
Mediators of actin signalling cascade
and cell migration
Synpo
5q33.1
(Asanuma et al., 2005,
Dai et al., 2010)
Nonmuscle myosin11A
heavy chain
Actin‐based motility
MYH9
22q12.3
(Kopp et al., 2008)
Laminin beta2 chain
Glomerular development
LAMB2
3q21
(Miner et al., 2006,
Jarad et al., 2006)
Nephrin
Podocin
CD2 associated protein
Protein function
Key protein that mediate signalling at
podocyte slit diaphragm
Integral membrane protein that
facilitate nephrin signalling
Interacts with nephrin and binds actin
24
Table 2: NPHS1 and NPHS2 genetic variants identified in familial and sporadic
nephrotic syndrome.
Exon
Variant
Protein Ethnic
Disease
Reference
NPHS1
2
c.65C>T
A22V
European
SRNS
(Schultheiss et al., 2004)
3
c.294C>T I98I
Korean
SRNS
(Kitamura et al., 2006)
Japanese
3
c.349G>A E117K European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
Korean
SRNS
(Kitamura et al., 2006)
Japanese
7
c.791C>G P264R Caucasian FSGS
(Lowik et al., 2008)
(Santin et al., 2009b)
10
c.1223G>A R408Q European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
FSGS
(Santin et al., 2009b)
17
c.2289C>T V763V European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
Korean
SRNS
(Kitamura et al., 2006)
Japanese
Sporadic NS (Mao et al., 2007)
Chinese
18
c.2398C>T R800C European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
Chinese
Sporadic NS (Mao et al., 2007)
18
c.2479C>A R827X European
SRNS
(Philippe et al., 2008)
FSGS
(Santin et al., 2009b)
22
c.2928G>T R976S European
SRNS
(Philippe et al., 2008)
FSGS
(Santin et al., 2009b)
24
c.3230A>G N1077S European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
26
c.3315G>A S1105S European
MCNS
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004)
Korean
SRNS
(Kitamura et al., 2006)
Japanese
Sporadic NS (Mao et al., 2007)
Chinese
NPHS2
Promoter c.‐51G>T ‐
Chinese
SRNS
(Yu et al., 2005)
European
MCNS
(Di Duca et al., 2006)
American
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Zhu et al., 2009)
1
c.59C>T
P20L
European
SRNS/SDNS (Caridi et al., 2003)
American
(Ruf et al., 2004)
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Santin et al., 2011)
2
c.288C>T S96S
European
Familial and (Karle et al., 2002)
Chinese
sporadic NS (Yu et al., 2005)
American
SRNS
(Gbadegesin et al.,
MCNS
2007)
25
Exon
Variant
Protein Ethnic
Disease
3
c.413G>A
R138Q
Familial NS
FSGS
SRNS/SDNS
4
c.503G>A
R168H
5
c.538G>A
European
African
Chinese
V180M European
African
American
5
c.686G>A
R229Q
European
American
African
c.725C>T
A242V
European
7
c.871C>T
R291W European
American
African
European
American
African
SRNS
Reference
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Zhu et al., 2009)
(Boute et al., 2000)
(Karle et al., 2002)
(Tsukaguchi et al., 2002)
(Caridi et al., 2003)
(Ruf et al., 2004)
(Weber et al., 2004)
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Tonna et al., 2008)
(Lowik et al., 2008)
(Jungraithmayr et al.,
2011)
(Weber et al., 2004)
(Yu et al., 2004)
Familial NS
Sporadic NS
SRNS
FSGS
(Boute et al., 2000)
(Caridi et al., 2001)
(Karle et al., 2002)
(Ruf et al., 2004)
(Weber et al., 2004)
(Tonna et al., 2008)
Familial NS (Karle et al., 2002)
Sporadic NS (Tsukaguchi et al., 2002)
SRNS/SDNS (Caridi et al., 2003)
(Weber et al., 2004)
(Schultheiss et al., 2004)
(Gbadegesin et al.,
2007)
(Tonna et al., 2008)
(Jungraithmayr et al.,
2011)
FSGS
(Tsukaguchi et al., 2002)
(Jungraithmayr et al.,
2011)
(Santin et al., 2011)
Familial NS (Boute et al., 2000)
FSGS
(Karle et al., 2002)
SRNS
(Tsukaguchi et al., 2002)
(Ruf et al., 2004)
(Weber et al., 2004)
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
26
Exon
Variant
Protein Ethnic
Disease
8
c.954T>C
A318A
European
Japanese
Chinese
American
Familial and
sporadic NS
SRNS
MCNS
8
c.1038A>G L346L
European
Japanese
Chinese
American
Familial and
sporadic NS
SRNS
MCNS
Reference
(Santin et al., 2011)
(Karle et al., 2002)
(Maruyama et al., 2003)
(Yu et al., 2004)
(Yu et al., 2005)
(Di Duca et al., 2006)
(Mao et al., 2007)
(Gbadegesin et al.,
2007)
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Zhu et al., 2009)
(Karle et al., 2002)
(Maruyama et al., 2003)
(Yu et al., 2005)
(Di Duca et al., 2006)
(Mao et al., 2007)
(Gbadegesin et al.,
2007)
(McKenzie et al., 2007)
(Zhu et al., 2009)
27
1.3.1. NPHS1: The gene encoding for nephrin
NPHS1 is located on the chromosome 19q13.1 and has 29 exons. It codes for nephrin
which has 1241 amino acids. The first exon codes for the signal peptide, and exon 2 to
20 code for the region containing the immunoglobulin motifs. Each immunoglobulin
motif is encoded by two exons each, with exception to motif Ig‐2, that is encoded by
three exons. The fibronectin type III‐like domain is encoded by exon 22 and 23. Exon 24
codes for the transmembrane domain. Exons 25 to 29 code for the cytosolic domain and
3’UTR (Lenkkeri et al., 1999). Kestilä et al. first identified mutations in NPHS1 in
congenital NS of the Finnish type (CNF) by positional cloning (Kestila et al., 1998). To
date, more than 90 mutations (missense, nonsense, deletion, insertion, splice site and
promoter) in NPHS1 have been identified (Santin et al., 2009b).
Nephrin and congenital nephrotic syndrome
Mutations in NPHS1 have been reported to be the common cause of congenital NS
(CNS). CNS is defined as NS which occurs in utero or during the first 3 months of life.
CNF is an autosomal recessive disease that occurs with an incidence rate of 1:10000
births in Finland but less frequently in other countries (Kestila et al., 1998). Kestilä et al.
reported two major mutations in their study of 49 Finnish patients with CNF. These 2
mutations were found in more than 90% of their subjects, either in homozygous or
heterozygous state. The first mutation is Finmajor (nt121 (del2)) which is deletion of
nucleotide 121‐122 CT in exon 2, resulting in a truncated protein of only 90 amino acids.
The second mutation is Finminor (R1109X) which is a nonsense mutation in exon 26 that
28
results in a truncated protein of 1109 amino acids where part of the intracellular domain
is lost (Kestila et al., 1998). Glomerular extracts from kidneys with these two mutations
were stained negative for nephrin and these kidneys also lack slit diaphragm. These
mutations have resulted in the total lack of functional nephrin in affected patients
(Patrakka et al., 2000).
Finmajor and Finmajor mutations, however, are not as frequent in other Caucasian
populations (Gigante et al., 2002, Heeringa et al., 2008, Lenkkeri et al., 1999) and Asian
populations (Aya et al., 2000, Lee et al., 2009, Sako et al., 2005). This suggests that each
ethnic group may have their own unique NPHS1mutatons. An example is seen in the
Mennonite population, which have 2 unique mutations (c.1481delC and c.3250delG)
that are not seen in non‐Mennonite patients (Beltcheva et al., 2001). Another example
is seen in the Japanese population which has 2 unique mutations (c.2515delC and c.736
G>T) (Aya et al., 2009).
Many NPHS1mutation have been reported among the Caucasian populations of CNS.
Lenkkeri et al. reported 32 novel mutations in their group of Finnish and non‐Finnish
patients (Lenkkeri et al., 1999). An Italian study of 15 CNS patients revealed all of them
have homozygous NPHS1 mutations (Gigante et al., 2002). A recent study by Heeringa et
al. done on a worldwide cohort, mainly Europeans, revealed 13 novel mutations
(Heeringa et al., 2008). In contrast, the incidence of NPHS1 mutation is low in Japanese
29
patients with CNS, suggesting that NPHS1 is not an exclusive or a major cause of CNS in
Japanese children (Aya et al., 2009, Sako et al., 2005).
Nephrin and other variants of nephrotic syndrome
Although nephrin is apparently pivotal in development of CNF, the role of nephrin in
other variants of NS is also of interest. Lahdenkari et al. investigated NPHS1 in patients
with childhood MCNS. Twelve genetic variants were identified, of which 4 of the amino
acid substitutions occur in Ig‐7 and Ig‐8 domains. They observed that patients with
complicated disease have more genetic variants compared to those with a mild disease.
They also hypothesized that a missense mutation (p.R800C) is a pathogenic alteration
and affected the phenotype of an MCNS patient who had Finmajor mutation(Lahdenkari
et al., 2004).
Mao et al studied NPHS1 and NPHS2 in Chinese children with SSNS and SRNS. One novel
missense mutation, one known missense mutation and three known polymorphisms
were identified in this group. No Finmajor or Finminor mutation was identified (Mao et al.,
2007). Philippe et al. reported 14 mutations in 10 unrelated patients among 160
patients presenting with SRNS between 3 months and 18 years of age. NPHS2 and WT1
mutations were excluded from these patients and hence SRNS can be attributed to the
pathogenic NPHS1 mutations identified (Philippe et al., 2008). On the contrary, a study
looking at 15 Korean and Japanese families with SRNS identified only several known
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and hence NPHS1 was not responsible for SRNS
30
in these families (Kitamura et al., 2006). Santin et al. examined NPHS1 in 97 patients
with familial and sporadic SRNS, of whom 52 presented with SRNS after 18 years of age.
Compound heterozygous or homozygous NPHS1 mutations were identified in 5 familial
and 7 sporadic cases. The frequency of NPHS1 was 2% in adults as compared to 14% in
children, which is 7 times higher (Santin et al., 2009b).
Types of NPHS1 mutations
The types of mutations in a patient will determine the severity of the disease. Hinkes et
al. described that children who have mutations in NPHS1, NPHS2, WT1 and/or LAMB2
do not respond well to steroid therapy (Hinkes et al., 2007). Finmajor and Finmajor
mutations lead to the absence of nephrin in the podocyte slit diaphragm and cause
SRNS leading to early ESRD, whereas other mutations that result in the impairment of
nephrin or entrapment of neprhin in the endoplasmic reticulum do not completely
abolish the function of nephrin (Heeringa et al., 2008). Shono et al. described how
nephrin mutations could lead to dysfunction of the SD via three mechanisms. The first
mechanism is that a frameshift mutation, such as the Finmajor mutation, can disrupt a
transcription or translation process, resulting in the absence of functional nephrin.
Hence, this leads to a severe, congenital phenotype. The second mechanism is seen in
patients with early‐onset SRNS, when they have mutations which resulted in the mis‐
trafficking of nephrin that are trapped in the endoplasmic reticulum. The third
mechanism is the formation of mutant proteins that have the ability to reach the plasma
membrane but are defective in the process of assembling dynamic nephrin complexes.
31
Patients with these mutations usually have the mildest phenotypes compared to the
previous two mechanism (Shono et al., 2009). Philippe et al. grouped mutations
according to “mild” or “severe” according to predictive algorithms. They observed that
patients with compound heterozygous mutations, of which at least one is a “mild”
mutation, had a later onset and a milder course of disease (Philippe et al., 2008).
Heeringa et al. hypothesized that mutations that affect certain Ig‐like domains of
nephrin could lead to a more serve disease phenotype compared to mutations affecting
other domains.
1.3.2. NPHS2: The gene encoding for podocin
NPHS2 is located on the chromosome 1q25‐q31. The complete NPHS2 ORF is 1,149 base
pairs; followed by a 635 base pair of 3’UTR that contains an atypical polyadenylation
signal (AATTAAA) situated 13 nucleotides up stream of the poly (A) tail. The full length
cDNA encodes for podocin, which is a 383‐ amino acid protein that is approximately
42kD (Boute et al., 2000). The N‐terminal of podocin is encoded by amino acid 15 to 89
and the C‐terminal is encoded by amino acid 135 to 383 (Roselli et al., 2002). Boute et al.
first identified mutations in NPHS2 to be associated with autosomal recessive SRNS
(Boute et al., 2000). Autosomal recessive SRNS belongs to the heterogeneous group of
familial NS, which is characterized by childhood onset of proteinuria and histological
findings of either FSGS or MCNS (Karle et al., 2002).
32
Podocin and steroid resistance
NPHS2 was first identified to be the causative gene in patients with familial FSGS. Ten
different NPHS2 mutations (nonsense, frameshift and missense) were identified to be
associated with familial FSGS, indicating an important role for podocin in the function of
glomerular filtration barrier (Boute et al., 2000). Karle et al. also found NPHS2 mutations
and polymorphisms not only in familial SRNS but also in sporadic SRNS (Karle et al.,
2002). In an Italian cohort of patients with non‐familial SRNS, the frequency of NPHS2
mutation was approximately 20%. Although NPHS2 mutations were found in both
familial and sporadic SRNS, there was genetic heterogeneity between the two groups.
Wuber et al. did NPHS2 screening for three groups of patients: familial SRNS, sporadic
SRNS and diffuse mesangial sclerosis (DMS). No NPHS2 mutation was identified in DMS.
The mutation frequency for familial SRNS was 40% and 10.5% in sporadic SRNS. The
lower detection rate among sporadic SRNS compared to familial SRNS could be due to
the complex inheritance patterns and the potential gene‐environment interactions in
patients with sporadic SRNS (Weber et al., 2004).
Studies were carried out to study the effect of NPHS2 mutations or polymorphisms in
steroid resistance by comparing patients with SSNS and SRNS. Caridi et al. reported that
12% of their patients with SRNS were found to have homozygous NPHS2 mutations. All
these patients had severe proteinuria that occurred in early childhood and progressed
to ESRD. In comparison, 6% of the patients with SSNS had single heterozygous NPHS2
mutations, with no homozygous mutations identified (Caridi et al., 2003). Ruf et al.
33
hypothesized that NPHS2 mutations might be the cause of steroid resistance. Hence,
they did NPHS2 screening on SRNS patients with SSNS patients as controls. Homozygous
and heterozygous mutations were found only in SRNS patients (Ruf et al., 2004). These
data revealed that NPHS2 mutations could be a cause for the resistance to steroids in
certain patients. As steroids have adverse side effects, it would be useful to screen
children with SRNS for NPHS2 mutations so as to avoid giving them the potentially toxic
treatment. Caridi et al. suggested that all cases with FSGS and heavy proteinuria
resistant to steroids, should undergo NPHS2 genotyping prior to planning therapeutic
regimens with steroids and other immunosuppressive drugs (Caridi et al., 2001).
NPHS2 mutations are a frequent cause of sporadic SRNS, occurring in 10.5 to 28% of
children with SRNS in Europe, the Middle East and North America. However, this is not
observed in Asian countries. Yu et al. ,the first group to study NPHS2 mutations in
Chinese SRNS patients, only found a heterozygous mutation in one out of 23 children
with sporadic SRNS. Seven polymorphisms were also identified in both patients and
controls (Yu et al., 2005). The low frequency of NPHS2 mutations was also reflected in
another study performed by Mao et al. on Chinese patients with SRNS and SSNS. Only 3
out of 22 patients were identified with heterozygous mutations (Mao et al., 2007). A
study done in Japan also reported a low frequency rate of 2% in Japanese children with
sporadic SRNS (Maruyama et al., 2003). Among Korean children with SRNS, no NPHS2
mutation was found (Cho et al., 2008). All these data demonstrated that ethnic
differences might play a role in the occurrence of NPHS2 mutations and NPHS2
34
mutations were more common in Caucasian populations as compared to Asian
populations.
Other than just looking at the effect of NPHS2 mutations in SRNS, Frishberg et al.
investigated the association of cardiac disorders with SRNS. They had shown that
cardiac anormalies and SRNS as a result of NPHS2 mutations was not an association by
chance but rather co‐inherited. Podocin transcript is found in fetal heart but not adult
heart. Its presence in the fetal heart may interact with other peptides and affect the
overall signal transduction. Mutated podocin may lead to abnormal signaling, resulting
in congenital heart defects. Therefore, there would be a need to perform cardiac
evaluation for SRNS patients with NPHS2 mutations (Frishberg et al., 2006).
Podocin and post‐transplant recurrence
Post‐transplant recurrence in FSGS is considered one of the most traumatic clinical
events in the clinical setting. The recurrence of proteinuria following renal transplant
has been described in 30% of paediatric patients with SRNS due to FSGS (Billing et al.,
2004). Studies have been carried out to investigate the association of post‐transplant
recurrence in FSGS in patients with NPHS2 mutations. Bertelli et al. studied the
incidence of post‐transplant recurrence of FSGS in patients with NPHS2 mutations. They
reported that 5 of 13 patients with NPHS2 mutations presented with post‐transplant
recurrence of proteinuria, of whom 2 were proven histologically to have recurrence of
FSGS. There were only 2 cases that had homozygous or compound heterozygous
35
mutations of NPHS2 (22% of those who received a renal graft) and these two cases had
mild clinical impact with good prognosis. However, they also observed that there were 3
patients who had a single NPHS2 mutation, of whom one presented with a poor
prognosis (Bertelli et al., 2003). Billing et al. also reported that their patients developed
heavy proteinuria early after renal transplant. They did not identify any anti‐podocin
antibodies or immunoglobin deposits in renal histology in patients with SRNS due to
NPHS2 mutations who presented with early post‐transplant recurrence of proteinuria.
This suggested that post‐transplant recurrence in these patients was unlikely due to an
antibody mediated mechanism. They concluded that patients with SRNS due to NPHS2
mutations are not protected from the recurrence of proteinuria after renal transplant
(Billing et al., 2004).
In contrast, there are other studies indicating that patients with NPHS2 mutations have
a lower risk of post‐transplant recurrence. Ruf et al. observed that 7 out of 20 patients
(35%) with SRNS but no NPHS2 mutations had post‐transplant recurrence of FSGS,
whereas only 2 of 24 patients (8%) with SRNS and compound heterozygous or
homozygous NPHS2 mutations experienced recurrence. Proteinuria was observed in 1 of
these 2 patients, who responded to steroid therapy. There was no histological finding of
FSGS. Hence, they demonstrated that there is a significant lower risk of FSGS recurrence
after a renal transplant in patients with compound heterozygous or homozygous
mutations (Ruf et al., 2004). Weber et al. reported that out of 32 transplanted patients
with 2 pathogenic NPHS2 mutations, only 1 patient exhibited recurrent FSGS in a
36
delayed onset. They also observed that 3 of 5 patients with sporadic SRNS and
heterozygous NPHS2 mutations experienced post‐transplant recurrence. These
observations suggested that heterozygous NPHS2 mutations may play a role in recurring
disease following renal transplantation (Weber et al., 2004). Caridi et al. recommended
that grafts from carriers of NPHS2 mutations, such as from parents or siblings, should be
avoided as there appeared to be a higher risk of post‐transplant recurrence in patients
with heterozygous NPHS2 mutations. Similarly, patients with heterozygous NPHS2
mutations should be considered to be at risk for recurrence and be strictly monitored in
the post‐graft phase (Caridi et al., 2005).
Types of mutations
Many NPHS2 genetic variants have been identified in Caucasian, African, Asian and
other populations (Yu et al., 2005). The types of mutations identified include missense
mutations, splice‐site mutations, frameshift mutations and polymorphisms (Karle et al.,
2002).
The type and location of the NPHS2 mutations affect how podocin would be expressed.
Zhang et al. reported that deletion mutation of 1 to 2 bp would cause a frameshift and
lead to the production of truncated protein. A mutation in Exon 7 that resulted in the
loss of 98 amino acids of podocin had a normal RNA expression. However, the presence
of the C‐terminal domain cannot be detected. In contrast, a mutation in Exon 3 that
leads to the truncation of 238 amino acids resulted in a reduced expression of RNA
37
transcripts and N‐terminal of podocin. The authors have concluded based on their data
that NPHS2 mutations could affect the localization of nephrin, CD2AP and α‐actinin.
They noticed that these proteins instead of localizing along the GBM, they were found
to be in the podocyte body (Zhang et al., 2004). Mutations that are associated with
severe childhood onset are distributed throughout podocin. However, in general, most
of them are located in the N‐terminal. This might show that N‐terminal mutations may
represent particular alleles causing the misfolding of protein or altered protein
processing, leading to a more severe clinical phenotype (Tsukaguchi et al., 2002).
Weber et al. observed that the nature of mutations correlated to some extent with the
age of onset. Patients, which presented with frameshift and protein truncating
mutations, had an early onset of NS. The presence of two pathogenic NPHS2 alleles in
patients indicated a more severe prognosis that was characterized by an earlier onset.
Patients with only a single mutation tended to have NS in the later stage of life. They
also described that the severity of the disease seemed to be determined by the impact
of the amino acid substitution on the specific functional domains and on the
intracellular trafficking of podocin. Some missense mutations managed to reach the
plasma membranes, whereas there are some which were retained in the endoplasmic
reticulum (Weber et al., 2004).
p.R229Q is one of the most commonly reported NPHS2 mutations in Caucasian
populations (Table 2). A G to A nucleotide change is observed at the position 686 in
38
exon 5 of NPHS2, which results in an arginine to glutamine substitution at codon 229.
This substitution had altered the binding of podocin to nephrin, suggesting that podocin
resulting from R229Q is biochemically altered (Caridi et al., 2003). p.R229Q
polymorphism in the heterozygous status has been reported that on its own is not a risk
factor for the late‐onset of FSGS. However, in combination with another pathologic
mutation, it can enhance the susceptibility to FSGS or SRNS (Tsukaguchi et al., 2002,
McKenzie et al., 2007). This means that heterozygous mutations could contribute to the
development of proteinuria by associating with other factors, such as presence of a
second mutation, and not directly determining it. Tsukaguchi et al. also described that
there is a possibility that p.R229Q homozygotes may have a mild phenotype that
generally escape medical attention (Tsukaguchi et al., 2002).
1.3.3. The two closely related partners: NPHS1 and NPHS2
Both nephrin (NPHS1) and podocin (NPHS2) are two important molecules in the SD.
They interact closely with one another to maintain the integrity of podocytes, protecting
against the leakage of macromolecules into the urine. Mutations of NPHS1 and/or
NPHS2 often lead to proteinuria and the development of NS. Huber et al had carried out
studies to understand the interaction of podocin with nephrin (Huber et al., 2001, Huber
et al., 2003b). They first described that the cytoplasmic tail of nephrin binds to podocin
and this interaction is mediated by the C‐terminal of podocin. The authors concluded
that nephrin and podocin form a signaling complex which supports the functional and
structural integrity of podocytes (Huber et al., 2001). Podocin is responsible for the
39
recruitment and the stabilizing of nephrin at the podocyte foot processes. Podocin is
localized to the plasma membrane, and form homo‐oligomers that involve the C‐ and N‐
terminal cytoplasmic domains. This association of podocin with the specialized lipid raft
microdomains of the plasma membrane is essential in the recruitment of nephrin into
the rafts. Huber et al. also investigated two NPHS2 mutations, of which one caused
podocin to be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum and the other caused the failure of
podocin to be associated with the lipid rafts. Both mutations failed to recruit nephrin
into the lipid rafts and hence the signaling of nephrin is affected. This study showed the
importance of lipid rafts targeting in nephrin signaling (Huber et al., 2003b). This close
relationship between nephrin and podocin arise the interest of investigators to study
the mutations in both genes and see how these two genes could be responsible for NS.
A triallelic hit in NPHS1 and NPHS2 was described in CNS by Kozeill et al.. They observed
that 50% of the patients with homozygous R1160X nonsense mutation have the milder
CNF phenotype and interestingly majority of the mildly affected cases were females.
They also observed that NPHS1 and NPHS2 mutations co‐existed in all the congenital
FSGS patients, providing evidence of a functional relationship between these two genes.
They described a triallelic hit in patients with congenital FSGS who have mutations in
NPHS1 and NPHS2, where a biallelic hit in either NPHS1 or NPHS2 might result in CNF.
The presence of the third allelic hit may serve as a modifier of disease expression of CNF
to FSGS. In summary, they had identified a specific di‐genic inheritance, which resulted
in three variant alleles being associated with the modification of CNF to FSGS. These
40
data have demonstrated that inheritance of different alleles at independent genetic loci
may contribute to disease phenotype (Koziell et al., 2002).
On the contrary, Schultheiss et al. did not find any evidence for di‐genic inheritance of
NPHS1 and NPHS2 mutations as a tri‐allelic hit that would result in the modification of
phenotypes in their group of 75 patients with NS. The frequency of patients that were
presented with both NPHS1 and NPHS2 was low (5%). Their data also did not suggest
any genotype/phenotype correlations in their patients with NPHS1 and NPHS2
mutations. They also observed that there can be rare cases of unusually mild
phenotypes in patients with NPHS1 mutations (Schultheiss et al., 2004).
Mao et al. screened for NPHS1 and NPHS2 screening on Chinese patients with SRNS and
SSNS. They identified 5 out of 60 patients (8%) with mutations in both NPHS1 and
NPHS2. However, only known polymorphisms with no amino acid substitution were
identified. There was no genotype/phenotype correlation in NPHS1 and NPHS2 among
these patients (Mao et al., 2007). Another study group in Japan carefully selected 15
families with SRNS (10 Japanese and 5 Koreans) with phenotypes that were comparable
to the Caucasian population. They performed NPHS1, NPHS2 and NEP1 screening on
these subjects. They only managed to identify known NPHS1 and NPHS2 polymorphisms,
suggesting that NPHS1 and NPHS2 might not be the cause of SRNS in this population.
They suggested that the genetic factors of FSGS may be different between the Asian and
41
Caucasian patients and that there might be unidentified genes that could be involved in
the pathogenesis of SRNS in the Asian patients (Kitamura et al., 2006).
Hinkes et al. screened for NPHS1, NPHS2, WT‐1 and LAMB2 for patients with NS in their
first year of life. NPHS1 mutations were identified exclusively in CNS, whereas NPHS2
mutations were found in patients with CNS and infantile onset of NS. They also
observed that the progression to ESRD was more rapid in children with NPHS1
mutations than those with NPHS2 mutations. They concluded that patients with
causative mutations in any of the 4 genes do not respond to steroid therapy (Hinkes et
al., 2007).
Lowik et al. analyzed seven podocyte associated genes (NPHS1, NPHS2, ACTN4, CD2AP,
WT‐1, TRPC6 and PLCE1) in patients with non‐familial childhood onset of SRNS. Their
results suggested that combined haploinsufficiency in two podocyte associated genes
might be responsible for the development of FSGS. They also observed a tri‐allelic hit of
NPHS1 and NPHS2 in one of their patients. A single mutation in a recessive disorder may
be unable to induce pathologic effect. The presence of a second mutation, which has
not been identified or present in another gene that was not screened, may produce an
additive effect. In conclusion, their data demonstrated that the combined genetic
defects in podocyte associated genes may play a role in the development of FSGS (Lowik
et al., 2008).
42
1.4. Gaps in current knowledge
Current studies on NPHS1 and NPHS2 have been well established in the Caucasian
populations. Mutations in NPHS1, such as Finmajor and Finminor mutations, have been well
recognized to be associated with the congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type.
The occurrence of certain NPHS2 polymorphisms, such as R229Q, is more frequent in
the Caucasian populations compared to the Asian populations. Asian studies have
showed a lower incidence in NPHS2 mutations, demonstrating that ethnicity may play a
role in the difference of polymorphism/mutation frequency. It is also noted that there
are very few studies being performed in South East Asians.
Based on a 16‐year retrospective review of renal biopsies from patients with SRNS or
SSNS done at the Shaw‐NKF‐NUH Children’s Kidney Centre, University Children’s
Medical Institute, National University Health System, there seems to be an increased
prevalence of SRNS among Malay patients, and a greater tendency towards end‐stage
renal failure (ESRF). However, genetic studies in Malays have not been described.
Singapore, being a regional referral center in South East Asia with a multiracial
population will serve as an ideal and unique platform for the study of podocyte genetic
variants, in the different ethnic populations.
Functional polymorphisms or mutations in podocyte‐associated genes may account for
the different clinical course. It is hypothesized that there are important gene‐gene
interactions among the different podocyte‐associated genes that may result in the
43
nephrotic phenotype. Hence, the examination of any possible NPHS1 and NPHS2
variants in our population will help us to better understand the pathogenesis of NS.
1.5. Objectives of the study
This study therefore aims to address an important question in the Southeast Asian
region ‐ why is there such a great difference in the prevalence and outcome of NS,
especially FSGS among Malay patients compared to the Chinese? Genetic or
environmental factors might be the explanation for inter‐ethnic differences. By
characterizing the polymorphisms and mutations in the different Asian ethnic groups,
we will have a better understanding of the pathogenesis of NS in Asians.
Singapore offers the advantage for a genetic study on the various ethnicities in the
South‐East Asian region; as Chinese, Malays and Indians make up a significant
proportion of the patient pool in local hospitals. Hence, by comparing the ethnicities
(Chinese and Malays) within our patient population, this study may provide some insight
into this inter‐ethnic difference.
Hence, the objectives of this study are:
•
Identify novel and/or known polymorphisms/mutations of NPHS1 and NPHS2 genes
using high resolution melting and direct gene sequencing.
44
•
Describe the spectrum and frequency of NPHS1 and NPHS2 polymorphisms and/or
mutations in our young Chinese and Malay patients who visited the Shaw‐NKF‐NUH
Children’s Kidney Centre, University Children’s Medical Institute.
•
Determine disease associations of these genetic variants, in terms of the clinical
features, response to therapy and progression to end‐stage renal failure in the
Chinese and Malay patients.
•
Investigate if there are any gene‐gene interactions between NPHS1 and NPHS2 in
our patients.
45
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Study Subjects
All patients with idiopathic sporadic NS attending the Shaw‐NKF‐NUH Children’s Kidney
Centre, University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Health System were
included in this study. The children were initially treated with the prednisolone therapy
(standard regimen recommended by the International Study of Disease in Children),
(ISKDC, 1981, ISKDC, 1982), and were classified into steroid responsiveness or steroid
resistance according to whether there was complete remission within 8 weeks following
steroid therapy. Remission was defined as normal urinary protein excretion (Albustix ®
trace or negative for at least 3 consecutive days or C, c.65C>T, c.494C>T, c.803G>A, c.1233C>T,
c.2871G>A, c.3047G>A, c.3230A>G and c.3315G>A) were genotyped using tetra‐primers
amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) PCR (Table 5). This method adopts
principles from tetra‐primers PCR and ARMS. The normal ARMS require two separate
PCR reactions, but tetra‐primers ARMS PCR is a single PCR reaction. It uses two pairs of
primers in one reaction; one pair of outer primers that serves as a control and the other
pair of inner primers which is allele specific. Allele specificity is conferred by a mismatch
between the 3’ terminal base of one inner primer and the DNA template. A second
mismatch is introduced at the position ‐2 from the 3’ terminus in the inner primers so as
to enhance allele specificity. Primers were designed with an online program that was
created by Ye et.al. (http://cedar.genetics.soton.ac.uk/public_html/primer1.html) (Ye et
al., 2001).
56
A reaction mixture (15μl) for tetra‐primers ARMS PCR contained 30 to 60ng of gDNA, 1x
PCR buffer, 2mM of MgCl2, 0.2μM of dNTP, 0.2µM of each outer primer, 0.2μM to
0.4μM of each inner primer, 1 unit of Taq polymerase (Promega) and nuclease free
water. Betaine (Sigma Aldrich) was added for the amplification of certain regions. The
reactions were run at 95°C for 5 minutes, followed by 32 to 35 cycles of 95°C for 30
seconds, annealing temperature, as shown in Table 5, for 30 seconds and 72°C for 1
minute. A final 9 minutes of extension at 72°C was performed after the last cycle. The
PCR products were run on a 2.5% gel to determine the genotypes.
57
Table 5: Primers used in tetra‐ARMS PCR for the genotyping of NPHS1 SNPs.
SNP
Primers (5’ to 3’)
Product size (bp)
c.‐170 T>C
Outer forward: AAGGAAAGAGTCTGAGATCAACCTGGC
Outer reverse: CTTTCTCTGGGTCCCTCTCTGTGTGT
Inner forward: ATTGAGACTGAGAGCAAGACAGAGAGATAT
Inner reverse: TTTCCTCTTCCCCTCTTCCCTGTGATTG
Outer forward: GTGGGATCCCAGCCTTGTACCCAGCGCC
Outer reverse: CCCAGGAGCAGCCCATCTTTGGCCCATT
Inner forward: GCACCGCGCTGTGTCCTCAGGCCTTGT
Inner reverse: GGGAACGGAGGCAGGAATCGCCAACTTCG
Outer forward: GTACCGAACTCCAATCTTCAAGTCCTTC
Outer reverse: TAGAAGGGTACTGGTCAGGAACACACAC
Inner forward: CGTGGTCAACTGTGTGTCTGGGGAAGC
Inner reverse: AATGGTGATGTCAGGTGCTGGCTGCA
Outer forward: CAGGCCCACTGAGTGACTGATATCC
Outer reverse:CTGGCCTCACGGTCATCACCAGCAC
Inner forward:AGCTTGGAGCTGCCGTGCGTGGCACA
Inner reverse: ACTGCAGTGTGGCTAAGGGATTACCCCATC
Outer forward: GGATGGACTCAGGCCTCTAGCACGA
Outer reverse: AGTTTCTGGGCGGGATCTGGCG
Inner forward: ATTCCTGGCGCGGCGGGAGGACCAT
Inner reverse: TGAAGGCCTCACATGTGAGGGTCAGAACG
Outer forward: GCTTTCCCATCTTTCTCCCCATAGGC
Outer reverse: AAATTCAGGGAAGTGCCCTAGCCCAT
Inner forward: GTTGTGAGTCTGACCCCACACTCCTTG
Inner reverse: AAGCCAGGCTTCCACTCCAGCACT
Outer forward: ATCCCCCTGTCCTGCAGGTATGAGG
Outer reverse: CCTCTGAGGAATACTCCAACCTGCCCA
Inner forward: GATACAGGGTCTGGCTGCTGGCAAA
Inner reverse: GTCCACTGTCCCCCAAGGCATGAC
Outer forward: TCAGGGCTACACTTTCTCGGGGAGACCCA
Outer reverse: CCACAGGGTTCCCTATCACCCTCGGGTC
Inner forward: GCTCTTGGGGGGCTTCTGCTCCTCTCAAA
Inner reverse: AGAGGACCCCCCCGACACAGGAGGAAC
Product size forT allele: 140
Product size for C allele: 182
Product size of two outer primers: 264
62 /32
Product size for T allele: 178
Product size for C allele: 138
Product size of two outer primers: 260
66 /35
Product size for C allele: 144
Product size for T allele: 189
Product size of two outer primers: 281
62 /32
Product size for A allele: 229
Product size for G allele: 150
Product size of two outer primers: 331
60 /35
Product size for T allele: 210
Product size for C allele: 164
Product size of two outer primers: 320
62 /32
Product size for G allele: 141
Product size for A allele: 103
Product size of two outer primers: 193
64 /32
Product size for A allele: 130
Product size for G allele: 160
Product size of two outer primers: 241
66 /32
Product size for A allele: 145
Product size for G allele: 175
Product size of two outer primers: 264
66/32
c.65C>T
c.494C>T
c.803G>A
c.1233C>T
c.2871G>A
c.3047G>A
c.3230A>G
Annealing temperature (°C)/Cycles
58
SNP
Primers (5’ to 3’)
Product size (bp)
Annealing temperature (°C)/Cycles
c.3315G>A
Outer forward: GTGGGGGGCTTGCATAGGGTCACTGAG
Outer reverse: TCAACCTGATGCTAACGGCAGGGCTTCA
Inner forward: CCCCACACCTTCATCCTGGAAGGGCA
Inner reverse: TCATATTCGTTCCTGACTCGGTCCTCTGCC
Product size for A allele: 177
Product size for G allele: 212
Product size of two outer primers: 333
64 /32
59
2.9. Genotyping by RFLP
Seven genetic variants (c.151C>T, c.294C>T, c.349G>A, c.1339G>A, c.2223C>T, c.2289C>T
and c.2398C>T) in NPHS1 were genotyped using restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP). A web‐based programme NEBcutter v2.0 (http://tools.neb.com/NEBcutter2/) was
used to search for the presence of a restriction site near the polymorphic region. PCR was
performed, using 30ng of gDNA to get the target region for enzyme digestion, as described
in section 2.5. Different restriction enzymes have different incubation conditions as shown
in Table 6. After 16 hours of incubation at the respective restriction enzymes’ temperature,
the digested products were run on a 2% gel to differentiate the undigested and digested
samples.
Various restriction enzymes from New England Biolabs were used in the genotyping of
NPHS1 SNPs. The wildtype genotype of c.151C>T was digested by AluI. The wildtype
genotype of c.294C>T and c.2289C>T were digested by TaqI. The wildtype genotype of
c.349G>A was digested by Hpy188I. The mutant genotype of SNP c.1339G>A was digested
by MseI. The wildtype genotype for SNP c.2223C>T was digested by BtsCI. The wildtype
genotype for SNP c.2398C>T was digested by SfoI.
60
Table 6: Restriction enzymes used for the genotyping of NPHS1 SNPs.
SNP
Restriction Incubation condition
Product size (bp)
enzyme
151C>T
AluI
Buffer 4: 1µl
AluI (2U): 0.2µl
Water: 1.8µl
Template: 7ul
Incubate 16 hours at 37◦C
294C>T
Buffer 3: 1µl
BSA: 0.1µl
TaqI (1U): 0.1µl
Water: 1.8µl
Template: 7µl
Incubate 16 hours at 65◦C
TaqI
2289C>T
349G>A
Hpy188I
Buffer 4: 1µl
Hpy188I(1U): 0.1µl
Water: 1.9µl
Template: 7µl
Incubate 16 hours at 37◦C
1339G>A MseI
Buffer 4: 1µl
MseI(1U): 0.1µl
Water: 1.9µl
Template: 7µl
Incubate 16 hours at 37◦C
2223C>T
BtsCI
Buffer 4: 1µl
BtsCI(1U): 0.1µl
Water: 1.9µl
Template: 7µl
Incubate 16 hours at 50◦C
2398C>T
SfoI
Buffer 4: 1µl
SfoI(1U): 0.1µl
Water: 3.9µl
Template: 5µl
Incubate 16 hours at 37◦C
Genotype CC:
116 + 147
Genotype CT:
116 + 147 + 263
Genotype TT:
263
Genotype CC:
466 + 66
Genotype CT:
466 + 66 + 532
Genotype TT:
532
Genotype CC:
131 + 126
Genotype CT:
131 + 126 + 257
Genotype TT:
257
Genotype GG:
412 + 119
Genotype GA:
532 + 412 + 119
Genotype AA:
532
Genotype CC:
201
Genotype CT:
201 + 156 + 45
Genotype TT:
156 + 45
Genotype CC:
76 + 65
Genotype CT:
141 + 76 + 65
Genotype TT:
141
Genotype CC:
145 + 67
Genotype CT:
212 + 145 + 67
Genotype TT:
212
61
2.10. Statistical analysis
A web‐based program SNPstats (http://bioinfo.iconcologia.net/SNPstats) was used to
analyze the association of the various polymorphisms with childhood idiopathic NS between
patients and healthy controls. Data on Hardy‐Weinberg disequilibrium, allele and genotype
frequencies, linkage disequilibrium, haplotype frequency estimation and analysis of
association of haplotypes with a particular response were generated. A p‐value less than
0.05 was viewed to be statistically significant.
For the analysis of composite genotypes of NPHS1 and NPHS2 genetic variants with NS, SPSS
for Windows (version 17) was used. Binary logistic regression was performed. A p‐value less
than 0.05 was viewed to be statistically significant.
The allele frequencies of the genetic variants were used to determine if they were rare. Rare
variants were defined as having minor allele frequencies of less than 1% in controls. Fisher’s
exact test was performed to compare the accumulation of rare variants between NS
patients and controls with GraphPad Prism (version 5.02). Rare variant accumulation was
also analyzed between patients of different clinical phenotypes. A p‐value of less than 0.05
was viewed to be statistically significant.
62
2.11. Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants
For the non‐synonymous genetic variants identified in NPHS1 and NPHS2, two web‐based
programs PolyPhen2 (http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph2/) and Sorting intolerant from
tolerant (SIFT) sequence (http://sift.bii.a‐star.edu.sg/www/SIFT_seq_submit2.html) were
used to predict the effect of the amino acid substitution. PolyPhen2 predicts the effect of
the amino acid substitution on the three‐dimensional and function of the protein based on
physical and comparative considerations (Sunyaev et al., 2001). SIFT predicts the effect of
the amino acid substitution on the function of the protein based on sequence homology and
the physical properties of the amino acid (Ng and Henikoff, 2003).
For genetic variants that were identified in the promoter region, a web‐based program,
ConSite (http://asp.ii.uib.no:8090/cgi‐bin/CONSITE/consite) was used to predict if there is
any transcription factor binding site at the position of the variants using phylogenetic
footprinting.
For all the SNPs identified, we would use the Potentially Functional SNP (PFS) search engine
(http://pfs.nus.edu.sg/) to look up the RefSNP accession ID (rs number) for the individual
SNP. For those SNPs with rs number, we would search the rs number against the PFS search
engine to identify the effect of the SNPs. The PFS search engine looks at the effect of coding
region SNPs on exon splicing enhancer (ESE) or exon splicing silencer (ESS) sites, the effect of
non‐synonymous SNPs on the protein and also the effect of synonymous SNPs on the codon
usage difference (top and last 5%) (Wang et al., 2011).
63
For genetic variants without rs number or not available in the PFS search engine, the effect
of the variants on ESE/ESS was predicted using three web‐ based programs, RESCUE‐ESE
(http://genes.mit.edu/burgelab/rescue‐ese/), ESE finder 3.0 (http://rulai.cshl.edu/cgi‐
bin/tools/ESE3/esefinder.cgi?process=home)
and
PESX:
Putative
Exonic
Splicing
Enhancers/Silencers (http://cubweb.biology.columbia.edu/pesx/). RESCUE‐ESE predicts the
splicing phenotypes by identifying nucleotide changes that disrupt or alter the predicted ESE
(Fairbrother et al., 2004). ESE finder 3.0 analyzes the exon sequences and predicts if there
are any ESEs responsive to the human SR proteins (SF2/ASF, SC35, SRp40 and SRp55). It can
hence predicts if the exonic mutations will affect these elements (Cartegni et al., 2003).
PESX is used to identify the presence of ESE and/or ESS in the exon sequences and whether
the mutations would affect the sites (Zhang and Chasin, 2004).
2.12. Protein sequence alignment
For genetic variants that were predicted to affect the protein structure or affect the ESE or
ESS, a comparative genomic survey was performed between different organisms to see how
strongly the sites are conserved. The nephrin and podocin human protein sequences were
compared with the protein sequences of Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) (Nephrin:
NP_072150; Podocin: NP_570841), Mus musculus (house mouse) (Nephrin: NP_062332;
Podocin: NP_569723), Bos Taurus (cattle) (Nephrin: NP_001179441; Podocin:
NP_001193036), Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) (Nephrin: XP_524228; Podocin:
XP_003308663) and Canis familiaris (dog) (Nephrin: XP_541685; Podocin: XP_547443). The
protein
sequences
were
obtained
from
NCBI
protein
database
64
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein). Alignment of the multiple protein sequences was
performed using Clustal Omega (http://www.clustal.org/omega/) (Sievers et al., 2011).
65
3. Results
3.1. Clinical Characteristics
Chinese patients
Ninety‐seven Chinese patients with sporadic idiopathic NS and/or FSGS were recruited
(Table 7). The mean age of diagnosis was 5.65±4.24 years (range 0.9 to 19 years). There
were 58 males and 39 females. Seventy patients (72.2%) were steroid‐responsive and 28
(28.7%) were steroid‐resistant. Forty‐nine patients (50.5%) needed steroid‐sparing
immunosuppression therapy. Sixty patients (61.9%) had a renal biopsy performed. Patients
were classified according to whether they had minor glomerular abnormalities (28.3%),
diffuse mesangial hypercellularity (1.7%), focal mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis
(FMPGN) (11.7%), focal global sclerosis (FGS) (11.7%), IgM nephropathy with mesangial
injury (11.7%), diffuse mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (1.7%), and focal
segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (33.3%) (Appendix I). Figure 4A shows the distribution
of the histological profile in the Chinese nephrotic patients who underwent a biopsy.
Eight (8.2%) patients, all of whom were steroid and therapy‐resistant, progressed to ESRD.
Their mean age at diagnosis was 8.48±5.76 years (range 1.9 to 19.0 years), progressing to
ESRF between 0.8 to 9.0 years. Seven of these patients had FSGS on renal biopsy, while 1
had diffuse mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis.
Forty‐three patients (44.3%) had been treated with a calcineurin‐inhibitor (CNI), either
cyclosporine and/or tacrolimus, and of these, 15 patients (34.8%) did not respond. Among
the patients with minor abnormalities, 57.5% (23 out of 40) had been treated with
66
cyclophosphamide and 6 of them (26.1%) were resistant. Those patients who did not
respond to cyclophosphamide were then treated with cyclosporine, of whom 2 remained
resistant to cyclosporine. Patients with poor prognosis were defined as patients who were
resistant to both prednisolone and CNI therapy, or who had progressed to end stage renal
disease. Eighteen patients (18.6%) in our cohort were defined as having poor prognosis.
Malay patients
Twenty‐four Malay patients were included in this study (Table 7). The mean age at diagnosis
was 5.84±5.25 years (range 1.61 to 22.0 years). There were 16 males and 18 females.
Twelve (50%) were steroid‐resistant and 12 (50%) were steroid‐responsive. Fifteen patients
(62.5%) needed steroid‐sparing immunosuppression. Renal biopsy was performed on 18
patients (75%). Patients were classified according to whether they had minor glomerular
abnormalities (33.3%), FMPGN (5.6%), FGS (5.6%), IgM nephropathy with mesangial injury
(5.6%) and FSGS (50.0%) (Appendix I). Figure 4B shows the distribution of the histological
profile in the Malay nephrotic patients who received a biopsy.
Four (16.7%) patients, all of whom were steroid and therapy‐resistant, progressed to ESRD.
Their age at diagnosis was 12.25±9.64 years (range 3 to 22 years), of whom all were had
FSGS on biopsy. Progression to ESRF occurred over 0.5 to 4.0 years.
Fourteen patients (25.9%) had been treated with cyclosporine and seven of them (50%)
were not responsive. None had been treated with tacrolimus. Four patients with minor
abnormalities (44.4%) had been treated with cyclophosphamide, of whom all responded to
therapy. Five patients (20.8%) were defined as having poor prognosis.
67
It was observed that the percentage of Malay patients (50%) who were steroid resistant
were significantly higher compared to that of the Chinese patients (27.8%) (p=0.038) (Table
7).
Table 7: General characteristics of Chinese and Malay patients with idiopathic sporadic
nephrotic syndrome and/or FSGS.
p‐value
Chinese patients
Malay patients
(n=97)
(n=24)
Male :Female ratio
3: 2
2: 1
0.536*
Age, mean ± SD, years
17.15±7.08
18.83±7.28
0.259**
Age at onset,
5.65±4.24
5.84±5.25
0.628**
SRNS
28 (28.9%)
12 (50%)
0.0375*
FSGS (%)
20 (33.3%)
9(50%)
0.199*
5 (20.8%)
0.766
4 (16.7%)
0.252***
mean ± SD, years
Steroid and CNI resistance 18 (18.6%)
(%)
Renal failure (%)
8 (8.2%)
*
Chi‐square test; **Mann‐Whitney test; ***Fisher exact test
SRNS: Steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome; FSGS: Focal segmental glomerulonephritis; CNI:
Calcineurin inhibitor
68
Figure 4
4: Distribution of the h
histological profile in tthe nephrottic patientss.
(A) Chinese ;(B) Malay. FGSS: Focal glo
obal glomeerulosclerossis. FMPGN
N: Focal mesangial
proliferrative glomeerulonephriitis. FSGS: FFocal segmeental glomeerulonephrittis. MCNS: Minimal
change nephroticc syndrome. Others: Diffuse mesangial
m
hypercellularity and diffuse
mesanggial proliferaative glomeerulonephrittis
3.2. Geenetic varian
nts in NPHSS1
3.2.1. Screening ffor variantss in NPHS1 u
using HRM
We scrreened for variants in
n the prom
moter region (~300bassepairs upsstream), all the 29
exonic regions and
d 3’UTR of tthe gene ussing HRM. A
As certain amplicons in
n the promo
oter and
3’UTR d
did not have
e the optim
mal melting domains fo
or analysis, d
direct sequeencing was used to
screen those particular region
ns. We ideentified a to
otal of 16 geenetic variaants in our patients
(Table 8
8), of which 5 (c.‐170T>>C, c.494C>>T, c.1233C>>T, c.2871G
G>A and 304
47G>A) werre novel.
The tem
mperature shifted curvves and the difference plots for genetic vaariants identified in
Exon 2 and 17, ass well as th
he correspo
onding DNA
A electroph
horetogram
ms are as sh
hown in
Figure 5 and Figure 6 respecctively. Th
he genetic variants
v
weere determined by thee LC480
Gene Scanning sofftware v1.5
5 (Roche Diiagnostics) which anallyzed changges in fluorrescence
levels frrom the meelting curve. The variou
us settings ffor the analysis of the melting currve were
69
considered to be appropriate if the temperature shifted melting curve and the difference
plot corresponded to each other. Genetic variants determined by HRM were validated by
direct sequencing. For certain polymorphic regions (promoter, exon 3, 17 and 26), RFLP or
tetra‐ARMS PCR were used to determine the genotypes for the patients. Controls were also
genotyped for the various genetic variants using either RFLP or tetra‐ARMS PCR (Figure 7).
Table 8: Genetic variants identified in NPHS1 using HRM.
Position
SNP ref
Variant
Amino acid
Promoter
‐
‐170T>C
‐
2
rs116617171
c.65C>T
p.Ala22Val
2
rs114385015
c.151C>T
p.Leu51Leu
3
rs2285450
c.294C>T
p.Ile98Ile
3
rs3814995
c.349G>A
p.Glu117Lys
4
‐
c.494C>T
p.Ala165Val
7
rs115308424
c.803G>A
p.Arg268Glu
10
‐
c.1233C>T
p.Asn411Asn
11
rs28939695
c.1339G>A
p.Glu447Lys
17
rs2073901
c.2223C>T
p.Thr741Thr
17
rs437168
c.2289C>T
p.Val763Val
18
rs114896482
c.2398C>T
p.Arg800Cys
21
‐
c.2871G>A
p.Val957Val
22
‐
c.3047G>A
p.Ser1016Asn
24
rs4806213
c.3230A>G
p.Asn1077Ser
26
rs2071327
c.3315G>A
p.Ser1105Ser
70
Figure 5: Normalized high resolution melting cu
urves and the
t corresp
ponding diffference
plots.
in their
pe by theirr relative differences
d
The variants are differentiatted from the wild‐typ
ure shifted and differe
ence plots o
of Exon 2 which has
normalized floresccence. (A‐B)) Temperatu
pe genotypees for both variants
two rarre genetic variants (c.65C>T and c.151C>T). TThe wild‐typ
are indicated in blue,
b
whereas the genetic variantts are indiccated in bro
own (c.65C
C>T) and
mperature shifted an
nd differen
nce plots of
o Exon 17
7 which
green (c.151C>T). (C‐D) Tem
contain
ned two com
mmon SNPs (c.2223C>>T and c.22
289C>T) weere identifieed in patien
nts. The
heterozzygous genotypes (red
d and greeen) are weell differenttiated from
m the homozygous
genotyp
pes (blue).
71
Figure 6
6: Electroph
horetogram
ms of the vaarious genettic variants.
All the genetic vaariants are named acccording to their
t
nucleotide posittions in thee coding
strand. (A) Wild‐tyype C allelee and variaant T allele (heterozyggous form) of c.65C>TT. Codon
GCG codes for alan
nine, while codon GTG codes for vvaline. (B) W
Wild‐type C allele and vvariant T
heterozygou
us form) of c.151C>T. Both CTG aand TTG cod
de for leucine. (C) Wild
d‐type C
allele (h
allele and variant T allele (heterozygous form) of c.2223C>T.. Both ACC and ACT code
c
for
us form)
threonine. (D) Wild‐type C allele and variant T allele (heterozygous and homozygou
89C>T. Both
h GTG and G
GTT code fo
or valine.
of c.228
72
Figure 7
7: Genotypiing results o
of c.2289C>
>T and c.3315A>G.
(A) Gen
notyping off c.2289C>TT performed
d using RFLLP. The hom
mozygous wild‐type
w
geenotype
was diggested by TTaqI generating a band
d that contaains both the 131 bp and 126 bp
p bands.
The homozygous mutant
m
gen
notype was not cut byy the enzym
me, which iss representted by a
ous genotype is represented by 2 bands (one band off 131 bp
257 bp band. The heterozygo
6 bp and another
a
ban
nd of 257 bp).
b (B) Genotyping off c.3315A>G
G performeed using
and 126
tetra‐ARMS PCR. A
A control baand of 333 bp is seen for all the samples. TThe A‐allele specific
ozygous wild‐type genotype. The G‐allele sp
pecific of
band off 177 bp is observed in the homo
212 bp is observe
ed in homo
ozygous mutant genotype. As forr the heterrozygous geenotype,
nd 212 bp b
bands are ob
bserved.
both the 177 bp an
73
3.2.2. Statistical analysis of the genetic variants in NPHS1
All genetic variants were consistent with the Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium in both the
Chinese and Malay controls, with the exception of c.294C>T in the Chinese controls, which
was most likely due to chance (Appendix II).
In our Chinese population, c.‐170T>C was in moderate linkage disequilibrium (LD) with
c.65C>T (D’: 0.65, p=0.002), c.294C>T, c.349G>A and c.2223C>T (D’: 0.78, pT and c.2871G>A (D’: 0.96, p=0.023) and c.2289C>T (D’: 0.86,
pT was in weak LD with c.151C>T (D’: 0.23, pT (D’: 0.58, p=0.023) but strong LD with c.2871G>A (D’: 0.97, pT
was in strong LD with c.1233C>T, c.2223C>T and c.2289C>T (D’: 0.96, pA was
in strong LD with c.65C>T, c.151C>T, c.294C>T, c.2223C>T, c.2289C>T and c.2398C>T (D’:
0.99, pA was in strong LD with c.151C>T, c.349G>A and c.3315G>A (D’: 0.99,
pT (D’: 0.22, p=0.0038). c.1399G>A was in moderate LD
with c.349G>A (D’: 0.69, p=0.024) and c.3315G>A (D’: 0.55, p=0.0055). c.2223C>T was in
strong LD with c.2289C>T (D’: 0.99, pG and c.3315G>A was in strong LD
(D’: 0.99, p=0.006) (Appendix III).
In our Malay patients, c.‐170T>C was in weak LD with c.3315G>A (D’: 0.32, p=0.0032),
moderate LD with c.3230A>G (D’: 0.69, pT, c.349G>A
(D’: 0.84‐0.86, pT and 2289C>T (D’=0.95‐0.99, pT was in
strong LD with c.349G>A, c.3047A>G, c.3315G>A (D’=0.99, pA (D’: 0.89,
pT was in strong LD with c.349G>A, c.2223C>T and c.2289C>T (D’: 0.95‐
0.99, pA was in strong LD with c.803G>A, 2223C>T and c.2289C>T (D’:
74
0.90‐0.99, pA was in strong LD with c.3047G>A and c.3315G>A (D’: 0.99,
pT was in weak LD with c.3315G>A (D’: 0.32, p=0.012), moderate LD with
c.3230A>G (D’: 0.69, p=0.0002) and strong LD with c.2223C>T and c.3047G>A (D’: 0.99,
pT and c.349G>A on exon 3, and c.2289C>T on exon 17.
Table 9 and Table 12 show the allele frequencies of the significant SNPs in Chinese and
Malay patients and controls. Significant differences in allele frequencies were observed for
c.294C>T and c.2289C>T among the patients and various controls for both Chinese (p=0.016
and p=0.0003 respectively) and Malays (p=0.035 and p=0.0024 respectively). Allelic
differences for c.349G>A (p=0.018) was observed only in the Chinese patients (Table 9 and
Table 12).
Table 10 and Table 13 showed the genotype frequencies of the significant SNPs in the
Chinese and Malay populations. In the Chinese and Malay patients, c.294C>T, and
c.2289C>T were both significantly associated with NS, whereas c.349G>A was significantly
associated with NS in only the Chinese patients (Table 11 and Table 14).c.294C>T was
significantly associated with NS under the dominant (OR: 1.74, 95% CI 1.04‐2.90, p=0.035),
and log‐additive (OR: 1.86, 95%CI 1.15‐3.02, p=0.012) models in Chinese patients and under
the dominant (OR: 3.06, 95% CI 1.19‐7.86, p=0.027), and over‐dominant (OR: 3.35, 95% CI
1.30‐8.68, p=0.018) models in Malay patients. c.349G>A was significantly associated with NS
under the codominant (OR: 2.52, 95% CI 1.22‐5.19, p=0.043), recessive (OR: 2.02, 95% CI
1.09‐3.75, p=0.028) and log‐additive (OR: 1.57, 95% CI 1.09‐2.25, p=0.014) models in
75
Chinese patients. c.2289C>T was significantly associated with NS under the codominant (OR:
2.24, 95%CI 1.47‐3.41, p=0.0008), dominant (OR: 2.22, 95%CI 1.47‐3.34, p=0.0002),
overdominant (OR: 2.16, 95%CI 1.43‐3.26, p=0.0003) and log‐additive (OR: 1.83, 95%CI:
1.31‐2.55, p=0.0006) models in Chinese patients and under the codominant (C/T) (OR: 2.60,
95%CI 1.01‐6.70, p=0.026), codominant (T/T) (OR: 10.71, 95%CI 1.40‐82.00, p=0.026),
dominant (OR: 3.06, 95%CI 1.26‐7.46, p=0.017), and log‐additive (OR: 2.88, 95% CI 1.37‐6.07,
p=0.0073) models in Malay patients.
Based on the HapMap data on c.349G>A, in the European population, G allele is the major
allele (68%) while A allele is the minor allele (32%). The frequencies of G/G, G/A and A/A
genotypes are 43%, 49% and 8% respectively. In contrast, in the Han Chinese population in
Beijing, A allele was identified to be the major allele (67%) while G allele is the minor allele
(33%). Likewise, the frequencies of G/G, G/A and A/A genotypes are 32%, 51% and 17%
respectively. Our allele and genotype frequencies are in agreement to that observed in the
Han Chinese population in Beijing, with reference to the data described in Table 9 and Table
10.
76
Table 9: Allele frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Chinese (n=97).
c.294C>T
Controls
c.349G>A
Patients
Patients
(n=221)
(n=97)
386
155
(87%)
(80%)
56
39
T
Controls
Patients
(n=1903)
(n=97)
3169
142
(83%)
(73%)
637
52
(17%)
(27%)
(n=221)
(n=97)
172
95
C
G
C
Controls
c.2289C>T
(39%)
(49%)
270
99
A
T
(13%)
(20%)
(61%)
p=0.016
p=0.018
(51%)
p=0.0003
Table 10: Genotype frequency for NPHS1 SNPs in Chinese (n=97).
Controls
Patients
c.294C>T
Controls
Patients
c.349G>A
(n=221)
165
(n=97)
(n=221)
61
CC
28
(n=97)
22
GG
(75%)
(63%)
56
33
CT
(34%)
0
3
TT
(13%)
(23%)
116
51
(3%)
(n=1903)
(n=1903)
1320
49
(69%)
(51%)
529
44
(28%)
(45%)
54
4
(3%)
(4%)
CT
(52%)
(53%)
77
24
AA
(0%)
Patients
CC
GA
(25%)
Controls
c.2289C>T
TT
(35%)
(25%)
77
Table 11: Association analysis of NPHS1 genotypes with nephrotic syndrome in Chinese.
c.294C>T
c.349 G>A
Patients (n=97); Controls (n=221)
Patients (n=97); Controls (n=221)
c.2289C>T
Patients (n=97); Controls (n=1903)
Codominant (C/T):
Codominant (G/G):
OR: 2.24 (1.47‐3.41), p=0.0008
OR: 2.52 (1.22‐5.19), p=0.043
Dominant:
Patients
Dominant:
Recessive:
OR: 1.74 (1.04‐2.90), p=0.035
vs Controls
OR: 2.22 (1.47‐3.34), p=0.0002
OR: 2.02 (1.09‐3.75), p=0.028
Log‐additive:
Overdominant:
Log‐additive:
OR: 1.86 (1.15‐3.02), p=0.012
OR: 2.16 (1.43‐3.26), p=0.0003
OR: 1.57 (1.09‐2.25), p=0.014
Log additive:
OR: 1.83 (1.31‐2.55), p=0.0006
78
Table 12:Allele frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Malay (n=24).
c.294C>T
Controls
c.2289C>T
Patients
(n=185)
342
(n=24)
40
Patients
(n=185)
(n=24)
333
36
(90%)
(75%)
37
12
(25%)
C
C
(92%)
(83%)
28
8
T
Controls
T
(8%)
(17%)
(10%)
p=0.035
p=0.0024
Table 13: Genotype frequencies of NPHS1 SNPs in Malay (n=24).
Control
Patient
c.294C>T
Control
Patient
(n=185)
(n=24)
c.2289C>T
(n=185)
159
(n=24)
16
CC
150
14
(0.81)
(0.58)
33
8
(0.18)
(0.33)
2
2
(0.01)
(0.08)
CC
(0.86)
(0.67)
24
8
CT
CT
(0.13)
(0.33)
2
0
TT
TT
(0.01)
(0)
79
Table 14: Association analysis of NPHS1 genotypes with nephrotic syndrome in Malay
(n=24).
c.294C>T
c.2289C>T
Co‐dominant (C/T):
OR: 2.60 (1.01‐6.70), p=0.026
Co‐dominant (T/T)
Dominant:
OR: 10.71 (1.40‐82.00), p=0.026
OR: 3.06 (1.19‐7.86),p=0.027
Over dominant:
OR: 3.35 (1.30‐8.68), p=0.018
Dominant:
Patients (n=24)
vs
Controls (n=185)
OR: 3.06 (1.26‐7.46), p=0.017
Log‐additive:
OR: 2.88 (1.37‐6.07), p=0.0073
80
3.2.3. Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants
Effect on function of protein
Out of the 16 genetic variants identified, 8 of them were non‐synonymous. The effect of the
amino acid substitution on protein function was predicted using two web‐based programs,
SIFT and Polyphen2. SIFT looks at whether the amino acid substitution is tolerable. It gives a
SIFT score which is a scaled probability that amino acid would appear at that position in the
alignment (Ng and Henikoff, 2003). Polyphen2 predicts whether a genetic variant is probably
damaging, possibly damaging or benign. When a genetic variant is predicted to be probably
damaging, the prediction is made with high confidence that the amino acid substitution will
affect the function or structure of the protein. A genetic variant that is possibly damaging is
supposed to affect the function or structure of the protein. A genetic variant that is
predicted to be benign is most likely not to have any phenotypic effect (Sunyaev et al., 2001).
Only 1 genetic variant (c.3230 A>G) was predicted by SIFT to affect the protein function.
Polyphen2 predicted 3 variants (c.65C>T, c.803G>A and c.3047G>A) to be benign, 4 variants
(c.349G>A, c.494C>T, c.1339G>A and c.3230A>G) to be possibly damaging and 1 variant
(c.2398 C>T) to be probably damaging (Table 15). c.349G>A, c.494C>T, c.1339G>A,
c.2398C>T and c.3230A>G were well conserved among nephrin of other mammalian species
(Appendix IV).
81
Table 15: Prediction of the effect of amino acid substitution of the various genetic variants
on the protein using SIFT and PolyPhen2.
Variant
Amino Acid
Prediction by SIFT
Prediction by PolyPhen2
c.65C>T
p.Ala22Val
Tolerated
Benign
Score: 0.76
Score difference: NA
c.349G>A
p.Glu117Lys
Tolerated
Possibly damaged
Score: 0.48
Score difference: 1.609
c.494C>T
p.Ala165Val
Tolerated
Possibly damaged
Score: 0.12
Score difference: 1.577
c.803G>A
p.Arg268Glu
Tolerated
Benign
Score: 0.16
Score difference: 1.362
c.1339G>A
p.Glu447Lys
Tolerated
Possibly damaged
Score: 0.16
Score difference: 1.544
c.2398C>T
p.Arg800Cys
Tolerated
Probably damaging
Score: 0.09
Score difference: 2.223
Tolerated
Benign
Score: 0.17
Score difference: 1.270
Affect protein structure
Possibly damaged
Score: 0.00
Score difference: 1.838
c.3047G>A p.Ser1016Asn
c.3230A>G p.Asn1077Ser
82
Presence of ESE and/or ESS sites
For all the genetic variants that are in the coding region, they were analyzed to determine if
the change in nucleotide would change the ESE and/or ESS sites using various ESE/ESS
search engines. Out of the 15 genetic variants in the exon regions, 3 of them (c.1339G>A,
c.2398C>T and c.3047G>A) did not have any effect on the ESE/ESS sites for their nucleotide
change. Five genetic variants (c.65C>T, c.151C>T, c.803G>A, c.2223C>T and c.2289C>T)
resulted in the loss of ESE/ESS sites in the presence of the mutant nucleotide. The change in
nucleotide for 6 genetic variants (c.294C>T, c.349G>A, c.494C>T, c.2871G>A, c.3230G>A and
c.3315G>A) resulted in a gain of ESE/ESS sites. The change in nucleotide for c.1233C>T
resulted in both gain and loss of ESE/ESS sites (Table 16). c.65C>T, c.151C>T, c.294C>T,
c.803G>A, c.2223C>T, c.2289C>T and c.2871G>A were observed to be well conserved
among nephrin of other mammalian species (Appendix IV).
83
Table 16: Effect of the individual NPHS1 SNPs on ESE/ESS sites.
Position
Variant
Effect on ESE/ESS sites
2
c.65C>T
(‐) SF2/ASF
2
c.151C>T
(‐)GTGGAGCT
3
c.294C>T
(+) ACATTGAGGC
3
c.349G>A
(+) CTAAGATG
4
c.494C>T
(+) GTGAAG
(+)TGAAGC
7
c.803G>A
(‐)SF2/ASF
10
c.1233C>T
(‐)ACAACG
(+)SRp40
(+)ATGGTC
11
c.1339G>A
‐
17
c.2223C>T
(‐)ACCATCCG
17
c.2289C>T
(‐)SF2/ASF
18
c.2398C>T
‐
21
c.2871G>A
(+)SRp55
22
c.3047G>A
‐
24
c.3230A>G
(+)TCCAGT
26
c.3315G>A
(+)TCAGAA
(+)SRp40
84
3.3. Genetic variants in NPHS2
3.3.1. Screening of NPHS2 using direct sequencing
For NPHS2, direct sequencing was used to screen the promoter region (~1000basepairs
upstream) and all the eight exons. We have identified a total of 8 genetic variants in our
patients (Table 17), of which 1 (c.685C>A) was novel. The DNA electrophoretograms of the
various genetic variants are illustrated in Figure 8.
Table 17: Genetic variants identified in NPHS2 using direct sequencing.
Position
SNP ref
Variant
Amino acid
Promoter
‐
c.‐670C>T
‐
Promoter
‐
c.‐116C>T
‐
Promoter
rs12406197
c.‐51G>T
‐
2
rs3738423
c.288C>T
p.Ser96Ser
5
‐
c.685C>A
p.Arg229Arg
7
rs74315348
c.871C>T
p.Arg291Trp
8
rs1410592
c.954T>C
p.Ala318Ala
8
rs3818587
c.1038A>G
p.Leu346Leu
85
Figure 8
8: Electroph
horetogram
ms of the vaarious genettic variants.
(A‐B) W
Wild‐type C allele and variant T allele (heteerozygous and
a homozzygous form
m) of c.‐
670C>TT and c.‐11
16C>T (C) Wild‐type G allele and variant T allele (heterozygo
(
ous and
homozyygous form) of c.‐51G>>T (D) Wild‐‐type C allele and variaant T allele (heterozyggous and
homozyygous form)) of c.288C>>T. Both TCC and TCT ccode for serrine. (E) Wild‐type C alllele and
variant A allele (he
eterozygous form) of cc.685C>A. B
Both CGA aand AGA code for argin
nine. (F)
Wild‐type C allele
e and variant T allele (heterozyggous form) of c.871C>
>T. CGG co
odes for
argininee, while TG
GG codes for tryptop
phan. (G) Wild‐type
W
T allele an
T
nd variant C allele
(hetero
ozygous and
d homozygo
ous form) of c.954T>C.. Both GCT and GCC co
ode for alan
nine. (H)
Wild‐type A allele and variant G allele (h
heterozygou
us and hom
mozygous fo
orm) of c.10
038A>G.
Both
CTA
leucine.
A
a
and
CTG
code
fo
or
86
3.3.2. Statistical analysis of the genetic variants in NPHS2
All genetic variants were consistent with the Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium in both the
Chinese and Malay controls (Appendix II).
In our Chinese population, c.‐670C>T, c.‐116C>T and c.288C>T was in strong LD with c.‐
51G>T (D’: 0.83, pT (D’: 0.85, pT
(D’: 0.99, p=0.0086), c.288C>T (D’: 0.82, pC (D’: 0.90, pT (D’: 0.67, p=0.0003) (Appendix III).
In our Malay population, c.‐670C>T was in moderate LD with c.1038A>G (D’: 0.74, p=0.0025)
and strong LD with c.‐116C>T, c.‐51G>T and 288C>T (D’: 0.92‐0.99, pT
was in moderate LD with c.954T>C (D’: 0.79, pT (D’:
0.99, p=0.0001). c.288C>T was in strong LD with c.1038A>G (D’: 0.88, pC
was in strong LD with c.1038A>G (D’: 0.73, p=0.0036) (Appendix III).
Significant allelic differences were observed between the Chinese patients and controls in
c.‐51G>T (p=0.0091) and c.288C>T (p=0.0021) (Table 18). There was no allelic difference
observed in the Malay patients. The genotype frequencies for the significant SNPs were
illustrated in Table 19. In our Chinese patients, out of the 8 genetic variants, c.-51G>T was
significantly associated with NS under the dominant (OR: 2.11, 95%CI 1.11‐4.00, p=0.021),
and log-additive (OR: 2.19, 95%CI 1.20‐3.99, p=0.0088) models in Chinese patients.
87
c.288C>T was observed to have a protective effect in NS under the codominant (OR: 0.25,
95%CI
0.11-0.58,
p=0.0011),
dominant
(OR: 0.28, 95%CI 0.13‐0.61, p=0.0004),
overdominant (OR: 0.25, 95%CI 0.11-0.58, p=0.0002) and log-additive (OR: 0.33,
95%CI 0.16-0.69, p=0.0009) models in Chinese patients (Table 20). There was no
association observed for the Malay patients.
88
Table 18: Allele frequencies of NPHS2 variants in Chinese (n=97).
c.‐51G>T
Controls
c.288C>T
Patients
(n=125)
(n=97)
229
162
Patients
(n=221)
(n=97)
386
185
(87%)
(95%)
56
9
(5%)
C
G
(92%)
(84%)
21
32
T
T
Controls
(8%)
(16%)
(13%)
p=0.0091
p=0.0021
Table 19: Genotype frequencies of NPHS2 variants in Chinese (n=97).
Control
Patient
Control
Patient
(n=221)
(n=97)
c.288C>T
c.‐51G>T
(n=125)
104
(n=97)
68
167
89
(0.76)
(0.92)
52
7
(0.24)
(0.7)
2
1
(0.01)
(0.01)
CC
CC
(0.83)
(0.70)
21
26
CT
CT
(0.17)
(0.27)
0
3
TT
TT
(0)
(0.03)
89
Table 20: Association analysis of c.‐51G>T and c.288C>T in Chinese patients (n=97).
Promoter: c.‐51G>T
Exon 2: c.288C>T
Patients (n=97); Controls(n=125)
Patients (n=97); Controls (n=125
Co‐dominant (C/T):
OR: 0.25 (0.11‐0.58), p=0.0011
Dominant:
Dominant:
OR: 0.28 (0.13‐0.61), p=0.0004
Patients vs
OR: 2.11 (1.11‐4.00), p=0.021
Overdominant:
Controls
Log‐additive:
OR: 0.25 (0.11‐0.58), p=0.0002
OR: 2.19 (1.20‐3.99), p=0.0088
Log‐additive:
OR: 0.33 (0.16‐0.69), p=0.0009
90
3.3.3. Prediction of the effect of the genetic variants
Presence of transcription factor binding sites
Three SNPs (c.‐51G>T, c.‐116C>T and c.‐670C>T) were identified in the promoter regions.
The web‐based program, ConSite, did not find any transcription factor binding sites for
c.‐116C>T and c.‐670C>T. As for c.‐51G>T, it was predicted to be the binding site
(TCCCGTG) for upstream stimulatory factor (USF) in homo sapiens. The change of
nucleotide from G to T resulted in the loss of the binding site to USF and hence the
transcription of podocin would most likely be affected.
Effect on the function of protein
Out of the 8 genetic variants identified, only c.871C>T denotes a non‐synonymous
amino acid substitution in Exon 7. This nucleotide change results in the change of amino
acid from arginine which is polar and positively‐charged into tryptophan that is non‐
polar and neutral‐charged. c.871C>T was present in 2 of the Chinese patients and was
not present in the 125 Chinese cord blood controls.
SIFT predicted that R291W would affect the function of the protein with a SIFT score of
0.01. This prediction is further supported by PolyPhen2, which also predicted that the
amino acid substitution is probably damaging to the protein, with a score difference of
2.439. c.871C>T was well conserved among podocin of other mammalian species
(Appendix IV).
91
Presence of ESE and/or ESS sites
Out of the 5 genetic variants in the coding regions, 2 of them (c.685C>A and c.871C>T)
did not have any effect on the ESE/ESS sites. The remaining 3 genetic variants (c.288C>T,
c.954T>C and c.1038A>G) resulted in the loss of ESE/ESS sites when there was a change
in the nucleotide (Table 21). c.288C>T, c.954T>C and c.1038A>G were well conserved
among podocin of other mammalian species (Appendix IV).
Table 21: Effect of the individual NPHS2 SNPs on ESE/ESS sites.
Position
Variant
Effect on ESE/ESS sites
2
c.288C>T
(‐)SRp55
5
c.685C>A
‐
7
c.871C>T
‐
8
c.954T>C
(‐) TGCTGCT
8
c.1038A>G
(‐)ACTGAA
92
3.4. Phenotype‐genotype associations
NPHS1 and NPHS2 SNPs were tested for genotype‐phenotype associations in Chinese
and Malay patients. Clinical features analyzed included nephrotic‐range proteinuria,
progression to ESRD, the use and response to various immunosuppressive drugs
(namely
prednisolone,
calcineurin
inhibitors,
mycophenolate
mofetil
and
cyclophosphamide), need for steroid‐sparing immunosuppression, ability to maintain
remission for at least five years, and ability to be weaned off all immunosuppressants
for more than five years. Several SNPs in NPHS2 were significantly associated with
certain phenotypes in our Chinese patients (Table 22 and Table 23). There was no
association between the genotypes and phenotypes observed in our Malay patients.
This could be due to the small sample size.
c.‐51G>T was found to be associated with steroid resistance under the dominant (OR:
2.87 95%CI 1.13‐7.27, p=0.026) and log additive model (OR: 2.62 95%CI 1.17‐5.87),
p=0.018) in Chinese patients (Table 22). Twenty‐eight Chinese patients were steroid
resistant, of whom 13 patients (46.4%) had the mutation for c.‐51G>T, as compared to
16 of 69 patients with steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS) (23.2%). Significant
allele difference was observed between SRNS and SSNS patients (p=0.014) (Table 23).
c.1038A>G, was associated with steroid resistance under the log‐additive model (OR:
3.09 95%CI 1.10‐8.70, p=0.030) (Table 22). Eight out of 28 SRNS patients (28.5%) had the
93
mutation A/G or G/G, compared to 8 out of 69 SSNS patients (11.6%). Significant allele
difference was observed between SRNS and SDNS patients (p=0.016) (Table 23).
c.‐51G>T was also found to be associated with the use of cyclosporine (CsA) under the
dominant model (OR: 2.87, 95%CI 1.13‐7.27, p=0.026) and log‐additive model (OR: 2.62,
95%CI 1.17‐5.87, p=0.018) in Chinese patients (Table 22). The mutation was found in 18
of 44 patients who used CsA (40.9%), and in only 11 of 53 patients (20.8%) who did not
use the drug. There was significant allele difference observed (p=0.044) (Table 23).
Forty‐four patients were on CsA, of whom 15 were resistant to therapy. c.1038A>G was
associated with CsA resistance under the dominant (OR: 5.78, 95%CI 1.19‐28.04,
p=0.024) and log‐additive (OR: 5.39, 95% CI 1.20‐24.30, p=0.016) models (Table 22). Six
of 15 CsA‐resistant patients (40%) had the mutation, as compared to only 3 of 29 CsA‐
responders (10.7%). There was significant allele difference observed (p=0.029) (Table
23).
94
Table 22: Genotype‐phenotype association in Chinese patients for NPHS2.
Steroid resistance
Resistant to
Cyclosporine
Use of cyclosporine
Dominant:
OR: 2.87 (1.13‐7.27),
p=0.026
c. ‐51G>T
Dominant:
OR: 2.64(1.08‐6.47),
p=0.031
Log additive:
OR: 2.62 (1.17‐5.87),
p=0.018
Log additive:
OR: 2.30 (1.04‐5.09),
p=0.034
No association
observed
Dominant:
OR: 5.78(1.19‐28.04),
p=0.024
Log‐additive:
OR: 3.29 (1.16‐9.31),
c.1038A>G p=0.023
No association observed
Log‐additive:
OR: 5.39 (1.20‐24.30),
p=0.016
95
Table 23: Allele frequencies for NPHS2 SNPs with phenotype‐genotype associations in
Chinese patients.
Steroid
Use of CsA
Resistant to CsA
resistance
c.‐51G>T
No
(n=69)
T
121
17
(88%)
Yes
(n=28)
G
G
T
No
94
12
(89%)
(11%)
68
20
(78%)
(22%)
(12%) (n=53)
41
(73%)
15
Yes
(27%) (n=44)
p=0.014*
p=0.031*
c.1038A>G
A
G
A
G
130
8
No
55
3
No
(n=69) (94%)
(6%)
Yes
9
47
(n=28) (84%)
(16%)
p=0.016*
(n=29) (95%)
(5%)
Yes
7
23
(n=15) (77%)
(23%)
p=0.028**
* Chi‐square test **Fisher‐exact
96
3.5. Analysis of composite genotypes of genetic variants in NPHS1 and NPHS2
In our cohort of patients, NPHS1 c.2289C>T and NPHS2 c.‐51G>T were individually
associated with NS, while c.288C>T seemed to have a protective effect. Hence, we
selected these 3 SNPs to perform an association analysis of the three combined
genotypes, using binary logistic regression. To increase the sample size analyzed, both
the Chinese and Malay populations were combined and analysis was performed with
race as the covariate.
Composite genotypes referred to the combination of genetic variants of different genes
found on different chromosomes. A total of 13 different combinations of composite
genotypes (‐51/288/2289) were observed in controls and patients from the 3
polymorphisms. The wild‐type (GG/CC/CC) was the most common in our controls and
patients and was taken to be the reference group. When the patients have the
composite genotype (GG/CC/CT), there was significant association with NS (OR: 3.53,
95%CI 1.82‐6.86, pT, c.1233C>T,
c.2398C>T, c.2871G>A and c.3047G>A) were rare variants, with minor allele frequencies
of less than 1% in controls. Of the 8 genetic variants identified in NPHS2, 2 of them
(c.685C>A and c.871C>T) were rare variants (Table 26). Of the 8 rare variants, 5 of them
(c.65C>T, c.494C>T, c.2398C>T and c.3047G>A (NPHS1) and c.871C>T (NPHS2)) were
non‐synonymous variants. Polyphen2 predicted c.65C>T and c.3047G>A (NPHS1) to be
benign, c.494C>T (NPHS1) to be possibly damaging and c.2398C>T (NPHS1) and
c.871C>T (NPHS2) to be damaging (Table 27).
101
Table 26: Rare NPHS1 and NPHS2 variants identified in NS patients and their minor
allele frequencies in patients and controls.
Amino acid
No. of
Race
NS
Controls
Rare variant SNP
change
patients
patients MAF
reference
(n=221)
MAF
(n=121)
NPHS1
c.65C>T
rs116617171 p.Ala22Val
3
Chinese 0.01
0.002
c.494C>T
‐
p.Ala165Val
1
Chinese 0.004
0
c.1233C>T
‐
p.Asn411Asn
1
Chinese 0.004
0
c.2398C>T
rs114896482 p.Arg800Cys
2
Chinese 0.008
0.007
c.2871G>A ‐
p.Val957Val
1
Chinese 0.004
0
c.3047G>A ‐
p.Ser1016Asn
1
Malay
0.004
0
NPHS2
c.685C>A
‐
p.Arg229Arg
1
Chinese 0.004
0
c.871C>T
rs74315348
p.Arg291Trp
2
Chinese 0.008
0
Boldface indicates minor alleles. SNP: single‐nucleotide polymorphism; NS: nephrotic
syndrome; MAF: minor allele frequency
102
Table 27: Non‐synonymous NPHS1 and NPHS2 rare variants identified in nephrotic
syndrome patients and their predicted effects
Gene
Nucleotide
Amino acid
Predicted
Reported functional
change
change
effect*
studies
NPHS1
c.65C>T
p.Ala22Val
Benign
‐
c.494C>T
p.Ala165Val
p.Ser1016Asn
Possibly
damaged
Probably
damaging
Benign
c.2398C>T
p.Arg800Cys
c.3047G>A
NPHS2
‐
‐
c.871C>T
p. Arg291Trp
Probably
damaging
(Zhang et al., 2004,
‐
Nishibori et al., 2004)
*The effect of the amino acid substitutions were predicted using Polyphen2.
As there were no allele differences for the rare variants between the Chinese and Malay
controls, comparisons between patients and controls and between different
phenotypes were performed on the combined data of both the Chinese and Malay
patients.
There was a significant accumulation of rare variants in patients with NS compared to
healthy controls (12 total variants in 121 NS diploid genomes compared to 4 total
variants in 221 control diploid genomes, p=0.0021) (Table 28). This corresponded to a
significantly higher carrier frequency of 7.4% in NS patients compared to 1.8% in
controls (p=0.0151). Analysis of only non‐synonymous rare variants revealed a
significant burden of 9 variants in NS patients compared to 4 variants in controls,
103
corresponding to a significantly higher carrier frequency of 6.6% in NS patients
compared to 1.8% in controls (p=0.0299).
Table 28: Rare variants accumulation in nephrotic syndrome patients and controls
NS Patients
Controls
Total no. of
242
442
alleles
All variants
NPHS1
9
4
(synonymous and
non‐synonymous)
NPHS2
3
0
Non‐synonymous
variants only
Total
12
NPHS1
7
4
NPHS2
2
0
Total
9
4
4
p=0.0021*
p=0.0161*
NS: nephrotic syndrome; * Fisher’s Exact test
104
Comparison of the rare variant accumulation was also performed between patients with
different clinical phenotypes such as drug therapy, drug response, whether they have
poor prognosis as defined in Section 3.1 and whether they progressed to ESRF.
Twenty‐three of the 121 patients (19%) were defined as having poor prognosis. A
significant accumulation of rare variants was identified in patients who had poor
prognosis compared to those with good prognosis. A total of 8 rare variants were
identified in 23 diploid genomes in patients with poor prognosis, as compared to 4 total
variant in 98 diploid genomes in patients with good prognosis (p=0.0003). This
corresponded to a significantly higher carrier frequency of 21.7% in patients with poor
prognosis compared to 4.1% in patients with good prognosis (p=0.012). When the
analysis was only performed on the non‐synonymous SNPs, a significant burden of 5
rare variants was observed in patients with poor prognosis compared to 4 rare variants
in patients with good prognosis (p=0.014). This corresponded to a higher carrier
frequency of 17.4% in patients with poor prognosis than 4.1% in patients with good
prognosis (p=0.042) (Table 29).
105
Table 29: Accumulation of rare variants in patients with poor prognosis.
Patients with good
Patients with poor
prognosis
prognosis
Total alleles
196
46
All rare variants
NPHS1
0
3
(synonymous and
non‐synonymous)
NPHS2
4
5
Total
4
8
p=0.0003*
Non‐synonymous
rare variants only
NPHS1
0
2
NPHS2
4
3
Total
4
5
p=0.0140*
*Fisher’s exact test
Of the 121 Chinese and Malay patients, heterozygous rare variants were found in 9
patients. One patient (Patient 94) had 2 rare variants in NPHS1 and 2 in NPHS2 while the
rest had only one rare variant each. Table 30 illustrates the clinical characteristics of
these 9 patients with rare variants. Six of the 9 patients (66.7%) were steroid‐resistant,
while 5 patients (55.5%) were resistant to both steroid and calcineurin inhibitor therapy.
Of these 9 patients, 7 (77.8%) had a renal biopsy, 3 of whom (42.9%) had histology‐
proven FSGS (Table 30).
106
Table 30: Clinical characteristics of patients with rare variants.
Patient Gender Age at
Renal Biopsy
Steroid
no.
diagnosis
resistant
Progression On
Poor
Rare
to ESRF
Cyclosporine Prognosis variants
treatment
identified
No
Yes
No
NPHS1
c.2398C>T
No
No
No
NPHS1
c.2398C>T
20
F
16
Not performed
No
80
F
3
No
83
M
5.47
Mesangial injury, GN
with IgM deposits and
global sclerosis
Focal Global Sclerosis
Yes
No
Yes*
Yes
64
F
5.77
Not performed
No
No
No
No
94
M
11.01
FSGS, scalloping of
glomerular basement
membrane on electron
microscopy
Yes
Yes
Yes*
Yes
M
3
FSGS
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
232
NPHS1
c.1233C>T
NPHS1
c.494C>T
NPHS1
c.65C>T
c.2871G>A
NPHS2
c.685C>A
c.871C>T
NPHS1
c.65C>T
252
M
17
MCNS
Yes
No
Yes
No
NPHS1
c.65C>T
58
F
11
Diffuse Mesangial
Proliferative
Glomerulonephritis
with Global and
Yes
Yes
Yes*
Yes
NPHS2
c.871C>T
107
Patient Gender Age at
Renal Biopsy
no.
diagnosis
Steroid
resistant
Progression On
Poor
Rare
to ESRF
Cyclosporine Prognosis variants
treatment
identified
Segmental Sclerosis
3
F
21
FSGS and tubular
Yes
No
Yes*
Yes
NPHS1
interstitial infiltrates
c.3047G>A
GN: Glomerulonephritis; MCNS: Minimal change nephrotic syndrome; FSGS: Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
*Resistant to Cyclosporine treatment
108
Two of the 9 patients (22.2%) progressed to ESRD (Patients 94 and 58). Interestingly,
these are the only 2 patients with c.871C>T rare variant in NPHS2. Patient 94 who had 4
rare variants (NPHS1: c.65C>T and c.2871G>A; NPHS2: c.685C>A and c.871C>T)
presented with NS at 12 years of age, and renal biopsy then showed FSGS. He was the
first child of non‐consanguinous parents and had no family history of renal disease.
Mutational analysis showed that c.65C>T (NPHS1) and c.871C>T (NPHS2) were of
paternal origin, while c.2871G>A (NPHS1) and c.685C>A (NPHS2) were of maternal
origin (Figure 9). Of note, his siblings and parents had normal urine dipstick analysis. His
renal function was normal at presentation, and he was treated with prednisolone,
cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil, to which he did not respond. He progressed to
chronic kidney disease stage 2 at 13 years of age, and reached end‐stage renal failure at
17 years, when he was started on peritoneal dialysis. He received a living‐related renal
transplant from his mother at 19 years old. He was managed with methylprednisolone,
azathioprine and basilixumab perioperatively, and subsequently maintained on
prednisolone, tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil. He achieved good urine output
and renal function post‐transplant. There was mild proteinuria of 1.35g/day/1.73m2
which resolved with initiation of enalapril. To date at 1.5 years post‐transplant, his
serum creatinine was 110‐120 μmol/L (eGFR 50‐60 ml/min/1.73m2) and his urine total
protein was 0.32g/day/1.73m2. No post‐transplant renal biopsy had been performed.
The other ESRD patient (Patient 58) had only a single rare variant NPHS2 c.871C>T. She
presented at 3 years of age with mild proteinuria which was not followed up. She
109
presented again at 11 years old with NS and hypertension, and renal biopsy then
showed mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis with global and segmental sclerosis.
She was resistant to steroids, cyclophosphamide and cyclosporine, and renal function
progressively deteriorated. She reached ESRD at 21 years of age and was put on
peritoneal dialysis. She received a deceased donor renal transplant at 24 years of age,
which was complicated by severe acute tubular necrosis. She received
methylprednisolone, azathioprine, cyclosporine , and anti‐thymocyte globulin. She had
no recurrence of proteinuria. To date at 8 years post‐transplant, she has been
maintained on prednisolone, mycophenolate and tacrolimus and continued to have no
proteinuria, but had chronic kidney disease stage 3 due to chronic allograft dysfunction.
110
Fiigure 9: Ped
digree of Pattient 94.
All the other
A
family members were te
ested negatiive for proteeinuria. Geno
otyping of th
he
raare variants were perforrmed for the
e family mem
mbers of Pattient 94.
111
4. Discussion
Idiopathic NS is the most common glomerular disease in children, occurring in 20 to 30
per million children annually. Although the majority is due to MCNS with good prognosis,
up to 40% can be steroid‐dependent or steroid‐resistant. Progression to end stage renal
failure may occur, especially in those patients who are diagnosed with FSGS on biopsy.
Recent molecular studies have identified several podocyte‐associated genes to be
implicated in the pathogenesis of childhood NS. Some examples are nephrin (NPHS1),
podocin (NPHS2), wilm’s tumor‐1 (WT‐1) and α‐actinin‐4 (ACTN4). Geographical and
ethnic differences in genotypes and clinical outcomes have been described, especially in
Caucasian populations (Caridi et al., 2003, Weber et al., 2004).
Mutations in NPHS1 and NPHS2 have been associated with early onset of heavy
proteinuria, and rapid progression to end‐stage renal disease. This suggests that both
nephrin (NPHS1) and podocin (NPHS2) have an important role in the maintenance of
glomerular permeability (Huber et al., 2003b). NPHS1 and NPHS2 were the initial genes
to be identified as the main genetic causes of congenital NS and familial autosomal
recessive SRNS respectively (Lenkkeri et al., 1999, Boute et al., 2000). Subsequent
studies have also identified mutations in NPHS1 in other forms of NS (Philippe et al.,
2008, Santin et al., 2009b). NPHS2 mutations were also found in patients with sporadic
NS (Karle et al., 2002, Weber et al., 2004) . Geographical and inter‐racial differences in
mutation profile have been widely reported in NS. This is particularly evident in the
mutation spectrum of NPHS2, which is one of the most extensively studied genes in NS.
112
Some common genetic variants, such as R138Q and R229Q, have been described in
Caucasian nephrotic cohorts (Jungraithmayr et al., 2011, Weber et al., 2004, Caridi et al.,
2003) but have not been described in any of the Asian studies, as well as in our study
(Mao et al., 2007, Kitamura et al., 2006, Yu et al., 2005, Yu et al., 2004). For studies
performed on sporadic SRNS in the European cohort, the prevalence of NPHS2
mutations (homozygous or compound heterozygous) was 12 to 19% (Weber et al., 2004,
Ruf et al., 2004, Caridi et al., 2003). In contrast, a study performed by Maruyama et al.
did not find any NPHS2 mutation in 36 Japanese children with SRNS (Maruyama et al.,
2003). Similar studies conducted by Yu et al. and Mao et al. observed a mutation
prevalence of 4.3% and 6.7% respectively.
In our present study, which aimed to explore the spectrum and frequency of genetic
variants of NPHS1 and NPHS2 in young Singapore Chinese and Malay patients with
idiopathic NS, we also observed a lower prevalence of NPHS2 mutations (2.1%) in
Singapore Chinese children, but no mutations in our Malay patients. This low incidence
of NPHS2 mutations in the Asian population indicates that NPHS2 mutations have a
lower genetic contribution to disease pathogenesis in the nephrotic cohort of Asian
origin.
113
4.1. Polymorphisms and their association with nephrotic syndrome
Studies have demonstrated that polymorphisms, even without amino acid substitution,
could result in phenotypic variations either by affecting the structure of mRNA or by the
inactivation of genes through the change in gene splicing machinery to skip the mutant
exons (Mao et al., 2007). Hence, polymorphisms could have a role in the development
of idiopathic NS and might also contribute to the different phenotypes seen in these
patients.
Out of the 16 genetic variants identified in NPHS1, 10 were polymorphic, with a minor
allele frequency of more than 1% in controls. Two SNPs (c.294C>T and c.2289C>T) were
found to be significantly associated with NS in our Chinese and Malay patients.
c.349G>A was found to be significantly associated with NS in only the Chinese patients.
c.294C>T and c.2289C>T does not result in any amino acid substitution, whereas
c.349G>A results in an amino acid substitution of glutamic acid to lysine at position 117.
This amino acid change has been predicted to be tolerated by SIFT, and possibly
damaging by PolyPhen2.
c.294C>T was found in Japanese SRNS patients with a minor allele frequency of 15%.
c.349G>A was reported in European MCNS patients and Japanese SRNS patients with a
minor allele frequency of 48% and 37% respectively. c.2289C>T had been identified in
MCNS patients in the European cohort, Chinese patients with sporadic NS and Japanese
SRNS patients, with a minor allele frequency of 4%, 18.3% and 13% respectively
114
(Lahdenkari et al., 2004, Kitamura et al., 2006, Mao et al., 2007). In our present study,
the minor allele frequency for c.294C>T was 20% in Chinese patients and 17% in Malay
patients. This was similar to the findings in the Japanese population. However, the
minor allele frequency for c.2289C>T was 27% in our Chinese patients, and 25% in our
Malay patients. This was higher than those in the previous studies, suggesting that this
SNP could be more important in our population.
c.294C>T, c.349G>A and c.2289C>T have been found to affect the ESE and/or ESS sites.
Variants which cause the disruption in ESE sites could result in loss of splice sites,
creation of splice sites, activation of the cryptic splice site and interfering with the
splicing elements (Cartegni et al., 2003). Although both c.294C>T and c.2289C>T do not
have any amino acid substitutions, they could affect the expression and function of
nephrin through the ESE and/or ESS sites. Functional studies would be needed to test
the effect of these variants on nephrin function.
Of the 8 NPHS2 variants that were identified in our populations, 6 of them were
polymorphic, with a minor allele frequency of more than 1% in the controls. Moreover,
c.‐670C>T, c.‐51G>T, c.288C>T, c.954T>C and c.1038A>G have been reported in other
Chinese populations (Zhu et al., 2009, Mao et al., 2007, Yu et al., 2005). However, no
genotypic or allelic differences had been reported for these polymorphisms in the
reported studies.
115
On the other hand, c.‐51G>T was found to be associated with NS in our Chinese patients.
The frequency of the minor allele T was two‐fold higher in patients (16%) compared to
controls (8%). c.‐51G>T has been shown to be a functional polymorphism. The web‐
based program, Consite, predicted c.‐51G>T to be the binding site (TCCCGTG) for
upstream stimulatory factor (USF) in homo sapiens. Di Duca et al. reported a
downregulation of the reporter gene expression when the podocytes were transfected
with the variant. c.‐51G>T binds to the upstream stimulatory factor‐1 (USF‐1) trans
element, which is a main regulatory factor of podocin expression in human glomeruli.
When USF‐1 RNA expression was silenced in podocytes transfected with the wild‐type
constructs containing ‐51G sequence, there was a significant reduction of luciferase
expression. This supported the concept that USF‐1 has a functional implication (Di Duca
et al., 2006).
c.288C>T seemed to have a protective effect on our nephrotic Chinese patients. The
minor allele frequency was more than two‐fold lower in the patients (5%) compared to
controls (13%). This protective effect was not observed in other studies on Chinese
patients from the Northern and Eastern China. Yu et al. observed a minor frequency of
7% in their SRNS patients compared to 4% in controls, whereas Zhu et al observed a
minor allele frequency of 10% in their minimal change disease patients as compared to
7.4% in controls. Both studies did not observe any genotypic or allelic differences (Yu et
al., 2005, Zhu et al., 2009). This disparity could be due to either difference in allelic
frequencies or genetic variations between the Northern and Southern Chinese. Chinese
116
from Singapore population mainly originated from the Southern provinces, such as
Guangdong and Fujian. Suo et al. observed a north‐south cline in genetic variations in
China when they performed a systemic survey of the population genetics data from two
Han Chinese populations, Han Chinese from Beijing and Singapore Chinese with South
China ancestries. They have identified genomic regions that explained the observed
north‐south cline in genetic differences in China (Suo et al., 2012).
The NPHS1 and NPHS2 polymorphisms were significantly associated with NS under
different inheritance models. To select for the best model statistically, the Akaike
information (AIC) that was provided by SNPstats can be used as a reference. The best
model would be the model with the lowest AIC. However, the best model cannot be
selected simply based on the statistical results. The best model selected needs to fit the
underlying biology. The association analysis was based on cases and controls (i.e. 2
phenotypes). Both the co‐dominant and log‐additive models require at least 3
phenotypes to determine if it is the best model. An example of analysis would be to
compare the controls, mild cases (i.e. proteinuria only) and severe cases (i.e. develop
nephrotic syndrome). Hence, in this scenario of case‐control study, the model selection
should be limited to only dominant, recessive or over‐dominant. Functional studies,
such as gene expression study, can also be performed to see which model is the most
appropriate for the variant. A variant which leads to a loss‐of‐function can typically be
explained by the recessive model, while a variant that causes a gain‐of‐function can
typically be represented by the dominant model.
117
In our Malay patients, we did not observe any unique NPHS1 SNPs or any NPHS2 SNPs
that were associated with NS. These findings suggest that NPHS1 and NPHS2 may not be
the genes, accounting for NS in Malays, nor are they responsible for the poorer
prognosis of NS seen in the Malays in our population. Other genes, such as MYH9 and
PLCE1, need to be investigated in order to identify the gene(s) that may be responsible
for the poorer outcomes in Malays. Exome sequencing, which is an efficient method to
identify candidate genes by targeted sequencing of all the protein coding regions
(exomes), could be performed on our Malay patients (Ng et al., 2009). Through this
strategy, the unique genetic variants that could account for their phenotypes could be
identified.
4.2. Phenotype‐genotype correlations of the genetic variants
Studies have been carried out in various ethnic populations to investigate the effect of
NPHS1 variants on the disease phenotypes. Philippe et al identified NPHS1 mutations in
their patients who presented with renal disease later in childhood, were steroid‐
resistant and had a histological spectrum ranging from MCD to FSGS. Santin et al.
performed NPHS1 mutational analysis on their patients with familial and sporadic SRNS.
Both groups observed that patients with compound heterozygous NPHS1 mutations
with at least 1 mild mutation tended to have a later onset and milder course of disease.
Patients with 2 severe mutations are more likely to present with congenital onset of the
disease. Such genotype‐phenotype correlations highlighted the importance of NPHS1
118
mutation screening in SRNS patients for disease prognostication (Philippe et al., 2008,
Santin et al., 2009b).
p.R229Q is the most commonly described NPHS2 polymorphism in NS, and has been
found in both familial and sporadic SRNS, as well as in patients with FSGS. In patients
with NS, this polymorphism has been found to be in the homozygous, compound
heterozygous or heterozygous state (Karle et al., 2002, Tsukaguchi et al., 2002, Caridi et
al., 2003, Ruf et al., 2004, Weber et al., 2004). The arginine residue at position 229 is
highly conserved and in‐vitro studies have shown that this polymorphism could cause
decreased binding to nephrin. It has been hypothesized that p.R229Q may pre‐dispose
to FSGS or SRNS in the presence of a second pathologic NPHS2 mutation. p.R229Q
homozygosity has never been demonstrated in familial or sporadic FSGS. This suggests
that p.R229Q is not a highly pathogenic mutation and is less likely to have a serious
consequence in its heterozygous state in the absence of a second NPHS2 mutation
(McKenzie et al., 2007).
Resistance to therapy is a major characteristic in patients with poor prognosis (Caridi et
al., 2009). Steroids are the mainstay of therapy for children with NS, about 20% of
whom are resistant to treatment. SRNS patients are at a significantly higher risk of
developing complications of the disease, and progression to chronic kidney disease or
end stage renal failure. The patient’s initial response to corticosteroids is the most
important prognostic factor for long‐term remission in NS (Gbadegesin and Smoyer,
2008).
119
Kitamura et al. carefully selected 15 families with SRNS with phenotypes that were
comparable with the Caucasian populations and screened them for NPHS1, NPHS2 and
NEP1. They only managed to identify known polymorphisms of NPHS1 and NPHS2, and
hence concluded that NPHS1 and NPHS2 were not the cause of SRNS in their population
(Kitamura et al., 2006). Mao et al screened 60 Chinese patients for mutations in NPHS1
and NPHS2 but did not find any correlation of phenotype‐genotype in NPHS1 and NPHS2.
In our Chinese patients, genotype‐phenotype analysis showed that c.‐51G>T and
c.1038A>G were associated with SRNS, using the log‐additive model. The minor allele in
both SNPs modified the risk of developing steroid resistance in an additive model.
Patients with 2 copies of the minor allele were at a higher risk than those with 1 copy of
the minor allele. Our study also demonstrated that c.1038A>G was associated with CsA
resistance under the dominant and log‐additive models. The G‐allele was about 4 times
higher in CsA‐resistant patients (23%) compared to CsA‐responsive patients (5%).
4.3. Gene‐gene interaction of NPHS1 and NPHS2
The identification of gene‐gene interactions will allow us to understand the mechanisms
through which genes act to control the expression of certain traits. The failure to model
a gene‐gene interaction in an analysis could result in incorrect conclusions with regard
to the mode of inheritance and the estimation of the degree of the genetic effects (Luo
et al., 2006). To investigate if there were any gene‐gene interactions between NPHS1
and NPHS2, we performed composite genotype analysis for 3 significant SNPs, namely
120
c.‐51G>T, c.288C>T (NPHS2) and c.2289C>T (NPHS1). We observed that this composite
genotype (GG/CC/CT) was significantly associated with NS in our patients. This
composite genotype was observed at a frequency of 27% in patients, which was twice
that in controls (10%). Another composite genotype (GT/CC/CT) was significantly
associated with NS with an increased odds ratio compared to GG/CC/CT. The frequency
of GT/CC/CT was 3 times more in patients (12%) compared to controls (4%). Therefore
our data showed that c.2289C>T (NPHS1) in its heterozygous form can be a risk factor
for NS, and together with heterozygous c.‐51G>T (NPHS2), the risk for the development
of NS increased.
Composite genotype analysis also revealed that the composite genotype (GT/CC/CC)
was associated with steroid resistance. The frequency of this genotype was more than
doubled in SRNS patients (18%) compared to SSNS patients (7%). Caridi et al. considered
that clinical phenotypes associated with heterozygous mutations could reveal the
specific features of the disease and be of clinical importance (Caridi et al., 2009). In our
study, we have shown that c.‐51G>T in its heterozygous form was associated with
steroid resistance. Another composite genotype (GG/CC/TT) was also associated with
steroid resistance in our patients, although individual analysis of c.2289C>T did not
show any significance. The frequency in SRNS (10%) was 5 times that of SSNS patients
(2%). These findings suggested that there could be some gene‐gene interactions
between NPHS1 and NPHS2 that could lead to the development of idiopathic NS, or
121
determine the response to therapy. Functional studies are needed to validate this
hypothesis.
Mutational studies have been performed to investigate the inter‐relationship of NPHS1
and NPHS2 on NS in children. Kozeill et al first described the co‐existence of NPHS1 and
NPHS2 mutations in patients with congenital FSGS. They observed that homozygous
mutations present in one gene, together with a third mutation in another gene, resulted
in modification of the disease phenotype from congenital nephrotic syndrome of the
Finnish type to congenital FSGS. This observation was suggestive of a tri‐allelic hit,
indicating that there could be a functional inter‐relationship between nephrin and
podocin (Koziell et al., 2002). On the other hand, Schultheiss et al. did not find any
evidence of di‐genic inheritance of NPHS1 and NPHS2 mutations as a tri‐allelic hit that
would result in the modification of phenotypes in their patients. Their data also did not
suggest any phenotype‐genotype correlations in their patients with mutations in both
NPHS1 and NPHS2 (Schultheiss et al., 2004).
4.4. Contribution of rare variants to nephrotic syndrome
We have shown a significant accumulation of rare variants in NS patients compared to
controls, and also in NS patients with poor prognosis compared to patients with good
prognosis. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the contribution of rare variants in
podocyte genes in NS.
122
Recently, there are studies reporting the accumulation of rare variants in quantitative
traits such as hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia ((Cohen et al., 2004,
Johansen et al., 2010). Rare variant accumulation studies can implicate genes in disease
susceptibility when a significant burden is observed in patients versus controls. Such
analyses may be particularly useful for candidate genes that are selected based on
experiments other than genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) (Johansen et al.,
2012).
Genetic variants that have strong phenotypic effects may contribute to the variations
observed in complex traits. However, these variants are more likely to be rare
individually. On the contrary, they may accumulate to cause variations in common traits
in the population (Cohen et al., 2004). By studying individuals with extreme phenotypes,
it is useful to identify functional rare variants. Using accumulation analysis in genes
defined as a priori as likely to contain rare variants, statistical analysis can be performed
to quantify the burden of mutations in subjects with severe phenotypes, prior to the
functional assessment of each variant (Johansen et al., 2010). There has been increasing
evidence that NS is a complex trait with the multi‐hit hypothesis, in which several
proteins involved in maintenance and function of the glomerular filtration barrier need
to be abnormal in order to give rise to a severe disease phenotype (Santin et al., 2009a).
Therefore, we hypothesized that rare DNA sequence variations in nephrin and podocin
collectively contribute to idiopathic NS in Singapore children.
123
In our cohort of patients with idiopathic NS, 9 had rare variants. A total of 8 variants
were identified amongst these patients, of which 5 variants (NPHS1:c.494C>T,
c.1233C>T, c.2871G>A and c.3047G>A; NPHS2: c.685C>A) were found exclusively in our
population.
Five of the variants (NPHS1: c.65C>T, c.494C>T, c.2398C>T and c.3047G>A; NPHS2:
c.871C>T) were non‐synonymous, resulting in amino acid substitution. Of these,
c.2398C>T and c.871C>T were predicted to be probably damaging by PolyPhen2.
c.2398C>T (p.R800C) (NPHS1) results in a change of amino acid from arginine to cysteine
at the position 800 of nephrin. Lahdenkari et al. predicted that p.R800C (NPHS1) is
pathogenic as it causes the formation of incorrect disulfide bonds (Lahdenkari et al.,
2004). c.871C>T (NPHS2) results in the substitution of arginine to tryptophan at position
291 of podocin. p.R291W (NPHS2) had reported functional effect. The substitution of
arginine with bulky aromatic side chain tryptophan caused the interruption of an
important intra‐ or intermolecular interaction within or between mutant podocin.
Podocin was found to be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum in the presence of this
mutation. The trafficking of nephrin was also affected as nephrin was found to co‐
localize with the mutant proteins in the same intracellular compartment (Nishibori et al.,
2004).
There was a significantly higher carrier frequency of rare variants (both synonymous and
non‐synonymous) in NS patients compared to controls. This significant higher carrier
124
frequency was also observed even when analysis was restricted to non‐synonymous
variants. This showed that the accumulation of rare variants, in particular non‐
synonymous variants, could contribute to the genetic aspects of NS in childhood.
Analysis was performed to see if there was any association of accumulation of rare
variants within the various clinical phenotypes. In childhood NS, there are various
factors which help in predicting the prognosis of the patients. Two major factors are the
response to drug therapy, both steroids and cyclosporine, and also the progression to
ESRD. Prednisone is the first line of drugs used in patients with NS. Calcineurin‐inhibitors
(CNI), in particular cyclosporine, are commonly used second‐line drugs for patients who
are steroid dependent but are relapsing frequently and also for steroid‐resistant
patients. It was observed that 20 to 30% of paediatrics FSGS are responsive to
cyclosporine (Eddy and Symons, 2003). Hence, patients who were resistant to both
prednisolone and CNI or progressed to ESRD are defined as having poor prognosis.
It was observed that the carrier frequency of rare variants (synonymous and non‐
synonymous) was significantly higher in the group of patients defined as having poor
prognosis. This significance persisted when analysis was limited to only non‐
synonymous variants. Therefore the accumulation of rare variants, especially the non‐
synonymous ones, could contribute to the poor prognosis seen in our patients.
125
The pedigree of Patient 94 demonstrated the possibility of an interacting effect between
the rare variants of NPHS1 and NPHS2. Patient 94 was the only member in his family
that had 4 rare variants and he developed NS, while the other members in the family
pedigree had between 2 to 3 rare variants. A multi‐hit hypothesis involving interacting
genes could therefore explain why only the index patient had the NS phenotype.
Clinically significant disease could only occur with the unique allelic combination found
in the index patient, but not when the rare variants were expressed individually or in the
combination seen in the rest of the family members.
126
5. Conclusion
This study highlights the importance of genetic screening in the different ethnic
populations so as to better define the role of genetic variants in the pathogenesis of
idiopathic nephrotic syndrome in these populations. We have demonstrated that both
NPHS1 and NPHS2 polymorphisms contributed to the pathogenesis of NS in both our
Chinese and Malay populations, and did not appear to be responsible for the poorer
prognosis observed in our Malay population. We would need to screen for other genes
that could be responsible for the poorer outcomes in Malays.
In our study, NPHS2 polymorphisms were also implicated in the development of drug
resistance, suggesting that screening of NPHS2 could have therapeutic implications in
children with INS. We have also shown that there could be gene‐gene interactions
between NPHS1 and NPHS2 genetic variants by performing composite genotype analysis.
Composite genotypes of c.‐51G>T, c.288C>T (NPHS2) and c.2289C>T (NPHS1) could be
associated with NS and also steroid resistance.
We have also shown that accumulation of rare variants could contribute to the
development of NS in Singapore children with NS. The burden of rare variants was
particularly observed in patients with poor prognosis. Functional analysis of these
variants may accurately define the effect of these rare variants identified in patients
with NS and their role in causing the disease.
127
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[...]... nephrin signal transduction(Huber et al., 2003b). Podocin has been found to increase the efficiency of nephrin signaling without the recruitment of other signaling molecules. The cytoplasmic tail of nephrin binds to podocin and this interaction is mediated by the C‐terminal domain of podocin (Huber et al., 2001). The phosphorylation of nephrin also increases the binding of nephrin and podocin (Li et al., 2004). ... 8th Congress of Asian Society for Paediatrics Research, Seoul, 2012 Title: Multiple Rare Alleles in Nephrin and Podocin Contribute to Poor Prognosis in Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome in Singapore. Nominated for Young Investigator Award xiv 1 Introduction 1.1 Nephrotic syndrome Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is a common cause of kidney disease in children. It is characterized by heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminaemia, oedema and hyperlipidaemia ... al., 2003). In SD, CD2AP may function as an adaptor protein to anchor the C‐terminal cytoplasmic domain of nephrin and/or podocin to the actin cytoskeleton. CD2AP is also involved with nephrin and podocin in cell signaling pathway (Mao et al., 2006). Nephrin Nephrin is a transmembrane protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. It has an N‐terminal signal ... recurrent FSGS patients, when injected into experimental animals can induce proteinuria or albuminuria. All these suggested the presence of plasma circulating factor that may be involved in glomerular damage and the initiation of glomerular events which contribute to the development of proteinuria in FSGS (Sharma et al., 1999, Sharma et al., 2004) . Cardiotrophin like cytokine‐1 has been ... podocyte injury. Hara et al. had reported in their study urinary loss of podocytes in FSGS and MCNS patients. They observed that the urinary loss of podocytes in FSGS was higher compared to those with MCNS. This suggested that the podocyte injury in FSGS patients was more serious, explaining why the prognosis in FSGS was poorer. The effacement of podocytes was identified as the initial event in FSGS. Podocytes have a limited ability to repair and ... focused on its structure. Structural abnormalities of the GBM may result in proteinuria 10 and hematuria, as observed in the X‐linked form of Alport’s syndrome that is due to mainly collagen IVα5 chain mutations and also collagen IV α3 and α4 chains (Barker et al., 1990). Severe or truncating mutations in the LAMB2 gene, which encodes for laminin β2 in GBM, result in congenital NS (CNS) associated with microcoria (Zenker et al., 2004, ... processes of glomerular development at the capillary loop stage (Hinkes et al., 2006). 1.2.2 Cytoskeletal proteins Actin cytoskeletal proteins play an important role in the regulation of the plasticity of the podocyte cytoskeleton. Therefore they are important in the maintenance of the filtration barrier. Alpha actinin 4 (ACTN4) is an actin bundling protein that is responsible ... (Yu et al., 2005). There have been various definitions used to describe nephrotic range proteinuria, including urinary protein excretion ≥3 g/day/1.73m2 or a spot urinary protein:creatinine ratio ≥0.2 g/mmol (Yap and Lau, 2008). NS in children can be congenital, which is presented at birth or during first 3 months of life, or presented in later part of their life. Childhood NS is ... domain that containing eight immunoglobulin motifs, a fibronectin type III‐like domain, a transmembrane domain and lastly a cytosolic C‐terminal domain (Kestila et al., 1998, Lenkkeri et al., 1999). Nephrin is localized within normal human kidney and is distinctly localized at the SD of the 13 glomerular podocytes (Holthofer et al., 1999, Patrakka et al., 2000). Mice with nephrin ... sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS) is defined as patients being able to enter remission in response to corticosteroid treatment alone. Steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) is the inability to induce remission after 8 weeks of corticosteroid treatment. Steroid dependent nephrotic syndrome (SDNS) is the initial response to corticosteroid treatment by entering complete remission but the development of relapse either while still receiving steroids ... Mutations in TRPC6 resulted in a gain of function. Mutations in WT1 affect the DNA‐binding affinity of WT1 to the target gene. Heterozygous de novo mutations in WT1 resulting in the inability of ... C‐terminal domain of podocin (Huber et al., 2001). The phosphorylation of nephrin also increases the binding of nephrin and podocin (Li et al., 2004). TRPC6 TRPC6 is a member of the ... Nephrin and other variants of nephrotic syndrome Although nephrin is apparently pivotal in development of CNF, the role of nephrin in other variants of NS is also of interest Lahdenkari et al. investigated NPHS1 in patients