Examining tourism as power performance

EXAMINING TOURISM AS POWER & PERFORMANCE Diane Tay Shan Mei (B. Soc. Sci (Hons). NUS) A Thesis Submitted for a Degree of Masters of Social Science Department of Sociology National University of Singapore 2006/2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Summary Page i ii - iii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Bintan Resort – Singapore’s Pleasure Periphery 1.2 Defining the Site 1.3 Riau: Singapore and Indonesia 1.4 Research Methodology 1.5 Conclusion 1 5 8 11 19 CHAPTER 2: TOURISM AS POWER AND PERFORMANCE 2.1 Peripheries and Enclaves 2.2 Performance in Tourism: Locating Social Control 2.3 Touristic Performance – Acting Like a Tourist 2.4 Constructing the Image of Paradise 2.5 Conclusion 21 29 35 38 41 CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPING BINTAN RESORT: SINGAPORE’S PLEASURE PERIPHERY 3.1 Singapore and the Regional Imperative 43 3.2 Developing a Pleasure Periphery 48 3.3 Touristic Imagery by Tourist Literature and Travel Agents 55 3.4 Conclusion 64 CHAPTER 4: BINTAN BEACH INTERNATIONAL RESORT: AN ENCLAVIC SPACE 4.1 Bintan Resort as a Site of Social Control 4.2 Creating and Administering an Enclave 4.3 The Resort as a Site of Social Control 4.4 Conclusion 65 67 75 95 CHAPTER 5: SITE OF INTERACTION AND TOURISTIC PERFORMANCE 5.1 “Everyone is a Performer” 96 5.2 The “Performance Stages”: Sites of Interaction within the Resort 101 5.3 “Performing “ Outside the Resort Compound 121 5.4 Conclusion 138 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 139 Bibliography iv-xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This journey has been long and not without its difficulties, but the completion of this journey would not have been possible without the support, encouragement understanding and care from my parents and my thesis supervisor. Dr. Maribeth Erb. Thank you. ~ Diane i SUMMARY The concept of power, or more accurately power differential, brings about many diverse and complex issues in tourism. This thesis utilizes the two concepts of “tourism as power” and “tourism as performance” to examine the power, inherently found in the tourism context and its effects on how tourists ‘perform’ amongst themselves, as well as when they interact with locals, thereby locating these various interactions within different contexts. Focusing on Bintan, Indonesia, the first part of the thesis will look mainly at physical configuration of the island – the main town area of Tanjung Pinang vis-à-vis Bintan Beach International Resort. Dealing with the concepts of tourism and power, I argue that the resort can be considered as a “pleasure periphery” of the main city – a subset of Singapore’s tourism periphery, where the formers is more often than not, subjected to the control of the latter. This is evidenced by how the resort’s tourist traffic and other aspects relating to its tourism are subjected to control on the Singapore side. The island is targeted to visitors from Singapore and overseas, who are being encouraged to view it as an exotic destination – positively peripheral – rather than one that is difficult to get to – negatively peripheral. Bintan Beach International Resort is hence a “tourist bubble”, a place designed exclusively for tourists and those who serve them; where the tourists and the staff at the resort are the actors; and where the activities by tourists and staff are scripted, scheduled and closely monitored (Weaver, 2003: 270-275). ii The thesis will go further to argue that this relationship, like most relationships in tourism, involves the use of power and that the resort functions as a site as well as an agent of social control. The main focus of my thesis is on the tourists’ experiences with the island: how they view Bintan as a tourist destination, and how they interact with each other, as well as with the locals living and working on the island. I will examine how the separating of the resort area of Bintan from the rest of the island has an effect on the way tourists, as well as locals behave amongst and with each other. This analysis will then be followed by more detailed accounts of tourists’ experiences with the resort and/or island as a whole – on how their perceptions of the island are being shaped and influenced by existing tourism promotional literature, and that these perceptions are being perpetuated by the staff of the resort and sometimes by the locals on the island. The theoretical framework used for this later part is the combination of “tourism as power” with the concept of “tourism as performance” to show the struggles that take place within tourism between tourists and locals on the island. iii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BINTAN RESORT – SINGAPORE’S PLEASURE PERIPHERY This thesis deals with the concepts of ‘tourism as power’ and ‘tourism as performance’. I will look at how the power, inherently found in the tourism context, affects how tourists ‘perform’ amongst themselves, as well as when they interact with locals, thus locating these various interactions within different contexts. Focusing on Bintan, Indonesia, I will first look at the development of the resort area and its facilities, how it came to be ‘sold’ as a subset of Singapore’s tourism attractions. The way Bintan is being marketed and sold to tourists in turn, affects the way tourists view the destination and the people, thereby influencing touristic ways of negotiating around the site and their interactions with local people1. The main argument put forward here then concerns the way in which the development of Bintan (especially the resort area), has affected the image of the place and how it and the local people are presented to tourists. Bintan Beach International Resorts (BBIR), planned by the governments of Singapore and Indonesia in 1990, and built in 1996 and managed since by the Singaporebased company Bintan resort Management Pte Ltd, is a good example of a tourist resort. For the purpose of this thesis, I will be utilizing King’s definition of a resort, which is: 1 The term ‘local’ in the context of Bintan island is very difficult to define as mentioned by Bunnell et al (2006) A complex of tourism facilities incorporating accommodation, food and beverage and recreational provision. The destination is incorporated in inclusive tour programmes offering the option of at least one meal per day plus other ancillary services. By offering sufficient range of activities and attractions within the resort complex, it lends itself to an extended length of stay (2001:178). The typical resort complex powerfully symbolizes the economic dualism of developing countries. They epitomize capital intensity because a resort conveys tangible evidence of international tourists, bringing the prestige of international brand names like Marriott and Hilton to developing countries and their governments. For some researchers (King, 2001), resorts exemplify stark disparity between “Western” elites who are able to enjoy leisure and conspicuous consumption in exotic locations, and the local workforce who must behave with neocolonial servility towards “White” guests in compound-like settings from which they would otherwise be excluded. Resorts, like opulent commodities such as luxury cars and jewellery, exemplify conspicuous consumption when presented ostentatiously in the media. Luxury resorts especially attract attention for their self-conscious exclusivity and are alleged to be examples of what MacCannell has described as ‘empty meeting grounds’ excluding the ‘local people out of every role except the menial positions that they have always occupied’ (1992:174). As part of the broader critic of consumerism, arguments like MacCannell’s are somewhat valid, but have tended to focus more on the part of the 2 consumers rather than the destination and the local community (King, 2001). Therefore it is important to question the meanings resorts have in the countries/regions in which they are located and the extent of their involvement or integration with their physical, sociocultural and economic environments. The view that resort zones constitute a ‘pleasure periphery’ has played a vital role in the development of tourism theory. The concept came about when Turner and Ash (1975:127) referred to the Club Mediterranee Group, noting that those resorts were concentrated in developing countries which offered an appropriate climatic and resource base and were close to metropolitan tourism-generating countries. A more positive view regards mass tourism in the pleasure periphery as a key catalyst in improving the standards of living in these “peripheries”, bringing them closer to those in tourismgenerating countries (King, 2001). It is the role of the resort in developing countries, as an “enclavic” development, that offers the most interesting perspectives of the nature and paradoxes of tourism. As will be elaborated on more in Chapter 2 “enclave tourism” is tourism developed in remote areas without consideration for the needs of the adjacent communities (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996). As King (2001:176) suggests, the reason as to why resorts in the developing world are worthy of study is because they can be examined at the micro level, as well as in the wider tourism context. To many social scientists, resorts exemplify the archetypal package tour-based tourism. This view arose as a result of the experience of 3 Mediterranean resorts during the 1960s/70s. Such resorts were geared almost exclusively to satisfying the expectations of package holidaymakers from Northern Europe. The later evolution of tourism makes the link between resorts and mass package destinations less obvious, as markets have moved away from standardized mass-produced products and placed greater emphasis on more customized holiday experiences. A number of authors have observed that resort-based tourism and tourist behaviour typify many characteristics of modern life. Krippendorf (1987:70-71) described resorts as ‘therapy zones for the masses’, referring to ‘sun-sea therapy’ in coastal resorts and ‘snow-ski therapy’ in the mountains. He also referred to ‘self-sufficient holiday complexes designed and run on the basis of careful motivation studies as enclaves for holidaymakers, ‘total experience and relaxation’, ‘fenced off and sterilised’. Resorts are a particular target for his analysis of contemporary tourism and he proposed a ‘humanisation of travel’ to counter excess experienced in resorts. As one of the main themes of this thesis is dealing with tourism and power, we see here that resorts are usually considered as a ‘pleasure periphery’ of the main city, where the former is more often than not, subjected to the control of the latter. Likewise, Bintan Beach International Resort can be considered to be a sub-set of Singapore’s tourism periphery, where the resort’s tourist traffic and other aspects relating to its tourism are subjected to control on the Singapore side. The Bintan resort is then in this case, a controlled, safe, pleasurable environment with a wide range of recreational facilities and activities. This as a ‘tourist bubble’ is a place designed exclusively for 4 tourists and those who serve them; where the tourists and the staff at the resort are the actors; and where the activities by tourists and staff are scripted, scheduled, and closely monitored. Such touristic performances will be discussed and analyzed in greater detail in Chapter 4. 1.2 DEFINING THE SITE Trikora Beach Picture 1: A map of Bintan Island. Bintan Island makes an interesting case study for enclave tourism because of the way the resort area is structured vis-à-vis the rest of the island makes the physical aspect of the enclave very prominent. As one can see from the map in Picture 1, most of the tourist resorts on the island are concentrated on the northern part of Bintan, with only one main road to connect it with the rest of the island. There is a very clear boundary 5 demarcating the resort area from the rest of the island, with security posts located at various points. The towns of Tanjung Uban and Tanjung Pinang are located at the extreme left and the bottom of the map respectively. The physical landscape is thus clearly distinguished by a boundary separating the ‘inside’ from the ‘outside’. This creates Bintan Beach International Resorts as an enclavic space with little interaction with the rest of the island, as will be shown in later chapters. Besides being enclavic in terms of interaction with the local population, the resort’s physical landscape is also structured and built in a way that isolates it from the rest of the island. Physically, an enclavic space is characterised by purposive, directed movements along strongly demarcated paths. Such spaces are organized to facilitate directional movement by reducing points of entry and exit and minimizing idiosyncratic distractions. As stated in the introductory section, I will be focusing mainly on the Bintan resort site (the area within the larger oval in Picture 1) which is located at the northern tip of Bintan away from the towns of Tanjong Uban and Tanjong Pinang, and comprising a total land area of 23,000 hectares. There are several spatial levels to the Bintan resorts: the first level is the entirety of Bintan Beach International Resort itself, which occupies the northern tip of Bintan Island (the area is enclosed by the largest oval in Picture 1). This is the area, suggested above, that is clearly bounded with security posts located at the entrance to allow or disallow people into the resort. The second level of the Bintan resorts would be the various hotel groups located within the resort itself – the Nirwana Gardens group, Club Med and the Bintan Lagoon Resort, among others. The third and 6 final level of the resort comprises of the various individual hotels some of which are Mana Mana Beach Club, Mayang Sari Beach Resort, Angsana Resort & Spa, Banyan Tree Bintan, Nirwana Resort Hotel, etc. All the various individual resorts are distinctive in their environments so as to cater to various groups of tourists. The Mayang Sari Beach Club is resort-like with beach huts located along the beach, while others, like Bintan Lagoon Golf & Beach resort and Nirwana Garden Resort are more akin to beachfront hotels like those found in Hawaii. The other resorts include Mana Mana Beach Club, which is catered more for those who enjoy sea-sports or a more rustic type of accommodation; Banyu Biru Villas are stand-alone bungalows which cater more for corporate getaways or large groups; Club Med Bintan and Banyan Tree Bintan cater to niche groups. These shall all be known as ‘resorts’. Within the resort’s boundary itself, there are other sites which will come under study here. They include a small shopping village in Bintan called Pasar Oleh-Oleh (Oleh-Oleh Market), which is located about 15-20 minutes (by bus) away from the resort and The Kelong, which is a seafood restaurant. The resort area’s exclusivity is further enhanced by its own ferry terminal, Bentan Telani Ferry Terminal, which connects visitors coming from Singapore to the resort. The management of the resort area falls into the hands of the Bintan Resort Management Pte. Ltd. and their mission is to conceive sustainable resorts giving special attention to environmental planning (Massot, 2003:72). The other areas that will come under study will be the town of Tanjung Pinang and some of its tourist attractions (located in the 7 smaller oval in Picture 1). These include Trikora Beach, the artificial flowers and tea factory and the Senggarang temple. 1.3 RIAU: SINGAPORE AND INDONESIA Before delving into the subject of the Singapore Johor Riau (SIJORI) Growth Triangle, let us first consider in more detail the economic imperatives and capitalistic linkages between Singapore and Indonesia, or more specifically, the Riau Islands. Studies of the border created by the SIJORI Growth Triangle are relatively new when considered in the context of the various growth Triangle linkages which were present even in precolonial times. As Ford and Lyons (2006) discussed, trade routes operating throughout the Malay Archipelago acted as channels for the movement of people and good. Insular Riau became the capital of the Johor Sultanate in the early 1700s and was the main hub of the region for most of that century. Throughout this period large numbers of migrants, including Bugis traders and warriors, as well as Chinese, moved into the region. Despite the fact that the Dutch and the British had already in 1824 officially divided their respective territories in the Malay world, the Riau Archipelago remained until recently a relatively open border zone (Ford and Lyons, 2006). There have been a number of studies that discuss the movement of people within the Riau islands (Bunnell, Sidaway and Grundy-Warr 2006; Grundy Warr and Perry 1999; Ford and Lyons 2006), in particular, there have been anthropological studies which detail the changes in identities which people associate themselves with as a result of their abilities to move within the islands, in particular Batam and Bintan (Wee, 2004; Faucher, 2007). 8 As Singapore developed through ‘particular processes of economic and political structuration’ (Wee and Chou, 1997: 530), the Riau Islands have become increasingly tied to the Singapore economy. After Singapore became part of the British colony, the Singapore–Riau borderlands were transformed into a traditional South-East Asian borderland region, where people of common ethnic backgrounds (Malay and Straits Chinese) moved easily across a nominal geopolitical divide. There was a sense of ‘shared history’ between Singapore and Riau and ‘familial relationships’ amongst its people (Wee and Chou, 1997). In addition to its social and cultural aspects, this shared history had a strong economic element - until 1963, the economy of the Riau Islands in general, and Tanjung Pinang in particular, was far more closely integrated with Singapore than it was with the rest of Indonesia (Wee, 1985; Lindquist, 2002 as cited in Ford and Lyons, 2006). In the 1990s, the establishment of the Growth Triangle between Singapore, Johor (Malaysia) and Riau (Indonesia), linked the islands of Riau in particular Batam and Bintan, Johor (Malaysia) and Singapore in inter-regional economic zones and this economic relationship continued long after Tanjung Pinang ceased to be the dominant economic power in the region. For the people of Tanjung Pinang, freedom of movement continued long after the formal border dividing them from Singapore was established. As Faucher (2007:447) wrote, Tanjung Pinang constituted for Indonesians the principal port of entry into Singapore. Till the early 1990s, it was relatively easy to travel to Singapore from Tanjung Pinang. The agreement between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia suggests an open zone that facilitates free interaction. The Growth Triangle promised to improve the ease of movement between the Riau Islands and Singapore, 9 instead the Growth Triangle forms a new transnational hierarchy in which Singapore firms have access to cheap supplies of land and labour in Indonesia (Faucher, 2006). Opportunities to cross the border have contracted not only because the Singapore government has tightened its immigration controls due to global security concerns and nationally oriented economic growth policies but also because of the dramatic change in the exchange rate, with an ever-widening gap that creates financial inability to travel. Although the Growth Triangle has brought a number of major development projects to the islands, most people living on the islands feel that they had no direct benefits from those projects. This is especially so in regard to the Bintan resort area, which will be discussed further on in a later chapter. Despite promises of economic integration and the promise that Tanjung Pinang would become the site of economic development fuelled by a manufacturing zone and tourism development under the Growth Triangle, residents continue to feel ‘left behind’ by the scale and pace of development on the nearby island of Batam (Ford and Lyons, 2006). The processes of enclosure that work to restrict the movement of people from Tanjung Pinang into the enclosed spaces of Lagoi and Lobam also restrict their access to employment opportunities on Batam. As Ford and Lyons (2006) argue, the bordering practices that have come to define the Singaporean–Indonesian (Tanjung Pinang) international border are replicated within the Riau Islands themselves. They go on to argue that the processes of enclosure extend beyond the geopolitical border that separates Indonesia from Singapore, citing that the people in Tanjung Pinang increasingly find their physical and socioeconomic mobility, as well as their identity and way of life, 10 constrained by the realities of the Growth Triangle (Ford and Lyons, 2006: 268). While Singaporeans, along with Singaporean capital, flow freely into Indonesian territory, the converse is far from true. As Ford and Lyons (2006:269) illustrate, Security fences, arbitrary controls on migration flows, the lack of employment and educational opportunities for locals, a reliance on the whims and fancies of Singaporean tourists for daily survival, and dependence on decision-making by Jakarta- and Batam-based officials without a vested interest in Tanjung Pinang, all work to restrict the movement of Bintan Islanders. Despite the promises of the IMS-GT, for the orang Tanjung Pinang life under the growth triangle is more about enclosure than it is about mobility. In the following chapters, we will examine in greater detail the types of controls that the Bintan resort places on its surroundings. 1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY For my thesis, I have decided to incorporate both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection to gather my data. The quantitative aspect of my data collection was gathered from several organizations/authorities, some of which are the Bintan Beach resort Management and the Singapore Tourism Board (STB). This aspect of information gathering includes existing statistical data that has been collected by these large organizations such as the number of tourists visiting the resort area, the type of tourists visiting the respective sites, the people working at the various tourism developments, etc. All this quantitative data provides me with a macro perspective with 11 regard to the types of tourism developments occurring at the resort, as well as the tourism industry of the island in general. Prior to my qualitative research, I first examined existing literature on Bintan. I relied mainly on literature that was published in English as I do not have the sufficient knowledge of the Indonesian language. In addition, I also utilized some guidebooks and brochures on the Bintan resort (and the island), and in the same way that Mead used semiotics to study how meaning is constructed and understood by a group of people, I used semiotics to see how travel agents or tourism authorities construct the image of Bintan as an island paradise and the language that is being used in them. This is done in order to evaluate how the projection of such imagery and language use can be regarded as a form of control instilled by the producers of the tourism product onto the consumers (i.e. tourists). To prevent any research biasness on my part, I asked my respondents how they got their information of Bintan, and what their preconceived images of Bintan were. This is important as consumers of texts must be approached to see how they make sense of and create meaning from the narratives. The basis of this approach is the assertion that texts themselves, by themselves, have no meaning. To begin the qualitative aspect of my research, I obtained contacts with people who had done relevant research in Bintan and the surrounding Riau Island, as well as people who were involved in the development, management and running of the resort that I planned to study – Bintan Beach International Resort (BBIR). I started out by checking up on whatever relevant information there was on the Internet regarding this resort and by 12 emailing the people who are in charge of running the resort – Bintan Resort Management. I attempted to ask them about certain statistics regarding the resort, but as I was not from the media, they were hesitant about giving me much information.2 Instead, they referred me to their website which did not have updated statistics. During my search of ‘Bintan’ on the Internet, the sites that emerged were the ones which are managed by the Bintan Resort management, examples of which include the Banyan Tree Resort website and the one on Bintan Lagoon Golf Resort. This is already indicative of the type of control which the management of the resort has in creating an impression of ‘Bintan’. After completing my initial research stage, I proceeded to travel to Bintan resort to conduct a field study. My intentions were to firstly participate/observe patterns of movement and activities myself and also to observe people and the relationships between the tourists and the staff, as well as the relationship that the various groups of people have with the environment, in order to establish the types of performances which take place within an enclavic tourist setting. During my stay there, I managed to have a comprehensive view of the place i.e. the whole resort compound, and understand how the resort is laid out vis-à-vis the rest of the island, of how the resort operates within its boundaries, and what sort of effects the resort may have on tourists there. I found Bintan resort interesting because of the way the various hotels are connected to each other. In the case of the Nirwana resort group, guests staying at any of the hotel/resort can visit and use its subsidiaries’ facilities, thus I was 2 I emailed them asking them for interviews regarding the resort’s operations and statistics like visitor arrivals and breakdown of tourists’ nationalities, however I was rejected. These statistics were later published on the Bintan Resort website http://www.bintan-resorts.com/. 13 able to go to the different resort/hotels to see how each is being managed and their styles of service. Within each of the hotels in the Nirwana group, I conducted interviews with some of the guests as well as talked to the staff who were working there in order to find out their thoughts and feelings about staying or working at the resort. I interviewed guests after having observed them for a duration of time, this was done in order to attempt to uncover the meanings that they attached to certain behaviour or speech that they had been involved in. I utilized this role to observe how the various groups of people interact with the site and also with each other. There are three main groups – the tourists staying at the resort who may occasionally venture outside the compound area; the workers at the resort, many of whom are not native to Bintan but come from other parts of Indonesia for work; and the “locals”, the people who are living on Bintan, but not working at the resort. Some time was spent just watching the on-goings at the resort, how activities are being carried out, by whom, etc. In addition, I also spent some time observing the ways in which tourists maneuver their way around the resort, and the things they do/say. In particular, I noted their actions and behaviour whenever they were interacting with the resort staff and with each other. I observed that while most of the tourists were polite when dealing with the staff at the resort, they were not very interested in much else. The time when the most interaction took place was when the dancers welcome the guests who have just arrived at the resort and ask the guests to dance with them3. At the various times which I conducted my field observations, most of the guests were sporting enough and happy to participate in the performance. 3 This unique welcoming ceremony was only conducted in the Nirwana Garden Resort. 14 Besides observing the people at the resort and outside it, I also noted the physical environment. This is essential because the physical environment may have a conscious/subconscious effect on people’s behaviour. In this sense, for the case of the Bintan resort, the physical environment forms a kind of boundary demarcating what is ‘inside’ and what is ‘outside’. As the bus approaches the resort area, the scenery changes very drastically. From the usual dull brown/green hue of the local vegetation that is found along the way to the resort, the surroundings suddenly turn very ‘park-like’ i.e. the vegetation turns from being very messy, scrub-like and ‘natural’, to one which is structured, pruned and very lush. The visitor can tell quite distinctly when he/she has entered the resort area merely by looking at the surrounding vegetation. Being an observer of the surroundings and the people around me served an important function of allowing me to ‘gain a feel of the ground’. I would sit and observe the people around me – their behaviour and manner of speech – at various parts of the resort, be it at the individual hotels or at sites like Pasar Oleh Oleh, and even at the town of Tanjung Pinang itself. At these sites, I chose to undertake observation and some interviewing as Crang (1997) and Edensor (1998, 2000) did when writing on ethnographies of similar such touristic performances. During my initial phase of fieldwork, time was spent immersing myself into the “tourist” role and experiencing what a typical tourist would experience at the hotel. I began by first engaging my potential respondents in small talk, asking questions like where had they come from? How did they get to know about the resort? What did they 15 think of the resort and its staff, etc? I walked around the resort and tried to befriend the guests whenever possible in order to gather information on their holiday experiences. Some of the tourists shared with me their past resort experiences, which was useful in helping me find out how they behave and the reasons behind their behaviour. Via such ‘casual conversations’ I spent my time at the fieldsite alternating between conducting observations of the surroundings and talking to the people. As I spent a fair amount of time at the various resorts, I was able to speak to different types of tourists and also observe their behaviour, all of which were essential when interpreting them as ‘performances’. It was interesting to note that depending on the resort they stayed in, tourists also tended to behave and react differently to different circumstances. For instance, the guests at the Mayang Sari resort tended to be more relaxed and accepting of others’ behaviour like less decent dressing, etc; whereas the guests at Nirwana Gardens, which cater more to families with children, adhered to more conservative resort attire. For the staff of the resort, ‘interviews’ with them took the form of casual conversations as well. And as I had stayed at the resort for a longer than usual period of time, some of the staff recognized me and were more opened to starting conversations with me. In the beginning of my interactions with the staff, all of them were very polite to me, because I was guest at the resort and they were ‘taught’ to be gracious and courteous to all guests. This is an example of my observations of ‘front-stage’ performances by ‘local’ staff, who provided ‘proper’ i.e. friendly, charming, exotic – service and entertainment to their guests. However, besides having causal, somewhat superficial 16 conversations with them, some were willing and open enough to talk to me further and it is through them that I managed to gain some insights to the workings of the resort. Subsequently when interviews were conducted in a ‘back- stage’ setting, staff let slip their art of ‘performing’ and also about how the resort is being run and managed, etc. I was also able to talk to the staff at the business centres at the various hotels and interview them regarding the resort and about their guests. Here I managed to gain some contacts for future interviews and these respondents were useful in helping me understand what being a staff at the resort entails, etc. Hence, through such interviews I managed to achieve my objective of gaining a deeper understanding of how Bintan Resorts are managed and how they function as a type of tourist destination and development. By talking to these different tourists and the staff, I was able to gather information on how they view the resort and the staff. The aim was for me to see the impacts of working in/staying in/being a guest at the resort and how these impacts affect the various groups that I researched on. In addition, by being at the resort myself, I was able to observe how these tourists and the staff of the hotel interacted with each other and at times, I was able to eavesdrop on some of their conversations as well as to participate in some of them. This helped me to gain insights into the dynamics between the groups and the resulting behaviour of the groups with each other i.e. whether or not there was some sort of power inequality involved by being a tourist as opposed to being staff at the resort, etc. As part of the qualitative analysis, an attempt was made to identify common patterns of responses and to develop generalizations that reflect them. Generalizations are 17 made not only when a relative consensus exists among respondents on a given issue, but also to represent minority perspectives. This provides the reader with a better appreciation of the variety of views that exist on that issue. Besides the interview method of inquiry, I also decided to occasionally use covert research methods through participant observation. By covert research, I mean that my identity as a social researcher was not disclosed. This was done so as to not initially affect the types of conversation that were exchanged between myself and the various people I interviewed, for I was concerned that some people may not be as comfortable being a ‘research subject’ than as a mere ‘tourist’, or ‘staff’ of the resort. However during the course of the conversation, or afterwards, I usually identified myself as a student doing research on tourism. The participant observation method was used when I participated in a daytour to Tanjong Pinang. During my stay at the resort, I found the various hotels in the resort conducted day tours to the Tanjung Pinang and so with the intention of learning what it entailed to be a tourist from the resort visiting the town, i.e. so that I could experience what the tourists who actually make the effort to venture out of the resort compound experience, I went on the conducted tours. I also used the opportunity to find out more about the agency which was organizing the trip, as well as various other aspects like why the hotel decided to use these agencies and the type of hotel guests who go for such trips. I found through my interviews with the agency representatives that guests who usually go on such trips are mainly guests who have stayed at the resort for four days or more, possibly due to the recommendations by the hotels’ concierge. 18 These trips enabled me to know how the tour process functions in this case, like who is the agency involved in organizing the trip, who owns/runs the agency, etc. Going on the trips allowed me to observe how the organized tours took place – how the guide scheduled and planned his itinerary and also listen to the anecdotes of the various sites visited. I was able to talk to the tour guides that brought us to the town, as well as to some of the tourists. The trips also enabled me to experience how tourists are treated on such trips and what sort of information that the tour guides gave – how the information is being “framed” for touristic purposes, etc. Particular attention was also paid to how tourists perform various ‘acts’ – both in a physical and figurative manner – which encompasses activities like sightseeing, photographing and shopping. The trips enabled me to ‘see as a tourist would see’, in other words making use of the ‘tourist gaze’ as a concept and how visual aesthetics and the physical separation of the resort from the town play a part in signaling a kind of power difference between these two areas. They provided me with additional insights on how being a tourist affects the way people perceive a place and how they behave in relation to it. Interviews were also conducted with the guides and tourists when time and space allowed for ‘back-stage’ conversations. 1.5 CONCLUSION This chapter has introduced some background to the Riau area, as well as the main objectives and the research methodology which I have taken. Bintan Resort makes a unique case study for resort tourism as the enclavic nature of the resort goes beyond its physical boundaries. I will utilize the two concepts of ‘tourism as power’ and ‘tourism as performance’ to show how the separating of the resort area of Bintan from the rest of the island has an effect on the way tourists, as well as residents, behave amongst themselves 19 as well as with each other. Using the Bintan Beach International Resort (BBIR) as a case study, I will be arguing that the resort functions as a tourism peripheral area to Singapore’s core area. The thesis will go further to argue that this relationship, like most relationships in tourism, involves the use of power, and that the resort functions as a site as well as an agent of social control. The thesis focuses on the tourists’ experiences of the island: how they view Bintan as a tourist destination, and how they interact with each other, as well as with the people living and working on the island. I will begin by attempting to analyze the physical reconfiguration of the island, now being targeted to visitors from Singapore and overseas, who are being encouraged to view it as an exotic destination – positively peripheral – rather than one that is difficult to get to – negatively peripheral. This analysis will then be followed by more detailed accounts of tourists’ experiences with the resort and/or island as a whole – and how their perceptions of the island are being shaped and influenced by existing tourism promotional literature, as well as how these perceptions are being perpetuated by the staff of the resort and sometimes by the locals on the island. 20 Chapter 2 TOURISM AS POWER & PERFORMANCE 2.1 PERIPHERIES & ENCLAVES The idea of ‘periphery’ comes from various different theories of political economy (Wallerstein, Frank), which emphasize the marginalization of the powerless and the recreation of relationships to establish a dependency. These ideas have been used fruitfully by Mowforth and Munt (1998) in regards to tourism developments. They suggest that the global expansion of capitalism has drawn the Third World into increasingly tight economic relationships with the First World, and tourism, has been a significant component in this process. Singapore is a First World country, whereas Bintan, which is part of Indonesia, is part of the Third World. Dependency theory has sought to demonstrate how and why these tightening relationships are highly unequal, arguing that western capitalist countries have grown as a result of the expropriation of surpluses from the Third World, especially because of the reliance of Third World countries on export-oriented industries which are notoriously precarious in terms of world market prices. The theory uses the notion of center-periphery relationships to highlight this unequal relationship, where the core is the locus of economic power within a global economy, and it claims that the interdependence resulting from global economic expansion and the inability for autonomous growth results in unequal and uneven development. In tourism, dependency involves the direct result of the unequal relationships inherent in the world economy and that within the present structure of international tourism, Third World countries can assume only a passive role (Mowforth and Munt, 1998). 21 Given the arguments that the Third World is structurally dependent on the First World, there is little surprise in finding a wide range of references to the principal forms of global dominations: colonialism and imperialism. Both the characteristic First World ownership of much Third World tourism infrastructure and the origin of tourists from the First World have been likened to colonial and imperial domination. Nash (1989) argues that tourism only exists in so much as the metropolitan core generates the demand for tourism and the tourists themselves. He concludes that ‘it is this power over touristic and related developments abroad that makes a metropolitan centre imperialistic and tourism a form of imperialism’ (Nash, 1989:35). In the same light, Bruner (1989) argues that colonialism and tourism are driven by the same social processes involving the occupying of space (by tourist infrastructure and ultimately by tourists) opened through the expansion of power. Britton (1982) claims that Third World countries suffer from a series of common structural distortions in their social and economic organization. As he argues Underdeveloped countries promote tourism as a means of generating foreign exchange, increasing employment opportunities, attracting development capital and enhancing economic independence. The structural characteristics of Third World economies however, can detract from achieving several of these goals. But equally problematic is the organization of the international tourist industry itself. (p.336) 22 Developing countries promote tourism as a means of generating foreign exchange, increasing employment opportunities, attracting development capital and enhancing economic independence. With regard to the spatial expression of international tourism, the most important link is that between the product marketing agencies in tourist source countries and the tourist facilities in destination countries. The establishment of an international tourist industry in a peripheral economy will not occur from within the economy itself, but from the demand from overseas and new foreign company investment or from the extension of foreign interest already present in that country. Along with transport linkages, accommodation provision and fare costs, the image or perceived attractions of a destination are the critical factors in directing tourist flows (Middleton, 1979; Schmoll, 1978). These situations have several consequences: Foreign companies greatly influence the image of a destination country through advertising. This leads tourists to perceive the hosts country in terms of this image and the nature of the hotel accommodation, tourist shopping, select cultural attractions and other tourist services which are publicised. All too often this results in tourists having unjustified expectations of a destination or stereotypes of the place and people, which are unable to be fulfilled (Britton, 1982). 23 The promotion and advertising strategies of metropolitan tourism corporations play a significant role in shaping tourist expectations, as Dann (1996) points out. Using the term “language of tourism” to define the type of words used to describe tourist destinations/settings in tourist brochures or guidebooks, Dann argues that these help shape a certain pre-conceived image or notion in the tourists’ minds even before they set foot on the destination itself. Tourists expect and appreciate the type of tourist product and travel experience that suits the priorities of tourism firms. These priorities in turn are the key determinants of the type of tourist facilities developed in Third World tourist destinations. These are often luxuriously appointed, capital and energy intensive hotel resorts: the type that poor countries can least afford to build and operate because of their import requirements. Not surprisingly, since such facilities are best planned, constructed and managed by those tourism firms with international experience, there is every incentive for metropolitan corporations to invest in, and of course to profit from, Third World tourism of this type. The confinement of a tourist to a formalized travel experience has its parallel in the spatial organization and social separation of tourist services within the destination country. Many tourists are unable to fully enjoy their holiday except from a base of familiarity and comfort provided by western type hotels, transport modes, foodstuffs or shops, and even though they may not always demand this overtly, most tourist destinations operate within this mindset. As a consequence, tourism tends to manifest itself as an enclavic industry. On the one hand, tourists confine their social interaction mainly to other tourists and their guides in some instances. Interaction with locals and 24 hotel staff is conducted in a more formal, superficial manner which consists mostly of asking about the place or getting a service from them. On the other hand, the luxurious, languorous surroundings of tourist accommodation and transport, as well as the prodigious expenditures of tourists, creates physical and economic barriers between visitors and hosts; barriers which are most often reinforced by colonial legacies regarding expatriate-host behaviour and income differentials. This appearance of tourist enclaves is accentuated if tourist services are clustered in space. In physical, commercial and socio-psychological terms then, tourism in a peripheral economy can be conceptualized as an enclave industry. Enclave tourism is defined by Ceballos-Lascurain as tourism that ‘is concentrated in remote areas in which the types of facilities and their physical location fail to take into consideration the needs and wishes of surrounding communities’ (1996:13). Moreover, the goods and services available at these facilities are beyond the financial means of the local communities and any foreign currency generated may have only a minimal effect upon the economy of the host region. Enclave tourism is hence likened to a kind of ‘‘internal colonialism’’, where natural resources in a host region mostly benefit outsiders while the majority of the locals derive little or no benefits (Drakakis-Smith & Williams, 1983; Dixon & Heffernam, 1991). As in colonialism, power relations come into play, and can be seen perpetuating itself themselves in the physical environment. Control measures employed by the resort and the ferry terminal – like immigration procedures, the spatial boundaries and security posts that separate the terminal and resort from the rest of the island, all serve to distinguish certain types of people from others. 25 The Bintan resort case is a unique situation in that the resort is situated at the northern tip of the island – at its periphery, and the island itself can be considered as a periphery of Singapore. Tourist arrival points in the periphery are typically the primary urban centres of ex-colonies, now functioning as political and economic centres of independent countries. Within these towns are located the national headquarters of foreign and local tourism companies and retail outlets of travel, tour, accommodation, airline, bank and shopping enterprises. If on packaged tours, tourists will be transported from international transport terminals to hotels and resort enclaves. The transport, tourist organization and accommodation phases of their itineraries will be confined largely to formal sector tourism companies. Tourists will then travel between resort clusters and return to the primary urban areas for departure. While resident in the resort enclaves, tourists will make brief excursions from their “environmental bubbles” into artisan and subsistence sectors of the economy for the purchase of shopping items, entertainment and sightseeing. Even though these tourists do venture out of the resort area, a lot of their ‘venturing’ still occurs within the ‘environmental bubble’ of the resort for the case of Bintan, as we shall see in later chapters. The international tourist industry, because of the commercial power held by foreign enterprises, imposes on peripheral destinations a development mode which reinforces dependency on and vulnerability to, developed countries. According to Chang (1998), this situation results in tourists at a destination being channeled within that commercial apparatus controlled by large-scale foreign and national enterprises which 26 dominate the industry. The greatest commercial gains therefore go to foreign and local elite interest. The majority of locals can only participate in tourism through wage labour employment or small-scale retail and artisan enterprises, most of which have severely limited income-generating potential. Butler (1980) suggested that local residents are likely to be involved in the early stages of tourism development; with outside interest taking over as the development stage gets underway. However, as Harrison (1994:140-148) has shown, this is not always the case. In fact, Harrison argues that it has probably been the norm for international tourism to be financed and operated by outsiders in developing countries with a poorly developed infrastructure, whether or not they have a colonial background. This thesis will follow in the direction of Harrison’s argument that contrasts with Butler’s – that for Bintan, its tourism is adopting an ‘outsider-for-outsider’ method of development, where the ‘outsiders’ are defined as the tourism authorities of both Singapore and Indonesia, the private enterprises that are in charge of developing the resort area, as well as the tourists who visit the resort area. The discussions so far have indicated that domination/subordination, i.e. power, is the central theme in modern day tourism. The lack of power is most often used to critique Third World tourism (for example Mowford and Munt 1998). Consequently, the suggested solution to these problems is the need to move beyond dependency and to break off the subordination and domination that is said to characterise mass tourism. As Britton (1987) argues, Third World countries need to move beyond mass tourism and 27 develop alternative forms, where there is a promotion of local ownership of tourism resources, creation of local employment and solutions to the ‘leakage’ of foreign exchange from the economy. This thesis has chosen to focus more on the enclavic nature of the tourism process with regard to the Bintan Beach International Resort (BBIR), where part of the potentially unsustainable nature of tourism in Bintan has to do with its enclavic nature. The argument here will be that the Bintan resort is enclavic in nature, what this means that is that they fail to take into account the needs and wishes of the surrounding communities, and that this ‘enclave’ is not confined by physical boundaries. ‘Enclave’ does actually mean “separate”, “isolate”, “impossible to enter”; this means that things are not done to local needs and wishes. This is clearly illustrated in the resorts where although it is not impossible for locals to enter the resort, but it is prohibitively expensive for them to do so. Adopting first a macro perspective, I will look at how the entire touristic process is enclavic in nature, how this ‘enclave’ is perpetuated and maintained by the various groups involved, ranging from the tourism authorities, travel agents and even the tourists themselves. The ‘enclave’ then in this sense, appears borderless, despite the international boundaries, for Singaporeans and tourists coming through Singapore, but there are borders of various sorts for Indonesians. The concept of “tourism as power” is used as I argue that Singapore has colonized Bintan Island, making it part of its tourism periphery. Choosing to look mainly at the resort area, I will further postulate that this view of Bintan is then translated from the tourism authority’s and resort developers’ minds into the minds of tourists. This is accomplished in the way that the resort area is 28 physically structured to be away from the rest of the island, as well as through promotional brochures and/or tourism literature. This then in turn, has an effect on the tourists’ way of thinking about Bintan, whereby they (literally and figuratively) see the resort area as separate from the rest of the island, and in some respects more a part of Singapore. The later part of the thesis will deal more with the micro aspect of this “enclave”, and will explore on the physical landscape of the resort and interactions among tourists, as well as between tourist and inhabitants of Bintan. I will show how these tourists then take this mental separation of the ‘resort’ from the ‘other’ (side of the island) to negotiate their way around the various parts of the island, inside and outside the resort area. The second concept that I will be utilizing will be that of “tourism as performance”. This will be linked with the first concept of “tourism as power” to show the struggles that take place within tourism between tourists and locals residents on the island. 2.2 PERFORMANCE IN TOURISM: LOCATING SOCIAL CONTROL Studies on social and cultural theory of tourism have focused mainly on the discourse, mythology and imaginations that shape how places are imagined and perceived by tourists (Urry, 1995) and they do so by showing how places and local practices can be read as meaning systems via looking at the text/images in tourist brochures and marketing materials. However, to obtain a more meaningful perspective of tourism, one which truly captures tourists’ experience of a place, there needs to be a study of how tourists experience a place, not only from what they have received from tourism brochures/guides, but also a look at how tourists perform in a touristic setting. In this 29 thesis, tourism performance is used as a framework to build upon the vast actions and inactions of tourists. Performance here can be seen as a partly semiotic approach which MacCannell (1976) and Urry (2002) used in their studies of cultural tourism. What differs here is how this approach places more emphasis on how touristic practices are performed and how they intersect with everyday life. The performance approach begins with a spatial analysis of the tourist setting. Analyzing the organization of space and its affect on tourist experience has a long history in the sociology of tourism. The idea of spatial segregation, which strongly underpins the notion of ‘enclave’, can be traced to the notion of “environmental bubble” first described by Erik Cohen (1972:166–167). He argues that in mass tourism “the modern tourist is not so much abandoning his accustomed environment for a new one as he is being transposed to foreign soil in an “environmental bubble” of his native culture”. He argues further that the mass tourist “views the people, places, and culture of [that] society through the protective walls of his familiar “environmental bubble” (1972:166–167)”. According to Cohen, then, environmental bubbles confine and isolate mass tourists by “protective walls” of the institutional and other arrangements of the travel and hospitality industry, the physical places created for tourists, and–significantly—the attitudes and beliefs of tourists. The term environmental bubble is used with one of two emphases: a physical emphasis of it as a type of place, and a psychological emphasis of it as the tourists’ motivations, attitudes, and belief systems. 30 Another famous discussion of the spatial arrangements in tourist settings was MacCannell’s work on “Staged Authenticity” (1973, later reworked in The Tourist 1976). Using Goffman’s idea of ‘front’ and ‘back’ regions (1959), MacCannell argued that tourists are motivated to find the ‘authentic’ which they believe is hidden in ‘back regions’, but local communities hide their lives behind ‘fronts’ which are presented as ‘false backs’. I would also like to draw on Goffman’s (1959) work, but more on his ideas of dramaturgy in my theoretical framework. I will view tourism as a range of performances that shows the various dispositions that people bring to particular contexts. These performances are dynamic and may change over time and according to the cultural practices of the tourist’s home place. The pre-assumption made here is that the whole of social life can be considered as performative, and that tourist performances are not only played out in touristic settings, but also continue in other non-tourist settings. Not only locals perform for tourists in front regions, but even tourists are involved in the ‘spectacle of travel’, where they perform the role of ‘tourists’. There is a ‘front region’ as well as ‘back region’ to their performances too. In addition they are also being subjected to performance control by the local inhabitants or other external factors. In Edensor’s (2000) paper on staging tourism, he explored the practical processes by which tourists construct their identities through their descriptions of activities in different places. The touristic experience of ‘place’ has long been of potential interest to social scientists since the tourist purposefully moves away from home, and away from familiar places to get away from the mundane. Tourists are physically uprooted from their domestic environment, and are often motivated by the differences in physical 31 character of a destination space, being amid another culture(s) and thrilling to the unknown. Thus many philosophical questions may be raised in a discussion of these experiences and the role of identity in them. In this thesis, I hope to explore how tourists and locals use tourism as a form of performance – of how their touristic experiences influence the way they behave or perform at a site, as well as how tourist site(s) become ‘stages’ on which they ‘perform’. As the Bintan resort area is enclavic in nature, I will argue that this type of space is used as a form of control over tourists, staff at the resort, as well as the Bintan residents, such that each respective group has their own particular way of behaving in this space. I will also further argue that particular facets of this performance can be explored according to time and space, social and spatial regulation, and issues of power. I will show that such performances are constrained and affected by the way tours are being structured, thereby influencing the symbolic meanings that the various groups of people attach to the space, as well as their relationship with each other. Tourist practices are enframed and informed by different discourses that provide practical orientations and cultivate subject positions, specifying what actions should take place at particular places and times (Adler 1989:1384). These culturally situated symbolic meanings constitute ‘relations of dramatic performance’ which ‘articulate [a sense of] shared forms of perception and understanding’ (Chaney 1993:4). Thus, for instance, tourists look at symbolic attractions in distinctive styles, communicate and consume particular narrative interpretations and move through tourism spaces in specifiable ways. 32 All performances are culturally and socially located in time and space. Indeed, the normativity of everyday performances belies the specific modalities of historical and geographical situatedness. This becomes evident at those sites at which a range of contesting touristic performances is are played out. Dispositions according to class, gender, ethnicity, and other influences are brought by different tourists to places and expressed. In this way, social performance can actually be located in the originating culture and the historical relationships between people and the places visited. There is nothing inevitable about the touristic assumptions of what kinds of performances ought to be enacted at particular sites, for they change over time and are grounded in the cultural contexts from which tourists themselves derive (Edensor, 2000: 323). One of the effects of tourism is to mark out time, that of the extraordinary from the time of the mundane, a period of relaxation and play which marks release from work and duty (Turner, 1974). Turner (1974) goes on to say that these temporal conceptions of tourism involve notions about pleasurable activity and performance: the idea of letting go so as to reveal a more ‘authentic’ self (one which can discard the everyday mask put on to combat the stresses and strains of everyday life); the desire to realize a different, undeveloped side of one's personality or to take on a ‘new’ role in a context where no one will make you conform to expectations about yourself. These notions incorporate ideas concerned with ‘letting your hair down’, ‘getting away from it all’, and ‘letting go’, a bundle of associations which assert the need to perform acts of excess and emotional and 33 bodily release. Such ritualistic and collective acts suggest those ludic, liminoid aspects of tourism described by Turner and Turner (1978). Because touristic performances are usually enacted in ‘physically and symbolically bounded space’ (Chaney 1993:18), the metaphor of the stage or theatre aptly suggests that there are distinct venues for performances. Chaney remarks that as tourists ‘we are above all else performers in our own dramas on stages the industry has provided’ (1993:64). While they cannot determine performance, tourist stages are materially and organizationally constituted in particular ways to provide the establishment of ‘meaningful settings that tourists consume and tourism employees help produce’ (Crang 1997:143). In Bintan’s case, there are several such stages in which tourists as well as Bintan residents perform. While representational practices (by tourism employees, guidebooks, films, and TV travel programs) (re)construct symbolic sites, they tend to be fluid entities whose meanings and usage change over time and are apt to be contested by different tourist groups. Bintan resort is positioned by the guidebooks and website as a resort getaway: Travellers checking into Bintan Resorts can enjoy complete peace of mind within safe holiday surroundings, allowing them to simply relax with the myriad of in-resort facilities and activities matched only by the warm Indonesian hospitality found throughout Bintan Resorts. (Bintan Resort’s website) 34 Accordingly, ideas about what sites symbolize may generate myriad forms of performance on a single stage, in which different roles, scripts, choreographies, group formations, instructions, and cues are followed. Indeed, the coherence of culturally specifiable performances depends on their being performed in specific ‘theatres’. Different on-stage areas may be the focus of the enactment of distinct dramas, and signifying objects (semiotized by their location on stage) may be moved around, played with, or ignored by particular groups of actors. All these performative processes ceaselessly reconstitute the symbolic values of sites and reproduce them as dramaturgical spaces. Situated in the relationship between tourist and site, performances map out individual and group identities, and allude to wider imagined geographies which the stage is part of and may even symbolize. 2.3 TOURISTIC PERFORMANCES – ACTING LIKE A TOURIST Tourism is a period of relaxation and play which marks release from work and duty; holidays are a period of time away from the mundane, routines of daily life. Graburn regards tourism as one of “those structurally-necessary, ritualized breaks in routine that define and relieve the ordinary” (1977: 19). These temporal conceptions of tourism involve notions about pleasurable activity and performance: the idea of letting go so as to reveal a more ‘authentic’ self (one which can discard the everyday mask put on to combat the stresses and strains of everyday life); the desire to realize a different, undeveloped side of one's personality or to take on a ‘new’ role in a context where no one will make you 35 conform to expectations about yourself (Edensor, 2000: 323). Tourism is thus seen by Turner & Turner (1978) as ludic and liminoid action, where its meaning to the tourist is not to be sought in the utilitarian purposes or functions of the holiday, but rather in the expressive domains of the tourist’s experience, i.e. its symbolic action. Ludic refers to play or playing in an aimless way and liminality refers to ‘any condition outside or on the peripheries of everyday life’ (Turner 1974: 47). ‘Liminoid’ then is, referred to by Turner (1974), as activities and experiences related to the liminal or transition stage of rites of passage. They are generally associated with leisure activities rather than ritualistic rites, and they generally center upon activities that involve individual participation and idiosyncratic symbolism. In modem industrial societies, liminoid activities achieve expression ‘outside the central economic and political processes’ (Turner and Turner 1978:253). The qualities associated with liminality and liminoid activities include transition, homogeneity, equality, the absence of status distinctions, anonymity, uniform dress, sexual continence (or sexual excess), and communitas (Turner, 1974). Turner regards all societies as products of the ongoing dialectic between “structure” and “anti-structure”. “Structure” refers to the institutionalized set of political and economic positions, offices, roles, and statuses that constitute social organization, while “anti-structure” refers to those experiences in which individuals confront one another as equals based upon their shared humanity (Turner, 1974). In Turner’s view, communitas and liminality are inherent attributes of anti-structure. Liminoid activities, in short, are those socially accepted and 36 approved activities which seem to deny or ignore the legitimacy of the institutionalized statuses. The liminoid qualities of some varieties of tourism have been noted by other anthropologists, particularly Wagner (1977), who has studied the “anti-structural” behavior of Scandanavian tourists in Gambia. According to Wagner (1977), the tourists were conspicuous by their dress and decorum, both of which were at odds with local standards of propriety, and both of which differed markedly from the normal habits of the tourists at home. Especially noteworthy with regard to social interaction among the tourists, according to Wagner (1977:40), was “the noticeable emergence of a communitas type of behavior lived out in a holiday setting”. Status distinctions among the tourists were temporarily abandoned, first names were used almost exclusively, and the groups formed by the tourists were “informal and fluid”. In a similar vein, Graburn observes that tourism is “functionally and symbolically equivalent to other institutions that humans use to embellish and add meaning to their lives” (1977:17). Perhaps tourism is best understood in Victor Turner’s (1974: 68) sense, as the ‘freedom to transcend social structural limitations, freedom to play-with ideas, with fantasies, with words…and with social relationships.’ Another research on charter yacht tourism also utilized the concepts of “ludic” and “liminoid” to explain the rationalization of tourist behaviors. Lett (1983) regarded the “vacation” (or the ludic aspect) enjoyed by the charter yacht tourists as a temporary interlude in the tourists’ lives, saying that it is 37 like the liminal stage of a rite of passage which lies between the recognized statuses of structured life. 2.4 CONSTRUCTING THE IMAGE OF PARADISE Before embarking on a holiday, one of the more important elements that will shape tourists’ expectations of a place and behaviour in the place is the guidebook. The guidebook, together with word-of-mouth information can influence the way a tourist ‘sees’ the place, as well as how he/she behaves in it. The tourism industry is very much dependent on the creation and perpetuation of such fantasy ideals and the production and consumption of tourism images sustains a multibillion-dollar global industry. Edwards (1996:197-200) argues that the long-haul travel industry is increasingly dependent on ethnographic imagery to sell its ‘product’. Such images are created and presented as objects that can be observed and that have a verifiable, quantifiable authenticity such as local crafts, etc. Urry & Scott (1994:236-238) argues that tourism is all about the consumption of sign, images and texts and therefore much of what is involved in examining the issue of authenticity in tourism is about the investigation of cultural interpretation of these signs. The authentic might then be defined as something that offers itself to the tourist as a ‘sign of itself’ (p.238). However, since the satisfaction of tourists’ expectations depends on consuming such signs, it is in both the tourist industry’s and tourists’ own interests to collude in their production. 38 It is essential that we look at how Bintan is being portrayed or marketed via such brochures/guidebooks, for ‘texts, far from being static markers of cultural traits, […] are actually dynamic agents that are continually influencing, modifying and reifying the meanings, beliefs and ways of seeing, of contemporary cultural groups’ (McGregor, 2000: 27). Besides looking at the texts used, tourism brochures and guidebooks often carry pictures of landscapes such as deserted beaches that have no people on them in order to communicate the impression that this holiday will be a ‘getting away from it all’ experience (Dann, 1996:61-64). The tourism industry uses such images to reinforce a sense of placelessness and even timelessness (Dann, 1996). In travel brochures and books, depictions and descriptions of unspoiled wilderness are clearly intended to whet urban appetites for what they regard as pristine and exotic – the essential pre-requisites for a ‘getting away from it all’ experience. As Smith and Duffy (2003) have argued, objects and people become interchangeable in tourism imagery so that the pictures in brochures will often present an animal, landscape, a hotel and a local person to appeal to the Western definition of the ideal exotic location. The traveler reading a guidebook will use the images and the text portrayed there as a guide to constructing his/her opinions, behavior, and expectations, as these guidebooks give them a sense of security in a place which they are not familiar with: And of course many writers of travel books or guidebooks compose them in order to say that a country is like this, or better, that it is colorful, expensive, interesting . . . so much so that the 39 book [or text] acquires a greater authority, and use, even than the actuality that it describes (Said 1978:93). On the issue of authenticity, both Crick (1988) and Urry (1990a; 1990b) further emphasize the fact that tourism is in essence an exercise in fantasy and that the tourist buys to seek in “reality” the ‘pleasurable dramas experienced in the imagination’. However, guidebooks can sometimes create a sense of false reality that confuses the traveler. “Many travelers find themselves saying of an experience in a new country that it wasn’t what they expected, meaning that it wasn’t what a book said it would be” (Said, 1978:93). Thus, echoing the words of Raleigh: “it is not truth but opinion that can travel the world without a passport” (cited in Lowenthal 1961:260). I would like to highlight the point made by McGregor (2000: 32) that guidebooks, and even Internet websites, provide ‘propositional assertions’ of what a place is like, and depending largely upon guidebook constructions (in conjunction with spoken depictions), travelers decide whether they want to visit a place or not. This highlights the pervasive role of “power” underpinning even the promotion of destinations, where these guidebooks and travel websites exert an inordinate amount of control over the tourists and their destination choice because they help construct places and shape people’s mindsets about these as potential destinations. Guidebooks delineate a world to experience, making some foreign places open, attractive and accessible, while at the same time restricting and commodifying the extent, and variability, of travelers' explorations. Uzzell (1984: 79) goes on to argue that “travel advertisers are not attempting to attract 40 tourists through the superficial attributes of the holiday destinations, but by providing the reader with a range of cultural tools with which fantasy, meaning, and identity can be created and constructed”. The tourist is thus “encouraged” to create his own image of what to expect from the information presented to him-thus arriving with preconceived ideas of sights, events, and landscapes that often take precedence over the “reality of the people and their daily lives” (Farrell 1979: 124), but this ‘self-created image’ is actually, in reality, the image that tourism authorities, travel agents, etc, want the tourist to have. We shall see, in the next chapter, how the image of the Bintan resort is created in the minds of the tourists there and I will go on to argue that the touristic process occurs in a cyclical manner, in that images and impressions get formed in the tourist’s mind as he/she reads up on the tourist destination in guidebooks, which is then proceeded by going to the travel agent to book the trip. The tourist goes on the trip and comes back to relay whatever information gained from the trip to the next person, and that person will then rely on word-of-mouth information and the guidebooks to form an image and structure his/her ‘appropriate’ performance accordingly. And so the whole process starts over again. 2.5 CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have laid out the framework on which I will structure this thesis. The argument is that the Bintan resort is enclavic in nature, and that this ‘enclave’ is not confined by physical boundaries. The power exuded by the ‘enclave’ transcends the boundaries of the resort and influences the way tourists behave amongst themselves and 41 with others. Tourist behaviour is also shaped by travel literature, provided by guidebooks or travel websites, as well as narratives which are gained by people who have visited the tourist destinations. The next chapter will dwell on this influence and how the physical aspects of the resort – the space or landscape – are used to bring about the enclave that is the resort. 42 Chapter 3 DEVELOPING BINTAN RESORT: SINGAPORE’S PLEASURE PERIPHERY 3.1 SINGAPORE AND THE REGIONALISM IMPERATIVE More than three decades ago, the Singapore government already had the aim to make Singapore into a global city. In today’s context, due to increased globalisation, the government still stands firm on this belief. For example, in the 2000 Budget Statement, finance minister, Dr. Richard Hu stated the government’s belief that in this new competitive landscape, it is no longer viable for economies and businesses to think and act only on a national basis…To thrive, our businesses need to adopt a global outlook and boldly seek out new markets and alliances for expansion. (Straits Times, 26 February 2000) Indeed, as Chang (1998) argues, “regionalism” has been integral to Singapore’s tourism survival because of the country’s limited natural resources, land area and domestic market. Singapore, being a small city-state, has been forced to make adaptations to its own tourist image, both as a consequence of urban redevelopment and the increased accessibility of other Southeast Asian destinations. “Regionalism” has provided Singapore with an opportunity to transcend its geographical boundaries, overcome its lack of natural and cultural attractions, while providing 43 new room for tourist enterprises to expand. Regionalism also creates new ways for Singapore to cooperate with neighbouring countries in joint tourism projects, which in turn will help nurture political goodwill and strategic links that might prove useful for future alliances. (Chang, 1998:74) In the mid-1990s, the government came up with a campaign to regionalize Singapore. With ‘Singapore Unlimited: Bringing the World to Singapore, Bringing Singapore to the World’ (Economic Development Board (EDB), 1994), the campaign had the dual goals of first, diversifying Singapore’s export trade away from an emphasis on manufacturing goods to focus instead on the export of local skills and services; and second, to ‘expand’ Singapore’s presence in the global market. One of the strategies employed to fulfill the first goal had Singapore participating with its neighbouring countries, and the partnership was based solely on physical and geographical proximity. The principle institutional form this has taken is the Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore (IMS) growth triangle. Singapore’s international cooperation takes other forms as well, including participation in ASEAN-wide (ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations) marketing projects, but the growth triangle has been the main vehicle for cooperation within its immediate hinterland. The greatest impact from this project has been on Singapore-Indonesian cooperation in the Riau islands of Batam and Bintan. Together with the need to ‘expand’ Singapore’s attractions to cater to the global market, there was also a change in the characteristics of the Singaporean population. The growing affluence of the Singapore population has increased leisure demands which were 44 not satisfied by the limited recreation opportunities within its own built-up environment, making it a potentially important tourist generator for neighboring countries. By promoting the region as a single-holiday destination, specialisation is afforded in each country and the whole area prospers through synergistic growth. In short, this approach was likened to the Japanese technique of landscaping – ‘Shakkei’4, where whilst ‘mak[ing] Singapore attractive for visitors, we could become more effective by borrowing other countries’ attractiveness. They can also borrow our attractiveness’ (Straits Times, 18 February, 1995). With regionalisation, the profits generated from tourism can then be shared amongst the countries in the region instead of being concentrated only on a few areas. The idea behind “Tourism Unlimited” was to develop a holistic and integrated approach to promoting tourism in the region, with the STPB5 acting as the “tourism business architect”, Mr. Tan Chin Nam, STPB’s (former) chief executive said. (Former) DPM Lee went on to state “although Singapore had become an attractive and matured tourist destination, the Republic was too small by itself to draw visitors from further afield” (Business Times, 15 March 1995). Singapore has to increase and upgrade its attractions in the face of increasing competition form the region if it does not want to 4 The definition of ‘shakkei’ or ‘borrowed scenery’ is where scenery from one’s garden is made more beautiful by incorporating the scenery from afar has been inspirational. This idea has been incorporated into Singapore’s economic strategy. The Singapore Unlimited strategy offers a new way for Singapore to look at itself, as well as the world. It calls for greater partnership with our neighbouring countries, working in a borderless manner and creating new economic space for everyone through leveraging resources regionally and globally to overcome each individual country’s natural limitations. In short, Singapore Unlimited calls for a shift in our paradigm from one of “Singapore is too small” to that of “there is no real limits or constraints in this new borderless world” (Chang, 1997) 5 Singapore Tourist Promotion Board (STPB) was the name used between 1964-1996. It was only after 1996 that the agency’s name changed to Singapore Tourism Board (STB); and is still currently in use. 45 become a two-hour tourist stopover. (Former) Minister for Trade and Industry Yeo Cheow Tong said, “As regional attractions increase in both numbers and quality, the need for us to likewise upgrade and expand ours becomes even more pressing” (Straits Times, 20 April 1995). Therefore, the government saw a need to cooperate with her neighbours. In the Tourism 21 master plan, it was argued that Singapore should ‘tap the tremendous potential of the region and complement her own city resort attractions with select destinations elsewhere’ (STPB, 1996:6). This can be done by twinning itself with its neighbours through joint marketing and development projects in the hopes of enhancing the ‘collective attractiveness and competitiveness’ of the region (STPB, 1996). Malaysia and Indonesia can serve as Singapore’s tourism hinterland, and Singapore to serve as their air and seaport hub6. As the (former) Minister of Trade and Industry Yeo Cheow Tong said ‘our neighbours are countries with abundant beach resorts, scenic landscapes and exotic native cultures. By partnering them, we can create a new, more attractive and mutually beneficial collective tourism product.’ (Straits Times, 22 April 1995) I have put forth the argument that Singapore is utilizing the Riau islands as its ‘pleasure periphery’ and this is evidenced by the type of tourist development taking place on the island. Peripherality has been defined as ‘the outermost boundary of any area’. 6 It is important to note that in the context of the recent regional cooperation between Singapore, Riau and Johor, the irony of how the Singapore government is trying to re-establish regional trade in an area where it had been so vital in the past. Insular Riau became the capital of the Johor Sultanate in the early 1700s and was the main entrepôt in the region for most of that century (Ford and Lyons, 2006), but had been basically cut of by the strengthening of national borders after independence. And as discussed earlier in Chapter 1.3, when regional ties were re-established, they were done so on the terms of the more powerful, making it easy for some people and goods to cross the borders, while harder for some others. 46 However it is more than a spatial notion. According to Brown & Hall (2000), to be peripheral is ‘to be marginalized, to lack power and influence and therefore carries social, political and economic implications’. A peripheral area then, is one that suffers from geographical isolation, being distant from core spheres of activity, with poor access to and from markets. It suffers also from economic marginalisation, caused wither by an outright lack of resources or by decline in traditional industries or agriculture, with much business activity in the hands of small micro-firms, which lack know how and training in areas such as marketing and innovation, and are denied influence by dint of their fragmentation. There is a concomitant lack of infrastructure and a reliance on imports, leading to economic leakages. I will argue here that Bintan, especially the resort area, is regarded as one of Singapore’s ‘pleasure peripheries’, as evidenced by the structure of the development and what results in an ‘encapsulated’ type of tourism, where tourists, even when they venture out of the resort’s compound, are still kept within the ‘grip’ of the resort. But beyond these objective characteristics, peripherality is also a matter of perception. A place that is remote and is difficult to reach may be perceived by tourists (and others) to have certain qualities emblematic of its situation (natural beauty, quaintness, otherness) – qualities which are an attraction to some and a repellent to others. As Blomgren and Sorensen (1998:334) have discussed, there is a mutual interdependence between these two sets of characteristics: the peripheral destination may possess systems of peripherality, but relies on the subjective interpretation of these symptoms by the tourist, while simultaneously the tourist will not perceive an area as 47 peripheral without certain symbols of peripherality being present. Likewise, for the case of the Bintan resort, tourists think themselves to be in Bintan, Indonesia, due to its physical distance from Singapore as well as the various ‘performances’ being put up by the staff that leads them to believe so. The next section will explore the concept of ‘pleasure periphery’ in greater detail, and we will see how Bintan actually came about to be Singapore’s ‘pleasure periphery’. 3.2 DEVELOPING A PLEASURE PERIPHERY The first few projects for the Singapore – Riau bilateral cooperation consisted of industrial parks on Batam and Bintan. It was the former’s success which spurred on the development of the industrial estate on Bintan. Although Singapore’s interest in Bintan and Batam was driven originally by the opportunity to augment its industrial space, other opportunities were soon identified that broadened cooperation. As there was an apparent trend towards intra-Asian/intra-ASEAN travel (Yeo, 1993), and increased visitor interest in sun, sand and surf, it was thought Singapore and Riau could work together to synergise their respective tourism assets to make an excellent destination for the international traveler. There are also significant synergies to be gained by combining the natural advantages of Johor and Riau islands with Singapore’s tourist throughput. Kumar (1994) gave the example of marketing the excellent beach resorts on Johor’s east coast and those on Bintan, saying that it becomes easier when the region as a whole is packaged as a complete product. Visitors to Singapore can then have short holidays in the adjoining resorts in addition to the normal Singapore stopover. For this to become effective there has to be a close physical link amongst the three nodes to facilitate an easy transfer of 48 visitors. What is of interest in this concept of the SIJORI linkage is the unique blend of government initiative and private entrepreneurship. The growing investment in improving communications is indicative of the interest shown in the tourism potential of the Riau-Singapore region. Easy accessibility would be one of the reasons that would enable the Riau islands to attract Singaporeans who want a short getaway from Singapore. The Riau islands of Bintan and Batam would be able therefore to readily capture a share of this traffic which would, in turn provide a catalyst for the island’s on-going tourism developments. The available land, palm-fringed coasts and relatively low-density populations of Bintan, and to a lesser extent, Batam, provided opportunities for joint tourism ventures. This accorded with the Indonesian ambition for the Riau islands, including high quality urban facilities and protection of marine and natural environments. In his speech at the Riau Islands Conference in 1993, Mr. Yeo Nai Meng, Senior Director of Operations and Planning in STPB, emphasized the need for more regional cooperation between Singapore, Johor and Riau Islands with regards to tourism and destination marketing so as to attract more tourist traffic, as The new tourist is no longer the mass tourist going for the standardized, rigidly packaged economical tours. He is more demanding, looking for variety, special interest and personalized holidays. He is an experienced and better-informed traveler, and is willing to pay to get what he wants. 49 Mr. Yeo then went on to elaborate on why Riau should work together with Singapore in order to achieve “tourism success”, citing that the latter country’s “market forces and geographic proximity” would mean that Singapore is “both a numbers generator and catalyst in its tourism promotion”. In other words in a rather neo-colonial role, Singapore would play an important part in shaping Bintan’s tourism developments, by being both the producer of the tourism product, as well as the supplier of the tourist traffic. Since the establishment of the Growth Triangle in 1989, Batam has seen the largest transformations. However in the 1990s, Singaporean (and other foreign) investments also flowed into 2 distinct an demarcated zones in Bintan, each of which was intended to perform a specific economic role – Bintan industrial estate at Lobam and secondly, the main focus of this thesis is the 23,000ha resort and tourist complex along the north coast – the Bintan Beach International Resort (BBIR). The governments of Singapore and Indonesia determine and implement the policies favouring their interest in the integrated resort project. Both signed an agreement on August 1990 for the establishment of Bintan Beach International Resort (BBIR) to be marketed and managed by Bintan Resort Development Corporation Pte Ltd. (BRDC) and Island Leisure International Pte Ltd. (ILI), companies set up specifically to Master Plan and Manage Bintan Resorts on behalf of the master-planner, Bintan Resort Corporation (BRC). The integrated resort project is one of four flagship cooperation projects between Singapore and Indonesia to promote investment and tourism in Riau. The resort would 50 cover 22,000 hectares and comprise hotels, condominiums and golf courses, would be owned by the consortium of mostly government or government-linked Indonesian (60%) and Singapore (40%) companies. The resort was to enjoy a duty free status, quick customs and immigration procedures and have land tenure initially of 30 years (Business Times, 1991). The integrated resort is in fact the largest of its kind in Asia with about 65 land parcels ranging from 30-300 hectares. Singapore’s total investment in the project was about US$500 million. Bintan Resorts opened with four major properties in 1996. Today six, four and five star resorts operate within the development. They are namely the Indra Maya Villas, Mayang Sari Resort, Mana Mana Beach Club, Nirwana Resort Hotel and the Banyu Biru Villas. From the time the first high-speed tourist ferry traversed the Straits of Singapore, the resort has seen annual traffic increase from virtually nil to approximately 300,861 in 2004 (Bintan Resort Management, 2005). Bintan Resorts has been positioned dual dimensionally. First, as a twinned product with Singapore for foreign visitors to the Republic, Bintan’s beautiful beaches and crystal waters make the resort a perfect counterpoint to Singapore’s urban tourism product and the destination is promoted as an attractive holiday add-on for vacationers and business travelers. There has been aggressive marketing to travel wholesalers in target markets such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Germany and Australia, many of which already sell Singapore as a destination and have put Bintan on their itineraries as an optional day trip or short holiday (The Straits Times, 8 May 1996). 51 The second key market, and in response to the prevailing economic situation the market upon which most current emphasis has been placed is a quick get-away for Singaporeans, many of whom visit the island for as short as a few hours. As Bunnell, Muzaini & Sidaway, 2006: 7) wrote Thus for Singaporeans, Bintan was to become ‘another Bali…only closer to home’ (ST 18 October 1996). On the other hand however, Bintan Beach International resort (BBIR) as the zone eventually became known, was also conceived as part of an extended Singapore. For the Singaporean market, this zone is intended to perform a specific role – as a tranquil haven for tourists and global city professionals (both Singaporean and expatriate) and one which is differentiated from the rest of Bintan and others parts of Indonesia (eg Batam) that find themselves incorporated into the Growth triangle. In other words, Bintan allows them to related to the site as an extension of ‘home’, a place where modern city-dwellers can experience a little of the ‘rustic’ .As such the ‘relaxed’ atmosphere of BBIR has become a great pull for visitors; they get to ‘explore’ a little, but return to the comforts of their resorts and air-conditioned rooms at the end of the day. For Singaporeans and others residing in or visiting Southeast Asia’s global city, the proximity of Bintan and the fast ferries – combined with the fact that accessibility, security and local ‘authenticity are tightly managed and circumscribed- make it ideal for weekend getaways. Reflecting these twin thrusts, guest arrivals for 2004 were 52 predominantly Singaporean (38.4%), Japanese (12.3%), Korea (12.9%), British (5.3%) and Australian (4.1%) visitors (Bintan Resort Management, 2005). However, almost from its inception, development of the new economic spaces in Bintan was far from smooth. For the villagers (Orang Kampung) of north Bintan., The ‘development’ of the resort caused saw more than 5,000 existing residents from 10 villages as antithetical to the aim of promoting BBIR as a ’world-class’ attraction. Virtually all werto be e relocated to new settlements outside the boundaries of the resort area. The area that iswas reconfigured not only in terms of is physical landscaping but also in terms of permitted people and practices. .From June 1997, malaria scares led to a collapse of visitor arrivals at BBIR. In the second of these, on 19 December 1998, ‘angry villagers’ blocked access to roads to the Bintan beach resorts. While resort representatives stressed that the ‘demonstration was not instigated by other unrest in other parts of Indonesia’ (ST, 23 December 1998), ‘Singaporean’ economic space in Bintan was clearly not wholly isolated from the consequences of wider political and economic transformation in Indonesia (Smith, 2001: 7-9). Leased to the Bintan Resort Development Corporation (BRDC) in 1990, the resort zone contains hotel complexes owned largely by Singaporean interests. Tourists enter the resort zone through a ferry terminal owned and operated by the BRDC and accessible only to ferries operating from the Tanah Merah Terminal in Singapore. Inter-island ferry travel from within Indonesia to the resort zone is extremely rare. Furthermore, land access is limited to one road from Tanjung Pinang to the south. The road is narrow and 53 some sections are in poor condition. Vehicles that reach the end of the road from Tanjung Pinang (approximately 1 hour away) are confronted with barbed wire across the road way and a large security check post staffed by armed guards. If the resorts are quiet, local people are allowed to pass; however, if the resorts are busy, only individuals with recognised business within the resort zone (e.g. resort staff who live in the nearby town of Tanjung Uban) are permitted entry. Once inside the resort zone vehicles must then travel up to another 40 minutes before arriving at individual resorts. The gates to these resorts are often closed and always staffed by armed security guards. For local Bintan Island residents the resorts in Lagoi are ‘out-of-bounds’; the gates and security guards are clearly there to keep locals out. At the same time, while the gates effectively keep the tourists in, their symbolic value is much less apparent. The fences of the wider perimeter are not visible from the resort hotels that hug the northern coastline, and the nature of beach resort tourism is such that most tourists have little inclination to venture beyond their hotel pool or beach, even if transport were more readily available. The process of marking the resorts as a space ‘apart’ from the rest of Bintan Island is not only contained within the physical enclosure of the resort compound. The physical landscape, architecture, food and leisure activities have been chosen to reflect a generic beach resort experience. As some Singaporean tourists whom I spoke with, who frequent beach resorts, said that the resort could be ‘anywhere’ perhaps even ‘in Singapore’. For residents of Tanjung Pinang, the ‘foreignness’ of Lagoi is heightened by the difficulties they face in finding employment within the resort zone. As Ford and Lyons (2006) found out, jobs in the hotels are largely taken up by Indonesian migrant 54 workers from Sumatra, Sulawesi, Java and Bali who are trained in the hospitality industry in other parts of Indonesia. These staff are usually recruited from hotel chains elsewhere thus in comparison with them, local islanders without access to hotel and hospitality training facilities, have few opportunities to find employment (Ford and Lyons, 2006:265). The example raised illustrates how the flows of transnational capital gained from tourism and Indonesian labour work to limit local islander opportunities and restricts not only physical movement but also socioeconomic mobility. The gates and fences that separate Lagoithe resort area and Lobam from the rest of the island are thus symbolic of the wider exclusion of Bintan Islanders from participation in the IndonesiaMalaysia-Singapore-SIJORI Growth Triangle (Ford and Lyons, 2006:265-266). 3.3 TOURISTIC IMAGERY BY TOURIST LITERATURE AND TRAVEL AGENTS The Bintan resorts are marketed via travel information on the Internet, as well as through travel agents. As argued in Chapter 2, there are two main sources of information that travelers turned to when deciding to visit Bintan –their guidebooks/travel websites and personal communication. Both sources tend to highlight the ‘island/resort’ atmosphere of the place, choosing to adopt the ‘white sandy beaches, clear blue skies and water’ approach to market the resort (see Pictures 2 & 3). 55 Picture 2: An image of the beach at Nirwana Resort from a travel website promoting the resort. Picture 3: A postcard promoting the resorts in Bintan. It is clear from the two pictures above that the image of a sun-drenched, whitesanded, palm-fringed tropical island is widely used by image-makers to represent this ideal as a symbol of all that is desirable in life and also by way of stark contrast to the physical and psychological realities of everyday existence. ‘The feeling of separateness, of being cut off from the mainland is an important physical and psychological attribute of the successful vacation’ (Baum, 1997:21). In other words, people travel to ‘get away 56 from it all’, to escape the routinized rituals of their lives,; and hence the imagery that are is associated with islands spur them to go to these islands in order to seek the kind of respite that they crave. In the same way, Bintan resort is promoted by travel websites/agents as an alternative, ‘peripheral’ destination to Singapore’s urban ‘core’ environment, and hence the resort area is marketed as very peaceful and tranquil place. In the resort’s corporate brochure, it goessays: Escape to Nirwana Gardens and you will be pleasantly spoilt for choice. True to its name which translates into “perfect bliss”, Nirwana Gardens serves up a heady concoction of four different holiday experiences on the north-western coast of Bintan Island. …There’s Nirwana Resort Hotel – the sun-kissed paradise for fun-seekers; Mayang Sari Beach Resort – a reclusive getaway for the urban-weary; Banyu Biru Villas – homes for cosy reunions; and the magnificent Indra Maya Villas – when ultimate privacy and luxury is a priority. …Nirwana Gardens is a truly complete resort destination for you, your family, loved ones and friends….Give yourself a treat today and have a taste of heavenly bliss at Nirwana Gardens. (Nirwana gardens brochure) Looking at the description of the resort in the brochure, we see words like ‘paradise’, ‘heavenly bliss’, ‘getaway’, ‘privacy’ and ‘luxury’ being used. These words play up on 57 tourists’ long attraction to islands resorts. Research shows that most tourists are attracted to features like physical separateness, cultural differences and attractive climate and environment when it comes to island tourism (Lockhart, 1997). Recall the fact that when the Bintan resort master plan was being drawn up, Bintan was being positioned to be Singapore’s pleasure periphery, however, when it came to promoting it as a ‘Singaporean attraction’, an interesting point to note is that in the “Real Destination Singapore” guidebook7 (January/February/March 2005 issue) which is produced by STB, there is however, no promotion of Bintan as a tourist destination, the only mere mention is the a recommendation of the book on Bintan “Bintan: Phoenix of the Malay Archipelago”. I found this to be quite strange as this book is listed as one of the “5 gifts to buy while in town”, when nothing more of Bintan is being mentioned in the guidebook. This interesting example may be interpreted as the STB ‘marginalizing’ Bintan as a tourist destination for a visitor to Singapore, perhaps choosing to highlight more Singapore-based attractions such as the Singapore Zoo or Chinatown instead. Bintan is then considered as an afterthought, an optional destination to visit if one gets tired of urban life. However, this official ‘marginalization’ by the STB has not stopped the management of Bintan resorts to selling the destination as a subset of Singapore. This is evidenced by the number of travel websites that list Bintan as a day-trip or a weekend 7 The guidebook is a small pamphlet which is produced by the Singapore Tourism Board highlighting various activities that a tourist to Singapore may like to engage in. It is found at all STB tourists kiosks in Singapore and around the world and is given free-of-charge. Although Bintan is mentioned in passing in these guidebooks, it is listed in guidebooks on Indonesia. 58 getaway option to ‘experience a different side of Singapore’. Travel websites are one of the ways in which potential tourists can use to find out more about Bintan, be in it through a travel agency’s website or a travel forum where travelers who have been to Bintan post comments about their trips there. The promotion of the resort is also done via word-of-mouth. When I asked my Singaporean respondents about Bintan, many of them would tell me about their experiences there, giving subjective accounts of the resort and providing valuable information regarding prices, hotel rooms, food and how to get to various sites around the island. However, the sites they discussed were predominantly those which were mentioned by most travel websites or guidebooks. Their talk tended to reinforce guidebook sitesprofessional travel information rather than introduce a stream of previously unknown locations into other travelers' consciousness. Thus, it was the guidebooks/travel websites that exerted an inordinate amount of power over their experiences (McGregor, 2000). About 70% of my respondents told me that one of the reasons that compelled them to visit the Bintan resort wais through recommendations from friends or fellow travelers. They would then visit the resort’s website or the travel agents to find out more about the place. The brochures of the resort that the travel agent showed me had all the details about the resort, but it was mainly the pictures which attracted me. I mean who doesn’t like nice, 59 clean beaches and clear blue waters? Of course it was tempting for me to want to visit [the resort]. I’ve heard from my friends that it’s a nice place to go for a short weekend getaway, so I went to check it out. But I have to say that the place looks better in the pictures, reality is more often than not, not as ‘glossy’ as those portrayed in the pictures […]. Well, at least I get to see it for myself, but there’s not as much to do as they stated in their brochures, it’s quite boring here, nothing much to do except relax… - Sally, a Singaporean tourist. Similarly for non-Singaporean tourists to the resort, I also asked them questions about how they come to know about this resort. Many of them told me that they booked their trip through Singaporean travel agencies because they got ‘tired of all the shopping in Singapore and felt like a beach resort holiday’. They had previously come across Bintan as a short getaway destination when they were doing their research on Singapore on online websites from their home country and had thought that an ‘added destination was a bonus’ to their holiday. About half of my respondents said that they only found out about the Bintan resort when they were in Singapore (together with other ‘short trips’ destinations like Batam or Pulau Ubin) from Singaporeans or from online forums/websites. 60 Having already looked at the effect of travel literature like guidebooks or brochures of Bintan island on tourists’ psyche, and how it has helped perpetuate the enclavic nature of the resort, I will now analyze how this ‘bubble’ is being propagated by the producers of such travel literature – the travel agents. Wanting to gain a first-hand experience of what a potential visitor to the resort would go through prior to visiting the resort, I visited several tour agencies to find out more about Bintan and how it was being ‘sold’ by these travel agents to tourists. On most occasions, when I made enquiries about Bintan, the first thing that the travel agent brought out were brochures about the various hotels that came under the Bintan Beach Resort consortium. This already shows that the travel agent perpetuates the ‘Bintan = Bintan resort’ idea when promoting the island and this also happened at the various agencies that I went to, to ask about tours to Bintan. Well you just let me know what your budget is and I’ll recommend you the resort that best suits that. Or maybe you’d like to tell me what kind of activities you like? (A travel agent’s response to my query on Bintan) I think the most reasonable resort for you is the Nirwana Resort Hotel. The facilities there cater more to our [local] tastes and there are more Singaporeans there. The Angsana Resort and Spa caters more to Western tourists because they charge US dollars there, 61 whereas the rest uses Singapore currency. (A travel agent recommending a resort to me) Whilst at the travel agency, I also managed to observe people who were interested in finding out about the Bintan resorts and there were several who were also making their bookings for trips there. In the conversations with potential visitors to Bintan, the travel agent reiterated the same facts about the resorts. Oh don’t worry, you’ll enjoy a short trip to Bintan. I have many customers who come from Japan just like you, and they all have came back to me with positive feedback on my recommendation. You like golf? You can play golf there. How about spas and massages? They [the resort] have good traditional spas there…(A travel agent recommending Bintan to a couple of Japanese tourists who were enquiring about a weekend trip there) Whilst talking to the various travel agents, many of them recommended Bintan as a short getaway destination, and were surprised when I enquired about staying longer than the usual 2 to 3 days’ duration. This place [Bintan] is good for like a weekend trip, just for you to relax and rest. Actually there’s not much to do there, to tell you honestly, I went there myself…just eat, swim and maybe go for a 62 massage. You can stay longer there, but no point lah…think you’ll be bored after awhile, unless you go with a big group of friends, otherwise really nothing much. But of course the place is nice lah, the beach is nice and the place is nice too, something different you know? (A travel agent being honest about her feelings towards Bintan resort) The main thing that I gathered from the interviews with the travel agents was that Bintan resort was very self-contained and exclusive and that visitors need not venture out of the place in order to have their ‘holiday’, that staying inside the resort compound was like as one travel agent who said, “enough for your weekend getaway”. The tour agent was also very helpful in pointing out the facilities of the different hotels and telling me that the different hotels are built and run in specific ways to cater to the needs and wants of different groups of tourists. When I enquired about tours to areas outside the resort, the travel agent looked puzzled and told me that they themselves did not have such tours, and if I really wanted to, I could book them at the resort itself. So in other words, it would seem that the only way for a tourist to go to Tanjung Pinang is to go via the resort; it was either that or go to Tanjung Pinang directly, by oneself without any chance of making prior arrangements/bookings. This is indicative of how the ‘enclavic’ nature of the resort going goes beyond physical boundaries – first, guidebooks or travel brochures depicting mainly the resort area; second, the way the resort is being promoted by the travel agencies as ‘the Bintan’ to visit; and thirdly, trying to take alternative routes trips or forays out of the resort is more inconvenient for visitors. 63 3.4 CONCLUSION In this chapter I have traced the development of the Bintan resort and showed how it fit into Singapore’s tourism masterplan as part of regional cooperation between Singapore and Indonesia. I have also showed how the resort is being promoted as a tourist destination and by whom. Even though Bintan is not prominently featured in STB’s tourist promotional material, it is widely acknowledged/regarded by travel websites and Singaporean travel agencies, as being part of Singapore’s tourism periphery. We have also seen how travel literature and word-of-mouth have influenced people’s image of Bintan, with most thinking that Bintan = Bintan resorts. In the next chapter, I will discuss more about the resort area in Bintan and show how the resort can be regarded as a site of social control. 64 Chapter 4 BINTAN BEACH INTERNATIONAL RESORT: AN ENCLAVIC SPACE 4.1 BINTAN RESORT AS A SITE OF SOCIAL CONTROL Having shown how the resort area was developed and planned, I shall now delved further into the details of how the resort is being run, so as to see how power is being used to control the touristic process. I will postulate that the deliberate isolation of the resort from the rest of the island, although featured as an attractive trait of the tourist experience, has its effects on the mentalities and behavior of the various communities living on the island or at the resort. This is in line with Butlers’ argument about the stereotypes of island life (1995) where he notes there is a discrepancy between the tourist images, which suggest islands offering a special, unique experience, and what is the actual reality. According to Edensor, ‘enclavic spaces are often proclaimed as prestigious development projects, owned by large national and international corporations, and which tend to receive financial support from development agencies and national and local state organization’ (2000:327). Similarly in Bintan’s case, I have shown in Chapter 3 that the resort is the result of a joint collaboration between several Singaporean and Indonesian businesses as part of the Growth Triangle cooperation. As with most inter-region collaborations/businesses, the resort is highly focused on commercial interests, which in this case is drawing in tourist numbers, and in order to do so, the resort is built and run according to international hotel/resort standards (data gained from personal interview 65 with the resort manager). ‘International standards’ includes things like cleanliness, deference ) to guests, décor, air-conditioning, “quality control”x of commodities and disciplinary measures over the staff. The way of managing Bintan resort seems to be in line with Lefebvre’s depiction of most tourist spaces as controlled and managed by systems that instill their own “rituals and gestures…discursive forms…and even models and modulations of space (hotels, chalets)” (1991:384). The argument that I am making is that firstly, the resort is a site of social control, and examples that are indicative of this include the activities that are organized by the resort for its guests, the scheduling of the buses to and from the resort at fixed times, and the dancers who are required to perform whenever tourists arrive at the resort. As I also found out from several of the resort staff, minute details, such as the kind of bedsheets that are used or how toiletries are being placed in the rooms, are being dictated by the resort’s management staff. Such attention to details are, according to Wood (1994:67-68), strategies of control employed by the resort to meet the perceived needs of their guests and ensure suitable behaviour among guests and to a certain extent, between host and guest. And this form of social control within the boundaries of the resort compound originated from the basic premise of the management of hospitality. The second line of argument that I will be taking is that besides being a site of social control, the resort itself acts as an agent of social control, both constricting and facilitating human action and interaction which follows social conventions. There are several ways in which social control is being maintained within the resort, Wood (1994) 66 mentions three in his article ‘Hotel Culture and Social Control’: – the class position of the hotel;, the organization and development of the hotel; and finally, the artificiality of social relations engendered by the hotel. It is the third form of social control which is particularly relevant to my argument in this chapter, and this relates to the type(s) of touristic performances that are being ‘performed’ by the various groups of people involved. 4.2 CREATING AND ADMINISTERING AN ENCLAVE What is very striking about the development of Bintan Resorts is its separation from the rest of the island of Bintan. This has been developed in a number of ways: administratively and demographically, as well as physically on several dimensions. I will argue that this separation encodes an element of power and control in a number of ways, both on the local, immigrant and tourist populations. At the broadest level, this separtion of the resort from the rest of the island is a signifier of the difference in power relations between the “Us” and the “Other”, with the “Us” being the tourists and/or the people who work in the resort area and the “Other” being the rest of the people living on the island i.e. localsresidents. In other words, as Mowfort and Munt (2003) put it, the polarization is not so much geographical but a division between those with power and those without. But it is clear that this power works through the administration and organistion of the resort to channel and control tourists in a number of ways as well, as I will demonstrate below. 67 The major city in on the island, Tanjung Pinang, is located on the southern part of the island of Bintan; it has a population of 128,1018 people. The original ferry service to Bintan from Singapore was to Tanjung Pinang, which has always attracted some business travelers and pilgrims to visit some of the old Chinese temples there, but has never attracted a great deal of vacation trade. The resort ferry terminal has was been built across on the other side of the island from the city of Tanjung Pinang to directly service the resorts. This There is a poorly maintained road system connecting the town to the resort area, but very few tourists make the cross island journey to visit the ‘real Indonesia’ or the ‘real Bintan’. I have suggested that the Bintan resort can be considered to be enclavic in nature, since it is designed to minimize reliance on other island resources. One of the main characteristics of an enclave resort is its inclusiveness. Since the Bintan resort’s ferry connections directly link the resort to a new ferry terminal in Singapore, tourists do not need to travel through Tanjung Pinang. Indeed for a period of time other administrative developments have further isolated Tanjung Pinang from the tourist traffic to and from Singapore. These administrative developments have to do withwere the vastly different ways that tourists are were issued visas, depending on whether they are were going to Tanjung Pinang or to Bintan resort. Administratively, Bintan resorts become almost an extension of Singapore. The tourist going there has always been inconvenienced as little as possible, in comparison to traveling to other parts of Indonesia such as Tanjung Pinang. The transition is almost seamless. 8 Population figure for 2006. Source: World Gazetteer 68 Since the new visa policy was implemented in February 2004, changing what had been a free tourist pass system, which had been in effect in Indonesia for many decades. This new visa system differentiates visitors to Indonesia into three tiers, 1) citizens of ASEAN (and a few other countries with reciprocal free visas for Indonesian citizens) who are given a thirty day free “short visit permit” into Indonesia 2) citizens of 52 other countries9 who are allowed to apply for a visa-on-arrival for 7 days (for a US $10 fee) or 30 days (for a US $25 fee), and 3) citizens of the remaining countries, who have to apply for a visa before entering Indonesia10. Since visas are were to be now issued on arrival for a large percentage of the visitors, new facilities for issuing these visas had to be created at international arrival terminals throughout Indonesiato those who need them at various immigration points throughout Indonesia. . Most destinations where international visitors disembarked had these facilities in place before the regulations took effect. Interestingly, however, despite the repeated requests for a visa on arrival facility, Tanjung Pinang has still notonly received the facilities to issue visas and deal with direct arrivals on 1 August 2005.11 , almost one and a half years after the implementation of the new regulation. This meant that anyone wanting to visit Bintan and needing a visa, either had to enter through the Bintan Resorts ferry terminal where a visa on arrival could be issued, or they had to apply for a visa at an Indonesian Embassy before their visit. Hence Dduring the time fieldwork observations were conducted in the town of Tanjung Pinang, after the new visa restrictions were in place, and as a result, there were very few foreigners around. Many of 9 As of 28 May 2007, 11 other countries were added to this list (Bali and Indonesia on the Net, http://www.indo.com/tplan/visa.html) 10 This information is available on many websites such as Bali and Indonesia on the Net, http://www.indo.com/tplan/visa.html, and Indonesian Embassy websites in different countries. 11 This has been amended since where there are Visa on Arrival facilities at the Tanjung Pinang ferry terminal. 69 the tourists who visited Tanjung Pinang were from Singapore, are ‘visa free’ visitors. They are often identified as sex tourists by the locals. Although it is not apparent be by mere observation, locals say that the typical profile of a sex tourist to Tanjung Pinang is male, in his late forties to fifties (although the age range is increasingly getting wider). These men usually travel in groups of 3 or more and can be seen in various parts of the town. From the example of visa regulations we are able to see the politics of tourist visas and how it has had affected for a period of time, the tourism of Tanjung Pinang; that those who have the power, are able to gain control of the tourist numbers and indirectly affect the types of tourists visiting the island. The first route via the Bentan Telani terminal enables enabled tourists to obtain visas-on-arrivals, thuis making it very easy and convenient for the tourist,. Additionally and as they are required to have a reservation at one of the resort’s hotels, the types of tourists who passes passed through this route is were in a sense ‘screened’. As O’Byrne (2001:412) argues, ‘a passport can serve as a means of both opening up barriers and restricting them.’ In the same way, the visa requirements favour people from certain countries more than others, ; those from the richest countries obtain easy access to Indonesian visas. and Bby making the obtaining of visas inconvenient for those wanting to visit Bintan island without going to the resort, it can be argued that this goes went against what O’Byrne (2001:411) says about contemporary tourism conditions, which is about ‘asserting one’s rights to experience, consume, understand or simply visit the global space which is shared by all, and owned by none’. I would argue that tourists, instead of having the freedom to choose where they 70 want to go and be allowed access, are being influenced in sometimes subtle, sometimes palpable ways, to choose one particular ‘way of traveling’ over another. Hence we can see that from February 2004-August 2005, the ‘restricted’ access to tourists via the Tanjung Pinang route, has affected the number of tourists going to Tanjung Pinang. The majority of the foreigners who visited Tanjung Pinang and the surrounding areas come came from the resort, and viewed Tanjung Pinang as more of a ‘tourist attraction rather than a tourist destination’ (personal interview with an Australian tourist), ‘somewhere to go to when there is nothing else to do at the resort’ (from a conversation with another Australian tourist). From these two statements, we can see that Tanjung Pinang and the areas outside the resort area received what one might call ‘trickle-down’ visits from the resorts. Tourists spend their money mostly inside the resort, and very little outside it. Besides the tourist flow being controlled, the issue of the difference between the types of distinction of the tourists who go to Tanjung Pinang, and those who are visiting the resorts has come under a lot of criticism from the local community in Bintan. Some of the locals residents whom I interviewed complained about the ‘moral dangers’ they face when ‘such (sex) tourists scome to the island’ and they worry about the effects their visits have on the local women and children. For other than being known for its resort area, the rest of Bintan is not known or marketed as an attractive tourist destination. A general survey I conducted by myself, showed that the majority of Singaporeans equated ‘Bintan’ as ‘Bintan resort’, and when asked what else Bintan is known for, most of them answered 71 ‘sex tourism’ and ‘industrial area’. The implications then of the visa restrictions administration iswas that for a period of time without it, more tourists wanting to visit the rest of Bintan for leisure purposes would be allowed in without much hassle. Because of the visa restrictions, only people from neighboring countries like Singapore and Malaysia are were more frequent travelers to the areas of Bintan that are were not part of the resort area helping to further entrench the differences between Tanjung Pinang and the Bintan Resorts area. The administration of access to the island, therefore, has had considerable consequences for creating major and furthering distinctions between the resort and the rest of the island for tourists. Another way that the enclave is being created has to do with the physical layout of the resort area. The scope and layout of Bintan Resorts is such that excursions within the resort area, beyond the specific property (beyond Level 1 2 as described in Chapter 1) at which the tourist is staying, are neither convenient not encouraged. Upon arrival at the Bintan ferry terminal, most tourists are met by hotel shuttles and taken directly to their resort properties. Ferry connections link the resorts to a new ferry terminal in Singapore, avoiding the need to travel through Tanjung Pinang, the main settlement on Bintan, which is linked to the resort area by one poorly maintained road. These buses take tourists to which are fully self-contained beach resorts which provideing multiple dining and recreation facilities for their guests. Each is beyond walking distance from the others. The management of an enclave resort creates and controls a cultural, as well as physical, environment catering to the needs and desires of the tourists. From speaking with 72 Singaporean guests, the fact that they are somewhat trapped within the Level 212 property without much opportunity to visit others is simply not an issue. They find a sufficiently wide range of choices available at each resort, and the homogeneity of product offerings by the various properties makes the inconvenience of venturing beyond one’s selected resort just that, an inconvenience. It is hard not to notice how the BBIR has been re-fashioned as part of greater Singapore. As Scott et al (2001) suggests, there is a ‘Singaporeanization of the Bintan landscape’. The clean and immaculate veneering of the roadsides, the streetlights, whitelines on the road, smooth tarmac and road-signs, the modern – yet localized- architecture of the resorts (the products of investments by Singaporean and other international investors) and golf courses that line the sandy beaches of Bintan, and, less visibly, the importation of infrastructural facilities (such as powerhouse and reservoirs supplying electricity and freshwater to the resorts) offer a stark contrast to much of the rest of the island. Like the industrial parks, the resort area is designed to minimize reliance on other island resources. Outside the BBIR (with the exception of the crowded provincial capital of Tanjung Pinang, and other smaller industrial areas), there still exists a landscape of kampongs (villages), jungle and plantations, and paved roads. Aside from immigration checks at the Bandar Bintan Telani ferry terminal (the disembarkation point for holiday makers to the tourist zone), there is little to distinguish BBIR from tourist islands within Singapore such as Sentosa. 12 Level 2 of the resort, is as described in Chapter 1, the various hotel groups within the entire Bintan resort compound. 73 The management of an enclave resort creates and controls a cultural, as well as physical, environment catering to the needs and desires of the tourists. From speaking with Singaporean guests, the fact that they are somewhat trapped within Level 213 property without much opportunity to visit others is simply not an issue. They find a sufficiently wide ranger of choices available at each resort, and the homogeneity of product offerings by the various properties makes the inconvenience of venturing beyond one’s selected resort just that, an inconvenience. Enclave resorts in area with poorly developed infrastructures, controlled by outside developers, whose only linkages at the local level are to hire a few workers, tend to promote a type of local dependency rather than development (Cohen 1984:384). Labour to work in the Bintan resorts is largely being recruited from other tourist centres in Indonesia, like Bali. One writer has facetiously referred to these types of luxury resort hotels, with their fences and armed guards, as “the concentration camps of leisure” (Reid 1992: 75). For the majority of the tourists to the Bintan resort, once deposited at their resort, other than a golf cart, their next motorized form of transport is the coach or van back to the ferry terminal. This separation of the resort from the rest of the island is in line with what most critics have been saying about resort developments – that the tourists visiting them are occupying an ‘ecological bubble’ (Cohen, 1972: 172), and are oblivious to the cultural characteristics of the destination. 13 Level 2 of the resort, is as described in Chapter 1, the various hotel groups within the entire Bintan resort compound. 74 4.3 THE RESORT AS A SITE OF CONTROL As quoted above, Enclave tourism is Ceballos-Lascurain (1996:13) defined defines enclave tourism by Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) as tourism that ‘is concentrated in remote areas in which the types of facilities and their physical location fail to take into consideration the needs and wishes of the surrounding communities’community’. Moreover, the goods and services available at these facilities are beyond the financial means of the local communities and any foreign currency generated may have only a minimal effect upon the economy of the host region. Enclave tourism is hence likened to a kind of “internal colonialism”, where natural resources in a host region mostly benefit outsiders while the majority of the locals derive little or no benefits (Drakakis-Smith & Williams, 1983; Dixon & Heffernam, 1991). As in colonialism, power relations come into play and can be seen perpetuating itself themselves in the physical environment. Control measures employed by the resort and the ferry terminal – like immigration procedures, the spatial boundaries and security posts that separate the terminal and resort from the rest of the island, all serve to distinguish certain types of people from others. To facilitate my argument that the Bintan resort is a site of social control, I will utilize Goffman’s (1961) concept of ‘performance’ to show how interactions between various groups of people occur within the resort compound and to analyse the type of touristic performances that happen within specific spaces, and how the various spaces shape the type of performances that occur within them. According to Goffman’s argument about the ‘presentation of self’ concept, interactoninteraction is viewed as a ‘performance’, shaped by environment and audience, constructed to provide others with 75 an ‘impression’ that are is consonant with the desired goals of the actor. He divides regions into those of the ‘front’ and ‘back’ stages. While the official stance of the individual is visible in their front stage presentations; in the backstage, the performance is of a more ‘truthful’ nature. To be outside off the stage involves the inability to gain access to the performance of the team, ; this is described as an “audience segregation” in which specific performances are given to specific audiences, allowing the team to contrive the proper front for the demands of each audience (p 1961:137). This allows the team, individual actors, and different audiences to preserve proper relationships in interactions and the establishments to which the interactions belong. To put it succinctly, the ‘form of space, its organization, materiality, and aesthetic and sensual qualities can influence the kinds of performance that tourists undertake, although not in any predictable and deterministic fashion’ (Edensor, 2000: 326). The notion of leisure space includes recognition of these spaces as the product of social negotiation. It incorporates the politics of space and confronts issues of management, planning, governance and wider notions of sustainability (Preston-Whyte, 2001). It also raises questions about the nature and existence of boundaries between spaces that are socially and culturally identified, constructed and contested. As with most spaces, there is the matter of boundaries. As was discussed in the last section, the resort is in a number of clear ways administered separately from the rest of the island. I will argue that this separation is underlying the social control extent extant in Bintan. An encalavic space, such as the Bintan resort, is characterized by the constant maintenance of a clear boundary which demarcates what activities may occur and who may be admitted within 76 the space. The landscape which is that of the resort area is then argued to embody and reflect the negotiation of power between the dominant and subordinated in society; ‘it is socially constructed and imposed upon the subordinated by the powerful’ (Yeoh and Kong, 1994). The formation of imaginary boundaries is one way of attempting to reduce fear of the “Other”. Leisure spaces are not immune from this response and can become bounded spaces of exclusion in which identity is preserved against outsiders. Because of the way the physical landscape is ‘bounded up’ to define the ‘inside’ from the ‘outside’ as exemplified by the security posts and the gates around it, the resort area can be viewed as an enclavic space, with little ‘interaction’ with the rest of the island. In addition a fence circles much of the perimeter of the resort and where it does not - there are natural barriers (the sea and steep jungle). Guards patrol to ensure that relatively few people can slip through undetected unless they come by boat or through areas of dense vegetation away from the roads and fences. Entrance into the BBIR for ‘local’ peopleisland residents who are not working at the resorts is usually controlled. Those without an official business are frequently refused entry and those working within the resort have to produce a card that identifies them as resort workers. Through the interviews with several of the locals or residents living in the towns, the physical separation of the resort area from the rest of the island does have some impacts on the local people. Of the people I interviewed, some did question the exclusions of locals from the resort area, while most knew that the resort is meant for tourists only and so they did not really bother about its presence on the island: 77 They didn’t say we are not allowed there, but we [the locals] are strongly discouraged from going there. […] Just look at how far we have to travel just to get there and you know, they have security guards along the route there, so if you go there without a purpose, you are not allowed to pass through. (Personal interview with a local who wanted to be known as Ah Bang, who lives in Tanjung Pinang) I’m okay with it there…so far from here. If I don’t see it, I don’t really bother about it. Now if they had a place in Tanjung Pinang that they don’t allow locals on, then I’ll be very angry (Personal interview with Uncle Hock who is a resident of Tanjung Pinang) Besides being enclavic in terms of interaction with the local population, which will be discussed in the following chapter, the resort’s physical landscape is also structured and built in a way that isolates it from the rest of the island. Physically an enclavic space is characterized by purposive, directed movements along strongly demarcated paths. Such spaces are organized to facilitate directionsladirectional movement by reducing points of entry and exit and minimizing idiosyncratic distractions (Edensor, 2000: 340). In Bintan’s case, this is seen from the very efficient way in which tourists arriving on the island are ‘shepherded’ to their respective buses and to the various resorts. Almost every group of tourists arriving at the ferry terminal goes through the exact same procedure and flow inthrough that space – off the ferry, passes passing 78 through immigration, meeting the hotel representatives and getting onto the coaches to go to the various hotels. In this way, the tourists are ‘filtered’ into one channel of flow, bypassing any external distractions that may occur. Also, according to Edensor (2000), for a space to be considered enclalvic, access between the facilities and attractions must be as efficient as possible to maximize the quest for commodities and experiences. For In the case of Bintan, there is an obvious clustering that enables visitors to move easily from one to the otherbetween facilities and attractions and this will also “accelerate external impacts in the form of souvenir shops, craft shops and restaurants” (Law 1993:79). For the Bintan resort’s case, take the example of Nirwana Garden Hotel. The resort hotel contains 30 suites, 128 superior rooms and 86 deluxe rooms in all, which are in a horse-shoe formation. Its recreational facilities include a large free form swimming pool with jacuzzi, a jogging track, entertainment game centre, gym, kid’s children’s playground, an open-air bar and a sea sports centre. All of these amenities are clustered around the centre of the hotel, enabling guests who are staying on either ends of the premises to gather in the middle of the hotel. While Bintan resort falls short of the all-encompassing ‘Club Med’ approach which Reid (1992:75) has described as ‘concentration camps of leisure’, it seems to discourage both economic and cultural interaction beyond the resort gate in order to maximize its profit margins. This is done in a number of ways which range from subtle persuasion, in the case of the containment of paying guests, to rough policing when dealing with local residents and hawkers. 79 In the case of Bintan resort, locals/residents14 not employed at the resort are barred from entering by the guards at the entrance to the resort, and these include locals who may approach tourists to sell their wares or services (Wood, 1994). During my time in the field, I managed to observe the procedures that take place before a person or a vehicle is allowed into the resort compound. The guards at the security checkpoint would stop the vehicle/person and check for their passes and to inspect the vehicle and the people inside. If the driver/person had the relevant pass, (s)he would be allowed to enter the resort. Tour buses and workers’ transportation (which were usually motorcycles) were automatically waved on. Throughout the times when I was there, I did not witness anyone who was not allowed in, meaning to say that whoever approached the security checkpoint had the right to enter the resort, and whoever did not, did not attempt to enter. According to the Bintan resort’s management, this strict control over admittance to the resort is for the safety of the resort’s guests, who ‘value their safety and privacy’. Besides preventing Bintan residents who do not work at the resort locals from entering the resort, guests are also ‘subtly’ discouraged from venturing out of the resort area. Thes resort is built deep within the boundary line, thus making it difficult for guests to leave the area. I recalled when asking the concierge about venturing outside the resort, he advised me to take the resort’s bus (which brings guests to other affiliated resorts 14 I recognize that not all people living on Bintan Island are natives to the island. Hence the use of the word resident, local, or inhabitant, is not meant to indicate that Bintan is their place of origin. I recognize that there are many internal dynamics between residents of Bintan, between “locals” and “non-locals”, that complicates the assignment of a clear “identity” in the case of people in Bintan, and Riau more generally. See Wee 2004, Faucher 2005, 2006, 2007, Ford 2003, and Ford and Lyons 2006 for further discussion of these issues. 80 within the compound) and discouraged me from walking, as it would take about twenty minutes or so just to reach the security gate at the entrance, and that ‘it was not worth [the effort]’. Any unwary guests who might be tempted towards the public realm are confronted with notices which warn ‘You are now leaving the hotel grounds’ and the usual disclaimer regarding liability. Hence tourists are characteristically cut off from social contact with the local populace and are shielded from potentially offensive sights, sounds and smells. This can be regarded as a form of social control; as well as tourists are being limited to the types of places they can visit i.e. their movements are being kept within the boundaries of the resort via ‘positive’ ways means, like having various themed hotels to keep guests them from being bored, to ‘negative’ ways means such as subtle dissuasion/ fear tactics. In addition to the resort’s concern for their guests’ safety, this deliberate isolation from the rest of the island tends to favor the resort’s retail strategies. As most of their guests tend to remain in the resort during their stay in Bintan, and stalls and local street sellers are prohibited, the resort is the only place where they guests can shop. During my stay at the resort, I observed many tourists visiting these shops to buy souvenirs, beachwear or their daily necessities, despite them being priced higher than those at Tanjung Pinang. Their main ‘retail fix’ consists of the shops at the various hotels in the resort compound, at the ferry terminal or at Pasar Oleh Oleh (see below). So sales inside the (resort) enclave are conducted in a manner that minimizes discomfort and institutes certain performances among tourists by, for instance, fixing prices. This may be more 81 ‘convenient’ but it, as Edensor argues, also ‘reduces the relations of barter and vocal enquiry, mechanizing and speeding up the enaction of consumption’ (2000:328). As an enclave is usually isolated and self-sufficient, the available amenities and faciltiesfacilities are all organized to provide a self-contained environment where tourists are encouraged to spend as much money as possible. Containment is thus fostered by the spatial configuration of the resort hotel whereby reception areas and guest rooms are usually bounded by containing gardens, fountains, swimming pools and recreation areas offering all manner of ‘free’ low-key pursuits such as table tennis and gaming machines. Likewise, in Bintan resort’s case, guests are encouraged to go to the various hotels within the resort’s compound, and as each of the hotels are specifically themed, guests are ensured that their experiences within the whole resort will variesvary. For instance, the Mana Mana Beach Club is a low-cost, beach hut type of accommodation, which caters more to those who do water sports; Mayang Sari is catered more to Western guests who prefer to have their accommodation directly in front of the beach; Nirwana caters more to the Singaporean crowd, as well as families, as the rooms are furnished in a very chaletlike manner, with children- friendly amenities. These variously themed accommodations has have benefits for both guests as well as the resort, in that it ensures that guests are kept occupied and interested and the profits are kept within the resort without much ‘leakage’. 82 Besides being self-contained in the space by having activities that are arranged to facilitate maximum spending by circulating them between the various accommodations and attractions (The Kelong, Pasar Oleh Oleh), the resort also maintains its ‘enclavic reach’ by setting up institutional arrangements where services overlap with each other. For instance, tours to Tanjung Pinang or to the mangroves can be bought at the concierge counters at the resort, and frequently, elaborate commission arrangements are set up among businesses, so that money from tourists is distributed among those based in the enclave. I saw evidence of this when on a tour to Tanjung Pinang town, the tour group was brought to a factory, a restaurant and some shops which I found, after asking the tour guide, were owned by businesses which also have a stake in the resort. In this sense, it means that the resort has penetrated into Tanjung Pinang and continues to control tourists there. In addition to keeping profits in the enclave, the resort also ensures that guests are ‘kept’ in’ by providing entertainment by –in-house recreational facilities, movie shows, craft displays and frequently ‘exotic’ shows (e.g. the welcome dance). This also creates a single-purpose space that delimits economic and social activities that deviates away from the servicing of tourists and their designated practices. As mentioned earlier, I found out from the resort management that the various accommodations at the resort compound are themed according to the various interests of the guests. For instance, the Mana Mana Beach Club is built to suit the needs of guests who like to engage in sea sports, with its wooden beach huts, widely spaced apart to allow equipment like water skis, or kayaks to be placed nearby, set amongst coconut trees and located near the beachfront. Such ‘placings’ allow the ‘gaze’ to be directed to 83 particular attractions and commodities and away from ‘extraneous chaotic elements’, reducing ‘visual and functional forms to a few key images’ (Rojek, 1995:62). These ‘themed’ sites are often designed according to a limited range of motifs derived from media cultures. The theming of enclavic space is designed to provide a conducive environment for purchasing and usually consists of a repertoire of design codes which provide a soupcon of exotica and a few key images. For the Bintan resort’s case, each of the hotels within the compound are themed according to the needs of the tourists and so structures and the suitable layouts are brought in to emphasize it. As a result, each hotel within the resort is designed and stereotyped into a specific ‘model’. For instance, the Nirwana hotel is ‘themed’ to be a family-friendly one according to the resort’s management, and so facilities like the playground or kids children’s pool all emphasize this, ; this wayand so the hotel then becomes like any other ‘family friendly’ hotels in the world, with little distinguishing features. Hence, the infinite variety (of experiences) so often promised, is a manufactured and ‘controlled diversity’ which does little to differentiate the ‘Us’ from the ‘Other’ on a more international scale. Such controlled aesthetics combines ideal cleanliness and just a hint of the ‘exotic’, fulfilling the tourist’s need for ‘authenticity’ whilst simultaneously providing them with the comforts and standards of the ‘touristic bubble’. Enroute to the Resort Once the ferry approaches Bintan, the passengers are greeted with a view quite like Singapore – a very modern-looking terminal that is quite Balinese/Thai in design, with coconut trees lining the shoreline. The entire place is clean and organized and the 84 terminal compound is beautified with a lot of scrubs. When the passengers disembark and get to the terminal itself, they have to go through the usual custom/immigration gates, after which they are then greeted by representatives from the various resorts. The entire process takes place in one smooth flow, with the passengers being channeled from one area to another. The shops that are inside the terminal are mainly the offices of the various resorts on Bintan with a handful of them being souvenir/snacks and clothing shops. All of these shops cater specifically to the tourists who are arriving from Singapore. In fact, the only people who use the Bandar Bentan Telani are the people who come from Singapore on the ferry and of course the representatives from the resorts. Visitors who have not made their prior bookings at any one of the resort are not permitted out of the terminal; they are made to place reservations at any of the resort hotels at the various hotel’s offices at the terminal before they are allowed to proceed on the buses which will bring them to the doorstep of their chosen resort. I will argue that this restriction on the visitor is a form of control instilled by the management of the resorts onto the entire touristic process and onto the tourists themselves. The tourists are in a way coerced into staying at one of the resort’s hotels, failing to do so will mean eviction from the terminal, and eventually from the island. This is in stark contrast to the immigration process in the southern part of the island, where people are free to enter or exit without having a prior reservation of accommodation15. 15 However depending on their country of origin, most tourists visiting the southern part of Bintan require a visa to enter. 85 Such stringent entry procedures follow Wood’s (1994) argument that hotels or resorts are venues of control, i.e. the resort exercising exercises control over who are is allowed into the (enclave) resort. Access to hotels is structured hierarchically, […] according to socioeconomic criteria. […] Hotels, by virtue of being hotels, share certain characteristics in common, and these are also found in other forms of tourism accommodation (guest and boarding houses, motels and so forth). These characteristics are identifiable as physically and socially structured “criteria for interaction” – the constraints and enabling factors to interaction that seem to regulate social being within hotels’ precincts. (Wood, 1994:77) In the terminal’s compound, there are many coaches that are waiting to take the tourists to their respective resorts/hotels. There are also carpark spaces that are meant for people who own their own transportation, they are mainly people who have memberships at the various golf courses on the island and who frequently come to Bintan for golfing trips. The entire compound is fenced up and there is a security post at the entrance, checking on all vehicles and allowing only the relevant ones in. Once the tourists have arrived, they are then ushered to the awaiting buses and chartered off to their respective hotels. The journey on the bus to the resort area takes approximately ten to twenty minutes. 86 The final ‘barrier to entry’ that is used to ‘screen’ the people who are allowed to entrer the resort is the security post located at the entrance to the resort compound. After entering the compound, the bus then takes the tourists to the different hotels/resorts. There are six different resorts/hotels in that compound alone, all of which are collectively known as Nirwana Gardens. This exclusivity perpetuates a type of enclave development that characterizes many tourism developments in developing countries. Along the way to the resort, there is nothing around but the local vegetation of the island; apart from the road and some electric cables, nothing else has been developed. This is one of the striking things about Bintan Beach resort that contrasts it to that of the main town of Tanjung Pinang and its residential neighbourhoods. The various landscapes of the two places brings to mind the notion contrast between ‘order’ and ‘chaos’, with the former being organized and structured, and the latter being underdeveloped and disorganized. The extension of stage-management over such an enclavic space includes attempts to ‘create and control a cultural as well as a physical environment’ (Freitag 1994:541). The great difference in the landscape of the resort form the rest of the island provides ‘boundary cues’ (Jaakson, 2004:53) that demarcate the boundaries of the enclave, i.e. they help to define for the tourists or locals the spatial limits of the bubble, so they will know when they are approaching the resort, or venturing out of it. Whilst on the bus that takes tourists to the resort, tourists were seen to ‘perk up’ the moment they saw the lush greenery because they knew that they were nearing the resort and were preparing to disembark. 87 I knew that we were reaching [the resort] the moment I saw those landscaped plants. It reminded me of the type of plants and bushes that the National Parks Board16 use to line our roads. You know this resort is partly owned by Singapore right? Yah, so you can see the correlation? - A Singaporean tourist. The neatness and order of the landscape to and around the Bintan resort Compound serves another purpose besides defining the enclavic space. As Edensor (2000) argues, enclaves are designed for gazing, and theming imposes a visual order where there is some form of predictability and few surprises. The space is strictly maintained by landscaping and anything considered to be an ‘eyesore’ is removed. I will argue that we can use this contrast between the various spaces to understand the dynamic character of Bintan as a tourist destination and find out the meanings attached to it by tourists. The fact that the Bintan resort areass is in a way isolated from the rest of the island creates a kind of ‘special’ feeling in the tourists, as well as the people who work at the resort. In a way I feel that we are quite sheltered from the rest of the island, quite privileged in comparison. I took a day trip to Tanjung Pinang, and the standard of living there 16 The National Parks Board is a statutory board within the Ministry of National development. It is responsible for developing and enhancing Singapore’s image as a Garden City. NParks is tasked with providing and managing quality parks, greenery and related services to meet the needs of both residents and overseas visitors to Singapore. 88 compared to that way we are at the resort, wah, big difference. - Mrs. Seet, a Singaporean tourist Along the way to the resort, another anomaly to the sparsely vegetated landscape was the animal statues carved from stone. Figures of eagles and rhinoceros rhinoceroses were found along the road towards the resort; and there are also parking spaces near these statues which I assume are for visitors to these statues. In addition to the roadside statues, there are also signboards of animals like tigers on the various cable towers along the road. The strangest thing about all these ‘animals’ is that there are signs informing the visitor of their presence. These signs will be located about 100 metres before the statues or signboards and will have things like ‘Malayan Rhinoceros ahead, 100m’. They remind are like one of road signs that tell people about Landmarks/attractions that are prevalent at most tourist attractions globally. It was can then be concluded that these ‘animals’ must be regarded as tourist ‘spots’ or ‘photo opts’, (Photo opportunities) and are seen as sites for tourists to visit when they are on the island, if they choose to venture out of the resort. The tourism authorities may have put them up to make an otherwise uninteresting landscape to be more interesting, so that visitors who are on their way to the resort have something attractive to look at, and also for those tourists who are staying at the resort and want to visit ‘attractions’ on the island. This brings to mind the point in some tourist literature, that the use and transformation of spaces and cultures to meet the tourist gaze have often been criticized as being contrived and for failing to be responsive to the needs and heritage of the local people (Urry, 1990, 1995; Watson and Kopachevsky, 1994). In this particular case, the use of such animal stone carvings is can 89 questioned, as they do not have any native cultural symbolism, nor do they convey any particular meaning; they are merely there as a kitsch feature that is supposed to serve as tourist attractions. When questioned about these statues, most of my respondents expressed their confusion over them: “I’m quite puzzled over these animals (statues). You mean there are such animals around here? These are mainly African animals right? It’s not possible to have them here”. - Field interview with Janice Koh, a Singaporean tourist “I wonder what these animals symbolize…it’s weird to see billboard-like cut-outs of tigers, etc on these power station outposts, as well as stone rhinoceros along the road’. - Field interview with Mr Ng W.K., a Singaporean tourist Some of my respondents were not even aware of such ‘animals’, saying that they were “too busy listening to the hotel staff briefing them on the bus to notice anything on the way to the resort”. Besides the tourists, the local respondents were also unsure of the meanings of these ‘animals’, most of them said that they were there “for the tourists to take photos’. When some of the resort staff were questioned about it, they replied saying that “these animal statues were there to add colour to the surroundings of the resort”, “to make the journey to the resort a more interesting one, and also as tourist visiting spots for hotel guests who want to venture out of the resort compound”. This simple example brings to mind Urry’s argument that by the commodification of heritage and the 90 standardizationing of experience, tourism agencies often alienate both tourists and locals alike. This also brings to mind Eco’s concept of ‘hyper-reality’, where tourism objects being are manufactured to be more real than what they are in reality, in order to recreate what is deemed as ‘authentic’ in the minds of the tourists. Although, as Urry (1991:51) notes, “the search for authenticity” is too simple a foundation for explaining comtemporarycontemporary tourism, it is still important when it comes to explaining cultural, ethnic or historical tourism. This is especially clear when it comes to tourism in the global South, where local landscapes, cultures and practices are presented in a particular way to appeal to Northern holidaying tastes (Smith and Duffy, 2003:116). In many ways, travelers to the South for vacation experiences are looking for the authentic, the real and the genuine. However it is clear that what is pPresented as real and authentic is often a kind of ‘staged authenticity’ (MacCannell, 1976), which is created and performed by local people in conjunction with the tourism industry to fulfill the fantasies and desires of visitors. Likewise in the case of Bintan resort, although tourists there do not expect to see ‘local, indigenous’ cultures, they still have a certain expectations of what an island holiday resort should encompass. When asked what these expectations were, most of respondents said that there should be ‘sun, sand and sea’, ‘fun activities’, ‘relaxing atmosphere’. Therefore, the resort management, having this knowledge, runs the resort according to the tourist’s expectations, and the resort workers then have to act and behave in a way/manner that is expected of the ‘locals’, i.e. to be subservient and accede to the guests’ requests. This 91 behaviour of the workers will then in turn reinforce the tourists’ belief that they deserve to be treated like guests and they will subsequently behave as such. In short, this process is cyclical and one will perpetuate the other. One example of the ‘insiders’ perpetuating the local Indonesian stereotypes can be seen in the welcoming ceremony that is held for the guests of Nirwana Resort upon their arrival. Upon reaching Nirwana Resort, the tourists are greeted by a very welcoming group of Indonesian dancers and musicians who, to Balinese tunes, would dance and welcome the guests. Of course, it must be noted that Bintan is very far away from Bali, but the resort management recognizes that the “Balinese image” is the strongest one in the minds of tourists when it comes to Indonesian beach resorts, and hence to reinforce the resort imagery, Balinese music is used to welcome the guests’. (Personal interview with Nirwana Garden’s manager) During numerous observations of this welcoming ceremony, I would see the dancers and musicians sitting quietly at the lobby, talking amongst themselves or going to the washroom to freshen up. When I asked them about it, they told me that they have a schedule to keep to, one which follows the timings of tourist arrivals. When they see the tourist bus coming down from the main road, they would gather up their instruments and the dancers would take their positions. As the bus arrives at the main entrance of the resort, a gong would be sounded and the musicians would proceed to play their Balinese tunes, accompanied by the dancers dancing a ‘welcome dance’. Having experienced the welcoming ceremony firsthand, I can say that it is quite a pleasant surprise to be greeted 92 by such a sight and looking at my fellow tourists’ faces and by asking them what they thought of the dance, I found that they too, were pleased to have the opportunity to observe ‘traditional’, ‘authentic’ (personal views of my respondents) Indonesian culture the moment they stepped off the bus. Some of the tourists whom I interviewed said that they felt quite honored to be welcomed in such a manner, that it made them ‘feel special’, and that the welcoming ceremony marked the start of their pleasant stay at the resort. Locating the above example in terms of social control, the staff at the resort have to provide personalized service to the guests, as the latter expects the service to be rendered to them as private individuals, and even though the resort, like most hotels, is a generalized business that provides service rendered not to individuals but to sets of them. The resort must therefore, employ strategies of control designed to meet perceived consumer needs and ensure suitable standards of behavior between host and guest and among guests. For this case, the duty of the dancers and musicians are to make guests feel welcomed to the resort, and even though the dance to them is a job, for which they are being paid to do, they have to ‘perform’ it as if it were authentic. In Goffman’s (1959) dramaturgical analysis, he argues that role performances are carried out in “front” and “back” regions. In front regions, the intention of a role performance is to foster an appearance of behavior that conforms to certain standards of politeness and decorum in dealings with an audience. At the resort we see how there is an existence of social control/order that the staff at the resort employ to ‘make the guests feel attended to’. Such a performance is directed towards establishing a shared sense of 93 what is normal, yet is often contrived, being flatly contradicted by role performances in ‘back regions’ away from the eyes of the audience. In this case, guests who just arrived at the resort do not get to see what was taking place before their coming, they do not see the dancers getting ready in the resort’s washrooms or them talking on their mobile phones, all of which takes place in the ‘back’ region, away form their eyes so as to maintain this false sense of authenticity of a ‘Balinese/Indonesian resort’. As mentioned previously, from the interviews that have been conducted with the visitors to the resort, the central concern of the tourists who come to the Bintan Beach Resort is to relax and enjoy a brief hiatus from their everyday routines back in their respective metropolitan countries. However, for the people who are working at the resort, like in the case of the dancers and musicians, everyday routines become enshrouded by the ubiquitous presence of the tourists, i.e. tourism highlights the locals’ way of life to make it seem ‘spectacular’. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the dancers at the resort would ‘spring’ into action the moment a tour bus arrives, and would, according to one of the dancers, ‘perform their best for the guests, especially if they are taking photographs’. Another example of this would be the craftsman who has a booth at the hotel lobby. He would pose for pictures for tourists, holding still with whatever he was carving at that moment to allow his photo to be taken, because ‘if he made them happy [by posing for them], he would have a higher chance of selling something’. In that light, tourism introduces a new socio-cultural reality (Cohen 1984; Nash 1989) to the world of the people who live in Bintan, or is in this case the people who are working in the resort, in that they have to adapt to the presence and wants of the tourists. 94 4.4 CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have dealt with the matter of control on a macro level. Examining issues that are involved in the ‘pre-arrival’ stages when a tourist goes to Bintan. I have showed how the enclavic nature of the resort maintains its boundaries In in two ways – via the physical landscape where there is a distinctive separation of the resort’s vegetation frorm the rest of the island, as well as in intangible ways vis-à-vis the immigration procedures and tourist promotion methods. The latter ways transcends space and time, allowing the resort to ‘monopolise’ and capture the bulk of people who are interested in Bintan, even before they set foot on the island. In a sense, ‘Bintan’ is made to be equated with the resort in the touristic imagery by the tourism authorities and resort’s management, causing the rest of the island to be marginalized. Having already shown how the resort is enclavic in nature, the next chapter will deal with social control on a micro level, showing the various types of interactions taking place in and outside the resort compounds. 95 Chapter 5 SITES OF INTERACTION & TOURISTIC PERFORMANCES 5.1 “EVERYONE IS A PERFORMER” In this chapter, I will be looking at how tourists behave in and react to the surroundings during their holiday at the Bintan resort. Using Goffman’s dramaturgy analysis, we see that people will “act their parts” in order to achieve a particular image or trait that they want others to see. In other words, they adopt a ‘performed self’, a self which is a “kind of image that is usually credible, which the person on stage and in character effectively attempts to induce others to hold in regard to him/her” (Goffman, 1959:252). In order to have some understanding of the tourism that is taking place at Bintan resort, all interactions between guests, staff and locals are likened to touristic performances. Because these performances are usually enacted in ‘physically and symbolically bounded space’ (Chaney 1993:18), the metaphor of the stage or theatre aptly suggests that there are distinct venues for performances. These performances are played out on a ‘stage’ where participants – whether they are tourists or the ‘hosts’ – negotiate their meanings of interaction and identity that may be counter to the dominant ideologies of ‘home’. The space in this view is more than simple physical reality, and comprises a duality of identities; it is both a product for consumption, and a site where many different practices occur (Crouch and Ravenscroft, 1995:289). Space is then a frame of reference for actions, since actions and practices produce the social world and so constitute space. It must be noted though, that the space that is the Bintan resort is not necessarily a geographical concept, but rather it is also 96 taken as a series of evolving and dynamic events. In addition, the spaces where the interactions take place are places where all assumptions are constantly contested and negotiated. While they cannot determine performance, tourist stages are materially and organizationally constituted in particular ways to provide the establishment of ‘meaningful settings that tourists consume and tourism employees help produce’ (Crang 1997:143). While representational practices (by tourism employees and guidebooks, etc) (re)construct symbolic sites, they are not fixed, with their meanings and usage changing over time; they may also be contested by different tourists. According to Edensor, ‘ideas about what sites symbolize may generate myriad forms of performance on a single stage, in which different roles, scripts, choreographies, group formations, instructions, and cues are followed’ (2000: 323). Even within the resort itself, though made out to seem as ‘one resort compound’ by travel brochures/guidebooks, has different stages where symbolic meanings differ, thereby resulting in different types of performances that are being staged. All these performative processes ceaselessly reconstitute the symbolic values of sites and reproduce them as dramaturgical spaces (Edensor 2000: 324). Situated in the relationship between tourist and site, performances map out individual and group identities, and allude to wider imagined spaces which the stage is part of and may even symbolize. Tourists who go to Bintan, either the resorts or the town of T. Pinang, are looking to construct their own identities through tourism. These identities are of privileged first worlders, basking in the 97 luxury of a resort, seeking the authentic nooks and crannies of the third world to titillate their imaginations, and enjoying the fact that it is not them who has to live there. As in any performance, particular enactions need to be learned for a performance to be successful. This may require a measure of self-monitoring during performance so that actors produce roles in accordance with what they have learned and practiced. Besides monitoring themselves, performers are also subject to the disciplinary gaze of coparticipants and onlookers. Later in the chapter, we shall dwell more on this ‘controlling gaze’ when we look at the various performances taking place at the sites. Thus, even though performances are enacted during leisure time, where there is said to be ‘freedom from social limitations’, the presence of both internal and external surveillance may restrict their scope and help to reinforce communal conventions about ‘appropriate’ ways of acting as tourists (Edensor, 2000:323-324). The direction of performances within enclavic spaces seems to be accompanied by its continual material, aesthetic, and regulated upkeep (Causey, 2003), and if the rules and conventions are broken, by challenges and criticisms, or a refusal to comply with the roles expected, the stage and the normative performances may be disrupted. Nevertheless, many tourists acknowledge and accept the controlled nature of these enclavic spaces and the monitoring of their own performances, but are prepared to trade individualistic behaviour for the benefits of consistency, reliability, and comfort. 98 Yeah, it can get a little boring at times in here because the only thing one can do at night is sit at the lobby to watch movie re-runs and have some drinks...I wish there are some local nightspots to go to for a bit of fun, but it’s all good. I can chill out in a different way, take it slow, you know what I mean? - Field interview with Paul T., an English tourist17 In the tourism enclave, performances are monitored through surveillance and by what is considered “appropriate” in dominant discourses. In this way my analysis follows Like Foucault (1977) who showed how modern technologies have been used to discipline certain spaces such as the hospital, prison, and workhouse through panoptical surveillance and how techniques of self-discipline have exercised restraint over bodies, beliefs, and activities (Foucault, 1988). Carmouche (1995) argues that hotels operate implicit and explicit regulatory mechanisms that function to establish boundaries of inclusion and exclusion based on class. She suggests that like other commercial organizations, hotels seek to target particular groups of consumers via the process of market segmentation. This process is based on crude notions of social class derived from income and occupation classifications, which themselves yield assumptions about the tastes and preferences of consumers in different social groups in respect of food, drink, and accommodation. In their most objective form, these assumptions are translated into scalar classification systems (the hotel “star” system and so forth), which ostensibly serve 17 This interview was conducted in mid 2004, and there was no nightclub at the time of the interview. In September 2006, a new nightclub – SILK – opened in Bintan. It is located at Bintan Lagoon Resort. 99 to guide consumers in respect of the price and range of facilities. As Wood (1994:67) says, these explicit dimensions to hotels’ public image lend some definition to boundaries of inclusion and exclusion (five-star hotels are not normally available to those on one-star budgets); they also serve to convey the implicit codes of behavior prevailing in particular types of establishments. These include dress codes, food service rituals, and familiarity with different types and standards of cuisine. Undesirable actions, behaviours and social practices such as vigorous running about and playing of loud music are likely to be deterred by resort staff, security guards or tour guides, but usually through a “soft control” (Ritzer and Liska 1997:106) using surveillance cameras. Tourists themselves usually have internalized rules and habitual routines that embody notions of “appropriate” disposition and these influence their behavior. For example, guests at Bintan resort hotel were often observed to smile at each other as a greeting to other guests, and if they decided to take their camera out to take a photograph with the hotel staff, it was accepted as ‘normal’ tourist behaviour. However, in an observed instance, there was a guest who decided to sing loudly in the lobby area; after being met by curious/amused looks from other guests, he was subsequently (politely) informed by a staff that if he wanted to sing aloud, he could do so in the privacy of his own room. This is because he is seen as disturbing the peace of the resort, and his action is not considered to be ‘normal’ touristic public behaviour. In addition to ‘appropriate’ behaviour, practices concerning what to photograph, how to gaze, how to modulate the voice, and what to wear are often subject to self-monitoring and the disciplinary gaze of the (tour) group. One illustration of this disciplinary gaze was when 100 a female tourist wore a formal dinner dress to the outdoor barbeque dinner. She was met with stares from fellow guests. I overheard some of the guests commenting on the inappropriateness of her attire for the casual setting and one even asked her if she wanted to change into something more comfortable. Likening tourism to a performance is hence argued to be a more appropriate way to look at tourists rather than classifying them into different types. Hence rather than looking at tourists as for example, localdomestic versus Asian versus Westerners, we look at them in terms of their behaviours/ performances which they ‘enact’ whist on the various tourism stage(s). Tourism as performance allows for a range of roles that can be selected and enacted through experience, from disciplined rituals, to partially improvised performances, to completely improvised enactions in unbounded spaces. Thus, the same tourist may act out a medley of roles during a single tour or holiday. Edensor (2000) suggested that sites be considered as stages upon which tourists perform, and of particular interest is the identifying of the various enactmentionss which take place meeting on a particular stage and the contestation of different social roles. This takes us to the next section of the chapter. 5.2 THE ‘PERFORMANCE STAGES’: SITES OF INTERACTION WITHIN THE RESORT There are multiple ‘stages’ in which touristic performances between various groups of people are conducted. The ‘stage’ here refers to a spatial metaphor, where we will examine the different performances carried out in various parts of Bintan. In this 101 case, I chose to look at three different aspects: first the ‘stage’ that is the Bintan resort itself, ; second on the guided tour around Bintan Island, and lastly, in the town of Tanjung Pinang itself. An issue to note here is that places or ‘stages’ are not seen as areas with specific boundaries that are there to be visited. The people also feature prominently in the generating and reproduction of the various performances occurring in that space. Hence when we are looking at the various stages in Bintan, we have to have keep in mind the idea that tourist activities are not separate from the places that are visited by the tourist. These stages are dynamic and depend on performances both by ‘hosts’ and ‘guests’. In the Resort The resort, like any other institution, has an outward appearance and an inner reality. The casual visitor sees only the structure, the service, and the externalities – the routine of a chambermaid making the beds every morning; the concierge at the counter pandering to guests’ enthusiastic questions about the place, what activities to engage in, etc. Those who stay at the resort for a longer period of time may get to see behind the scenes like the flurry of activity that goes on in setting up the places/food before the weekly themed buffet dinner or numerous mountains of towels and bedsheets that are piled high next to the staff who are washing them. All of these activities fall ‘behind the scenes’, occurring in the ‘backstage’ regions of the resort, leaving only order and structure to be played out in the front stage regions. As I have already shown in Chapter 4, the physical boundary around the resort serves as a ‘boundary cue’ for the people in 102 the resort, demarcating ‘Us’ from the ‘Other’, and so performances happening inside the resort vary quite greatly from performances happening outside it. How people behave in the resort itself may also be determined by how the resort is being portrayed in tourism brochures or guidebooks, as the tourist defines and organizes his behavior and opinions on the basis of what he reads, “knows” or imagines, rather than on the reality of what actually exists. Consequently, the tourist adopts a distinctive sort of gaze, and looks for that which, for him/her, represents the identity or essence of the people. Admittedly, not all tourists are willing to accept what is “sold” in the brochures, or are capable of being so misled. There are, as Cohen (1972, 1979) argues, many different types of tourists seeking various forms of destination experiences, many of which involve neither fantasy nor escapes from reality, nonetheless, most of the guests at Bintan resort fall under the “mass tourists” category, where they expect familiarity in the places they are visiting, with an occasional foray out of the touristic bubble; they therefore do buy into the images that are being sold to them. Although the Bintan resort is not “sold” as an exotic destination like the Bahamas or South America for example, of which the former is the “playground of the Western world,” and the latter is an “enchanted forest” (Crick 1988:59), in the minds of most of the tourists whom I interviewed, they saw the resort as a ‘subset of Singapore’s tourism frontier’ because ‘Bintan is always being tied together with Singapore in the brochures or guidebooks’ (personal interview Singaporean guest, Mr. David Lim ). This mental image of Bintan as being a ‘hinterland’ of Singapore is so strong that almost every guest I 103 interviewed told me that Bintan is ‘just a 45 minute ferry ride away from Singapore’, a line found in almost every description of Bintan on travel websites or forums. To them, this ‘tagline’ of Bintan shows the readers of such guidebooks/brochures that Singapore and Bintan share some sort of tourism relationship. The expected gaze that tourists have of the Bintan resort subsequently influences the types of touristic performances which are acted out. As in any performance, there are roles to be played. Roles signify and embody notions about what actions are ‘appropriate’, ‘competent’, and ‘normal’ (Edensor, 2000: 340). In this case, the “locals” (be in it the staff of the resort or people living in Bintan) automatically assume the role of the ‘colonized’ and are thus expected to be subservient to their ‘colonial masters’, i.e. the (Singaporean) tourist/guests. Yes, I’m aware of the Growth triangle cooperation between Singapore and Indonesia […]. Even though Bintan is by right in Indonesia, I, and most of the people whom I know, consider it to belong to Singapore. I mean look at this resort for instance, this is no doubt a Singaporean-run place with its cleanliness, gardens and efficiency. - Field interview with Mr. Tan, a Singaporean guest. Some tourists were pleased with the service they received at the resort. Japanese, in particular, were very impressed that the staff could speak their native language. Other tourists, especially Singaporean ones, on the other hand, expected good service, ‘after all it is a Singaporean-run resort, and so everything is expected to run like clock-work’. It can thus be argued that expectations and performances of the guests at the resort are 104 based on the assumption that because the Bintan resort is being managed by Singapore, it should be as efficient and have high service standards. Similarly, based on this assumption, some guests at the resort take the staff working there for granted so, much so that they are treated as if they are ‘part of the travel experience’. It is then possible to argue that tourists exert some kind of power over the resort staff and the staff have to play the role of ‘host’ and accommodate the tourists’ wants as much as possible, for if they fail to do so, they may be chastised for poor service or will inevitably be terminated from their job). I thus put forth the argument that for most people a holiday is seen as a time to be pampered and spoiled and empowers the visitor by placing him/her in a position of superiority, by virtue of having paid for the privilege. The purchasing power of the tourist turns him into what Kabbani (1986:9) claims is a “self-created hero” who pursues and enjoys the prestige of control in order to exorcise the phantom of his own insignificance back home. This echoes the rather derogatory tone of Fussell, who describes the tourist who becomes a “fantacist temporarily equipped with power” (1980: 41). The performance of services and experiences by the workers and managers in the tourism industry is evidently a significant feature, for tourism is partially a service and experience, and performances here are inevitably done via the movements of ‘body’ and face-to-face interactions. The “hosts” – be it the staff at the resort or the locals living on Bintan are all enacting certain roles and adhering to certain scripts to make the tourist experience convenient, pleasurable and extraordinary. 105 In general, when I was conducting my observations of the interactions between the tourists and the people working at the resort, I saw that most of the tourists behaved quite cordially to the workers. This was evident in several encounters I had within the resort’s compound and when I was observing the various interactions that were takingtook place between tourists and the staff at the resort. An example of interactions between the two groups was when the dancers, who welcomed the guests whoen they had just arrived at the resort, asked some guests to dance with them, which the guests responded quite well to this and took up their offer for a dance. As mentioned previously, the dancers and musicians would be sitting by themselves quietly at the lobby, awaiting the newly-arrived tourists and once the gong is was hit, they would start dancing to Balinese-themed music. What is interesting is that existing guests, who were previously disinterested or disengaged with the dancers when they were not dancing, would gather around the dancers and watch their performances as well. This interaction is however not done on an equal level as it is between two friends for instance, but it is more like the guest enjoying him/herself and while the dancers’ presence are for the guests’ amusement. Another place where there is some interaction is by the pool, where guests are relaxing. The pool area, is one of thea main focus of the resort, is a place where many of the guests and staff gather, be it for work or play. When the place is less crowded, some of the pool attendants would walk around the area and strike up conversations with the guests. When I first started my research, they also came up to me in this manner. The questions that they ask are mainly concerned with the guest’s stay at the resort, how they 106 find the place, and the the people; they and also sometimes they would ask where the guest is from. It was later during more formalized interviews with some of the workers that I realized that the workers are taught to do that when they undergo training, so that they can improve on their service and make their guests feel more welcomed. In general, the workers at the Bintan resort are trained beforehand to do whatever they can to ensure that their guests have a memorable stay and they have to behave in a way that is expected of them – subservient, friendly and accommodating. A particularly interesting instance of this cordiality happened by the pool of Nirwana Gardens where a couple of tourists/guests were lying on the deckchairs by the pool when a staff of the resort came up to them and asked them how their stay was: ‘How is your stay at the resort ma’am/sir?’ The casual small-talk that the staff was makingmake is part of the resort’s effort to provide a ‘warm and hospitable environment for their guests’. What initially began as a casual small-talk where the guests were asking the hotel staff more about Bintan and how to get about it, etc, then became a 20-minute conversation between the staff and the guests. This brings to mind the point raised by Greenwood (1977) that most touristic rituals are performances, put up by the locals (who in this case were the staff at the resort) for tourists. In addition, such performances are repetitive, specifiable in movement, with expected and ‘appropriate’ actions, and are mainly the enactmention of duties. However, most of the touristsm choose to maintain a certain distance between themselves and the staff at the resort, and when asked why, reasons cited ranged from 107 ‘wanting to relax and not socialize’ to ‘valuing their privacy’ and the most extreme was that they ‘do not wish to mingle with non-tourists unless necessary’. One Singaporean tourist who preferred to remain anonymous, was more honest about his feelings: The staff at the resort are to me, a non-entity. You know how you tend to ‘see-through’ some of the stuff in the background. To me, the staff (at the resort) are like that; I don’t mean to be rude here, but I only see then when I need something from them. We can see that even in the enclavic space that which the resort isprovides, guests still prefer to maintain their ‘exclusivity’ and keep to themselves. Both tourists and the staff interact with each other on the basis of assumptions and expectations they have gathered from a number of sources, including personal experience and representations found in books or other media. Depending on the context, individuals may accept and enact aspects of the identity constructed by the other, may attempt to refine it, or may reject it altogether. Besides interacting with the staff at the resort, the tourists also interact amongst themselves. However, these interactions take place on a limited scale, where the tourists, who do not already know each other, engage with each other occasionally. It was observed during my time in the field, that most of the tourists tend to keep to themselves for most of the time, it was only on occasions such as the welcome dance, or when at the pool, that they interact with each other tourists – places that are in their minds’ are 108 ‘common grounds’. A tourist I interviewed had said that because the welcome dance area (which is at the lobby) was very open, they had ‘no/little choice but to participate’ in the performance. Similarly, the pool area is where most tourists congregate at as if they are were not preoccupied with other activities. Miss Rachael B. had this to say about having to ‘play the tourist’: ‘Usually we [the tourists] are left alone to do whatever. However of ‘cos there are some over-friendly people or staff that keep on wanting to talk to you. For the staff, it’s easy you don’t have to pretend to be interested, just smile and look away. For other [tourists] however, it’s a little harder. I don’t wanna seem unfriendly so I just smile politely and give them short answers and hope they don’t go rattling on. Thankfully I haven’t met any here so far, if not I’ll have to dodge them.’ Most tourists I interviewed were quite self-conscious about the ludic aspects of their behavior. Many of them echoed the sentiments of another tourist, Ms. Wong: Many of us basically come here to chill out, and there’s nothing better to do than to just laze by the pool with a cold drink and a book. This is the ideal holiday for me, where you can just do whatever you like at whatever time you like, with no one trying to hurry you or asking you to do things. 109 On the liminoid qualities of resort tourism, the guests at the resort seem to behave as a collective entity, bringing to mind the point raised in Chapter 2, that Wagner (1977:40) discussed, which was “the noticeable emergence of a communitas type of behavior lived out in a holiday setting.”. During conversations with them, I have observed that status distinctions amongst them were temporarily abandoned, and most were on a first name basis. The ritualistic nature of ‘resort living’ was also showcased when with noticeable ‘emergence of a communitas type of behavior lived out in a holiday setting’ (Wagner, 1977:401) was becoming especially prevalent if the guests were from the same country of origin. Even though some of the tourists may have outrightly said that they preferred to be left alone during their time at the resort, I have observed during various times at the resort that people from similar cultural backgrounds would tend to congregate together, be it for meals or for chats by the pool, etc. It was fairly easy for me to interact with the various guests at the resort because the groups formed by the tourists were “informal and fluid.” Also, depending on whom I was speaking to, I adopted different roles – that of a curious tourist when speaking to the resort staff; and that of a social scientist when I was talking to the tourists. At other times, I would use my judgment to determine which role or performance would allow me to put my respondents at ease and enable them to speak freely. As guests often substantially outnumber staff in the resort compound, interactions may encourage the former to engage in self-indulgent behaviors, such as wearing inappropriate clothing or voicing opinions aloud instead of being tactful and polite (as 110 would be the ‘normal’ behaviour back in their own countries). However, such selfindulgent behaviours still take place within a certain boundary of social control, for guests who have ‘broken the rules’ would be told politely by the resort staff to ‘please lower their voices as it is disruptive to the other guests’. In a sense, the guests are holding the power to, in a way, control the staff’s behaviour and staff are taught to play the role of being subservient and to always please their guests. During my stays at Nirwana resort, depending on the days – whether it was a weekday or weekend, I found that the resort can either be quite deserted or quite packed with tourists. On weekdays, I observed that there were more Westerners and Japanese tourists present than Singaporeans. The number of Japanese visitors to the resort is so significant that the management has a Japanese staff working there so that the Japanese visitors would feel more comfortable. When it comes to Fridays and the weekends, there is a sharp increase in the number of Singaporeans present. Interestingly, there seems to be a distinction between the tourists who stay at the resort during the weekdays and those who stay during the weekend that affect their patterns of spatial behaviour. It is to be recalled that tourists here are not divided into different categories or types, but rather, we are looking at their performance heres. Guests who visited the resort during the weekdays are more often more adventurous in their exploration of the place. Many were observed to adopt a more relaxed and explorative attitude, wanting to go out of the resort, to Tanjung Pinang for example. In contrast, those who visited the resort during the weekends are mostly Singaporeans, who take advantage of the time to take a short break away from Singapore. These people are more satisfied being in the resort itself, without 111 wanting to explore the surrounding areas, for their main purpose of coming to Bintan resort was to ‘de-stress and relax for the weekend’ (Mr. & Mrs. Lee, a Singaporean couple). Pasar Oleh Oleh and the Kelong Most of the tourists whom I spoke to, be it Singaporeans or people from other countries, said that they were content with all the amenities available and that most were just happy to be ‘basking in the sun all day’, ‘chilling out by the pool or at the lobby area’ or ‘getting their spa treatments’, even though they admitted that such activities are what ‘resorts all around the world offer and can get a little predictable at times’. This is in line with Plog (1973) who argued that tourists were unlikely to visit many attractions beyond the immediate resort area in resort destinations that were relatively familiar to the visitor, and where the primary motivation is frequently to relax and sunbathe. Cultural performances are similarly captured for the benefit of guests and presented within the resort complex in specially constructed venues, usually as part of a dinner/show package. Such events are rostered to provide a different attraction each evening in order to provide different types of entertainment for the resort’s guests, who are usually short-stay tourists. Thus the week might begin with a typical Indonesian inspired dance, which includes a dinner of Indonesian and Western food. On subsequent nights, the resort will then have differently themed dinners to include ones like ‘Dine around the World’, ‘Country and Western Evening’ or the ‘delicious Mediterranean buffet’. Through such eclecticism the ‘concentration camp’ of leisure assumes a bland 112 cosmopolitanism, where reproduction of various cultures reigns supreme and local culture is sanitised for popular consumption along with international cuisine. Guests at the resort even preferred this these “world-themed” dinners, saying that it makes their (dinner) times at the resort more interesting. Guests at the Bintan resort, upon arrival, are given a brochure of the facilities and activities that are available to them, and these are all located within the resort’s compound and are within minutes’ distance from each other. For those who were more ‘adventurous’, the resort’s brochures mention several places which they can visit if they wanted something different from the activities to be found in the hotels. The two most recommended places were the Pasar Oleh Oleh, which is a small shopping village, and a seafood restaurant called The Kelong. In other words, whether guests want to have a ‘local’ meal or go for some ‘local’ shopping, there are restaurants like The Kelong and Pasar Oleh Oleh to cater to their needs. Both are not located within the various hotels, but are within the boundaries of the broader resort (Level 1), and are accessible by the shuttle bus which takes tourists there for a small fee. The interesting thing about these two sites are that they are made out to seem like a ‘real’ Bintan village and a real ‘kelong’, sites which are contrived and artificially constructed but made to be ‘authentic’. As I found out from the resort’s management, the two sites, were constructed in order to give ‘the resort’s guests more variety of places to go to, but yet keeping in line with the local culture’ (personal interview) as well as serving to keep the guest within the resort’s compound. In other words, it can be 113 interpreted that the reasons for the two places’ existence is to allow guests to feel as if they have left the resort, for the distance between the two sites and the hotel are far enough apart enough so that guests will have to take a shuttle bus to get to the two places, but yet they are, in fact, still kept within the resort’s boundaries. In this way both the resort and the guests will benefit, for guests are made to think that they are being adventurous to ‘wander out of the resort’, at the same time, the resort’s economy is still maintained for profits are still kept within the resort. From the resort’s management perspective, it would seem then, that the market and the seafood restaurant are constructed using Bintan’s local surroundings and culture to serve as an attraction to the tourists. In this sense, the ‘tourist bubble’ is being perpetuated, with the tourists being made to believe that they are actually ‘venturing’ out of the resort area, but who are, in reality, still within it. This false creation of an authentic stage allows the tourists to act out their roles as travelers venturing out of the safety of the resort into the ‘open’. Whilst both Pasar Oleh Oleh and the Kelong are ‘created’, the Kelong did not receive many negative comments from the tourists as most regard it more as a restaurant than an authentic ‘kelong’, (a house on stilts over the edge of the water), and so they did not have any expectations of it. Hence even though the restaurant is constructed like a kelong (a house on stilts over the edge of the water), tourists I spoke to, who went there, merely took it as ‘part of the décor’ and ‘did not expect anything much from it except to have good food’. Pasar Oleh Oleh, on the other hand, received muchwas subject to more criticisms. The place is made out to seem like a rural village, complete with ‘authentic’ huts made 114 out of natural materials like wooden poles, leaves, etc, all of which are built in a circular shape on an unpaved piece of land. The ‘huts’ are actually shops selling ‘traditional Indonesian’ products like carvings, etc and a café called Café Helo Helo. Even though Pasar Oleh Oleh is constructed to be very different from the hotels in the resort's compound in order to allow guests to have a varied experience, it has received mixed reviews from the guests. Some guests like Alex from Singapore expressed dislike for it as he felt that it was too contrived: It is indeed really a tourist trap, a stupid, touristic place which was simply embarrassing to visit. It is so obvious the place was purpose-built to accommodate visitors to Bintan Resorts. All shops are typical tourist shops selling famous western brands at same prices (or even higher) as in Europe/US. There are shops selling clothes, souvenirs and Indonesian art. If you really need something you can probably find it here, there are about 20 shops, but don't expect to find any bargains or to get a real Indonesian experience. - Mr. Alex, a Singaporean tourist walking around in Pasar Oleh Oleh. Others too, expressed similar dislike for the place: 115 This is an "artificial" market - in that it is built solely to tap into the flow of tourists into Bintan who demands an alternative place to shop, eat and buy groceries. There are many shops here selling arts and crafts, to swimwear, to sunglasses and office wear. Some folks argued that this is a tourist trap, but the groceries here are indeed cheaper than those at the resorts. You decide. - Ms. Sarah C., a British tourist who was by the entrance of the market. I guess most people will classify this as a tourist trap. But honestly, I like the place. The prices of the things at the minimart here are significantly cheaper than what the minimarts in the hotels and resorts are charging, and there is a much better variety available as well. The restaurant here, Café Helo Helo, is also good and a meal here can be had for usually S$10 ~ S$20, depending on what you order. For example, while the fried rice is less than S$4, seafood dishes like chilli-crabs are easily above S$20 per serving. The “tourist trap” part is probably because there are some souvenir shops and fashion stores which are really, really ‘touristy’. Forget the souvenir shops though because the 116 artifacts sold seemed very mass market and do not look “authentic”. They are quite ugly too.... - Ms. Chua, a Singaporean tourist at the cafe There is a small museum about the island and its history, very nice and interesting to visit and free of charge. Worth a visit, it is right in the village. There is also a small supermarket. All prices were in Indonesian rupiahs (ah elsewhere in the village they were in SGD), the reason is it is the only shop in the village used by locals. Thus prices were pretty good and they had some fun things to buy, especially in terms of food. I bought some Indonesian snacks to bring back to the hotel. They also sell most things you'll find in the hotel giftshop but at a much lower price. Although the prices were in rupiahs they still accept Singaporean Dollars but the prices have to be converted before payment. - Mr. Jacob M., an Australian tourist interviewed at the resort who had gone to the market a day before. There's nothing much to shop at this place. You can cover the whole area in 30 minutes...A very small place with only about 10-15 shops and the stuff are extremely expensive... A DVD (pirated) can cost about S$25! And a simple dress can cost you S$50.... Whereas, in the hotel, I can get the same 117 dress for only $20!! The only cheap stuff that I got from there is a knitted bikini top that costs S$9... Souvenirs are expensive too…not worth the trip down. - Mr. Chen S., a Singaporean tourist who had gone to the market and was interviewed back at the resort. If you wish for a change from the usual limited (and rather expensive) fare from the hotel restaurants, do visit Café Helo Helo in Pasar Oleh Oleh (corny name I know....). The whole concept of Pasar Oleh Oleh may be a little ‘touristy’, but at least this restaurant and the minimart's good. - Anonymous, a European tourist Most of the tourists I spoke to did not enjoy their time at the ‘market’, as they knew that it is contrived. Many of them went there because they it werewas being recommended by the hotel’s concierge or have they read about it in the brochures, however, from their comments on it, it was not a place that they would go to again. Most of them complained that the place was ‘very fake’ and as such, there were not many interactions that took place between them and the ‘locals’. ‘Local’ here does not refer to people who are originally from Bintan, but rather many of these stallholders and waiters at the restaurant who come from other parts of Indonesia to Bintan for work, and are staff of the resort. The interactions that took place were mainly courteous and polite. From what the tourists have said, it can be inferred that most prefer some degree of 118 unpredictability, choosing to seek out spaces that are not regulated in accordance with commercial tourism, preferring instead the unpredictability of their encounters which allows them to gain pleasure from the challenge of constant mental and physical disruption. This is possibly a more intense form of ``getting away from it all'' (that is, the norms of everyday surroundings and activities). Many of my respondents said that the resort was up to their expectations, ‘like a lot of other beach resorts around’, ‘nothing spectacular but great because it is different from Singapore itself’. Some of them though, found the place to be very ‘fake’ because they saw what Bintan island really was when they first took the bus into the resort, with the scrubs and forested areas. The association with ‘fake’ is in contrast to what Bintan Island should be like in the minds’ of the tourists, as in what they deem to be the ‘authentic’ Bintan. As Cohen (1988:372) argues, ‘authenticity’ thus takes up a given or objective quality attributable by moderns to the world out there.’ In this case, I found that the degree to which the tourists think that the resort is constructed varies. From my interviews, I found that those respondents who were less concerned with the authenticity of their touristic experiences, were more prepared to accept as ‘authentic’ a cultural product or attraction, which more concerned tourists, applying stricter criteria, will reject as ‘contrived’. There are tourists, whose concern with authenticity is relatively low, who may well accept even a substantially staged product and experience it as “authentic”. This would not be necessarily be because they have been misled by the staging, but because even the faintest vestige of, or resemblance to, what experts would consider an 119 “authentic” trait of the product, may suffice for them to play the make-believe game of having an “authentic” experience. Most of the tourists I interviewed mentioned that Bintan is very beautiful (those who did not venture outside the resort area), with ‘the pools, the manicured lawns and golf courses’. For those who made the day trip to Tanjung Pinang, they remarked on the drastic change of environment, saying that the resort is ‘world-class’ and they ‘would not have imagined that such a place (the resort) would exist if they had just saw Tanjung Pinang’ itself. A lot of them thought that the whole resort area is very constructed and made to look like any other resort area elsewhere in the world, this is especially so if the respondent is well-travelled. This is related to the point made earlier, about the varying degree of criteria used to measure authenticity. On the point of the security posts, almost all mentioned that it was a good thing to have such tight security because ‘of all the bombing incidents that are happening in the region’. They are glad that the guards check all vehicles that enter the ferry terminal and the entrance of the resort because ‘it made them feel safe’. You know, in the wake of all that’s happening around the region, with the bombs and whatnots, the added security gives me a sense of, well, security. I think I’ll be happy to just stay in the resort area itself without venturing out…anyway there isn’t much else to see right? There’s just scrubs along the way… 120 - Field interview with Kathaleen, an Australian tourist According to Edensor (2000) for a space to be considered enclavic, access between the facilities and attractions must be as efficient as possible to maximize the quest for commodities and experiences. In Bintan’s case, this is seen from the very efficient way in which tourists arriving on the island are ‘shepherded’ to their respective buses and to the various resorts, bypassing any other stops. The rest of Bintan island is then made out to seem ‘empty’ and devoid of any interesting features. 5.3 ‘PERFORMING’ OUTSIDE THE RESORT COMPOUND Besides the interactions amongst tourists themselves and between tourists and the ‘locals’ occurring inside the resort’s compound, many more varied and interesting performances take place outside it. The day trips I took to Tanjung Pinang and to attractions along the way provided me with examples of more tourists-local interactions. Even before the tours begin, the groups were warned about the dangers of accepting services from ‘unauthorised persons’ not connected with the hotel. The travel agency in charge is outsourced by the resort to organize the tours and the some of the places which tourists were brought to fall under the ownership of the resort’s owners (By resort owners, I am referring to the various Singaporean and Indonesian businesses that collaborated to build BBIR). I later also found out that the travel agency’s owner is a Singaporean who has connections to the resort owners. Hence even if they choose to visit the local town, the tourists are still being encased the resort’s enclavic ‘space’, still 121 having ‘surplus stimuli cleared and their attention redirected towards designated products and objects of interest (Edensor, 2000:338). Touring Around Bintan Island – Tour groups vs. Individual Tourists The notion of enclavity is extended by means of the conducted tours, which are organized by tour agencies affiliated to the resort, and most of them take guests on the popular route that comprises stops at Trikora Beach, Kawal (a fishing village), Tanjung Pinang, Penyengat Island and the Senggarang Temple there. The existence of such ‘tourist bubbles’ raise questions about the authenticity of the experience (Bruner 1994; Crick 1989; Cohen 1988). Cohen argues that “tourists would like to experience the novelty of the macro-environment of a strange place from the security of a familiar micro-environment” (1972:166). Passengers on a day visit to Tanjung Pinang have an opportunity to venture beyond the resort’s ‘bubble’, into the ‘real’ world of the town. The question is, however, do they in fact go beyond their ‘bubble’? and in any case how ‘real’ is the ‘real world’ of the part of the town which they visit? Is the part of a town visited actually a part of the tourist bubble, a secure place— a familiar micro-environment— beyond which the tourists will not venture to explore the larger, unfamiliar environment? The aim here is to investigate the spatiality of where these tourists go in town and what sort of performances that occur in such instances. Special pamphlets are printed in Japanese, to cater to Japanese guests who comprise a significant percentage of the resort’s occupancy rate. During the tour, guests cocooned in the safety of air-conditioned tourist vans are spared the heat while being fed 122 a sanitised version of local history/information which avoids authenticity and contention. Topics of discussion range from the tourists’ backgrounds, snippets of history of the island, when the tourist season is, etc. Preordained souvenir stops are made along the route at various shops, one of which is a tea packing factory, where the labours of local artists are commodified for the tourist ‘gaze’. Local products such as tea and even artificial silk flowers are hawked at the tourists for ‘relatively cheap prices’, with the guide ‘informing’ the group that ‘you can’t get it any cheaper than this’. The financial leakages from such stops are minimised through the extraction of commissions (Vickers, 1996: 200), with the guides extracting up to 30 per cent of the inflated tourist price. Refreshments and lunch stops are similarly organised, with the group being offloaded out of the van and quickly ushered into a suitably air-conditioned restaurant which hadwith a rather garish and opulent-looking décor. A typical scene at the restaurant would be that during lunch and dinner hours, groups of about twenty to thirty people would be unloaded ushered off a tour bus and would be led by the tour guide into the restaurant to have their meals. The guide would split the group into smaller groups to be accommodated around the tables and before the dishes arrive, will brief them about their post-lunch itinerary/activities. The interactions between the staff of the restaurant and the tourists are typically kept to the minimal, but amongst tourists themselves, they will happily chat about their stay at the Bintan resort with the typical ‘where are you from?’ and the ‘how long are you staying in Bintan?’ questions. Within the confines of the restaurant, the ‘tourist bubble’ is still perpetuated with each group keeping to their ‘expected roles’ of either a ‘guest’ (the 123 tourists) or a ‘host’ (the waiters), and everything ranging from the food to the language spoken is catered to the tastes of the tourists. For instance, the type of food served to the tourists will depend on where the tourist group is from, i.e. tourists from Malaysia would be served spicier foods than Western tourists. After lunch, the tour continues with a bus journey towards Tanjung Pinang. During the journey, the guide warned the group about being wary of local sellers/touts. This somehow ensured the tourists that the guide was on their side and would take care of them. Something which I found notable was the fact that the tour van was made to stop a distance from the actual sites, requiring tourists to go past the stalls which lined the street. I thought this to be in contrast with the guide’s earlier ‘warning’ to the group, but managed to realize that the tour group, despite not being in the enclavic space of the resort, still has had a continual policing of its boundaries, its inhabitants, its appearance, and the activities which occured within it. In other words, there is a sense in which touristic enclaves may be mobile entities, captured by the common phrase ‘environmental bubble’ (Cohen 1972). For as certain tourist groups move around – on the tour bus, through shops, in groups at tourist sites – they remain shielded from the intrusions of sellers, are kept away from disruptive sights and smells, and by virtue of the timemanagement exerted over them, are pressured into conforming to group practices. Such ‘protectiveness’ by the guide of the tour group were was shown on occasions when some tourists from the group decided to venture off to do some exploring, ; the tour guide would gently advised them to keep to the group, that ‘there will be time given to look around later’ after the itinerary has had been completed. Another example of this 124 ‘filtering’ occurred when the group had to pass an alleyway filled with litter to get to the boat to Senggarang, ; the guide hurried the group through the area, citing that it was ‘better to walk faster because the place is very dirty’, . Sseveral members of the tour group found the sight and living conditions of the place to be peculiar and so wanted to take photographs of it, but the guide did not stop for them, commenting that the area was ‘so dirty’ and ‘not a sight for tourists to see’. His actions were in great contrast to when the group got to the Chinese temple at Senggarang, where he told the group that they had about 20 minutes to wander freely about the place. From this example, we can see how the guide chooses to highlight a place which he deems fit for touristic consumption vis-àvisversus a normal everyday place where locals actually inhabit, even though tourists may have wanted to see the local inhabitants’ ‘normal’ and ‘authentic’ way of living. This aesthetic control intends to direct tourist gazes and movements, via books, information boards, and even by the direction of the guide, to specific features and placed objects, suggesting a common-sense route. In the given example, we see that the guide directs directed the flow of the tourists – from the bus straight to the jetty, onto the boat – with minimal contact with the locals. Often, spectacles situated within the field of vision and en route are further contextualized for tourists by the professional interpreters of ‘customized’ travel, ; this is part of the process whereby the industry interprets (and packages) selective attractions to minimize disorientation. The tour guide in this case, allowed tourists to wander about freely about the Chinese temple on Senggarang as it is a designated tourist spot. In contrast, he exercised more control over the group whilst when the group was traveling to and from the tour bus to the designated stops. As Neumann 125 (1992) points out, tourists are rarely left to draw their own conclusions about objects or places before them. Instead, they more often confront a body of public discourse – signs, maps, guides and guidebooks – that repeatedly mark the boundaries of significance and value at tourist sites. They are told where to look, when to look and even how to look, and rarely during the trips I took, did I observe any of the tour group members venturing ‘off-course’. In terms of the ‘performance’ of the tourist, expected actions like things to be seen, photographs to be taken, souvenirs to be bought, are like routines and compulsions of the ‘script’. The guide functions like that of a director, guiding the tour group into their touristic performances, which generally are repetitive, specifiable in movement, and highly constrained by time. During the various day trips in which I had participated in, the guide would often be seen hanging about in a corner or would be on the phone whenever the tourists were at a stop. Only when it was about time to be at the next stop will would the guide rejoin the group and inform everyone that they were suppose to return to the bus. This strict adherence to time was practiced throughout the various trips I went on with very little variance to the schedule. During the tour, roles are were usually not fluid, with ‘actors’ generally occupying occupied specified roles and enacting enacted prescribed movements. The disposition of such participants is dutiful, with a concern to perform efficiently in the ‘appropriate’ fashion, in compliance with group ideals. Tourists collaborate ‘in the production of the spectacle’ (Chaney 1993:164) and such performances are akin to 126 typical religious and ceremonial rites performed at symbolic sites. This point is evidenced when as part of the day-long trip outside the resort, the tour group would stop at the tea/artificial flowers factory. The in-house guide would then bring the tourists around the factory production line; the tourists would follow him around and politely ask questions about the type of products that the workers were making or take pictures of the place. In other words, they would be doing what ‘typical’ tourists would do, that which waswhat is expected of them. The tour around the factory would then end at the shop, where the tour group will be ‘encouraged’ by the guide to buy the products as ‘they are cheap and are sold at ‘local’ prices (as opposed to export prices which are generally higher)’, and on many occasions, most of the tourists did not leave empty-handed. In general, it can be said that such performances are rehearsed and achieve competency in a collective framework. Another instance would be tourists using photography as a popular ‘ceremonial form’ to capture their relationships to each other, with places, and with other cultures (Edensor 1998:128). Photo-taking by the tourists were was observed on almost all day-trips I took, and to the tourists, this mode of capturing their travel memories served as an intermediary act of interaction between them and the locals. In short, the ‘enclave’ that is the tour group may also be described as resembling a ‘total institution’ in which the people ‘cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period of time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of life’ (Ritzer and Liska 1997:106). Besides interviewing those tourists who were staying at the resort, I also managed to get several accounts of tourists who were staying at Tanjung Pinang and Trikora 127 Beach. These were people who did not stay at the main resort area, but instead chose to stay at accommodations located in the two places mentioned. Most of the people who chose to bypass the resort area and go directly to Tanjung Pinang did so because they ‘didn’t want to go to the typical touristy places’. However, those respondents whom I interviewed spoke of the dangers of traveling in this manner. The following short excerpt is from one of my Singaporean respondents Mr. T.H. Lim who emailed an entry about his travels to Bintan: "Mister! Mister, listen to me!" the Indonesian touts swarmed us the moment we walked out of the jetty complex. Offering anything from ‘beachside’ hotel accommodation in inland locations to deep fried fish and chips, the aggressiveness and persistence of these touts were a sudden reminder that we were no longer in First World Singapore but now visitors to a vast country with fifty times the population but only oneeighth the GDP per capita. We did the standard thing - avoided eye contact, for it might implied imply interest, and pushed our way through the crowds, saying no, no and no. One of the more persistent ones refused to give up and followed us across the car park onto the open streets of Tanjung Pinang. […] Not getting any responses, Irritating Ali changed its his tactic. "Come on, friend. This is my island. You don't know the situation here. It 128 is not safe for you. Let me bring you to some safe places. And are you Singaporeans?" An offer turned into veiled threats. I have had enough of this nonsense on my many travels. My fellow citizens have probably also been too easily intimidated by such rascals while in Bintan. If I had said yes, Irritating Ali would think I was an easy prey and intensify his efforts. ‘"Please go away! We want to be alone." And we walked further and further away from the jetty. But Irritating Ali would not give up. Why should he when there was little he could do to make a living here? He's better off taking a punt with tourists than to do nothing at home the whole day. From the above example, we can see the type of relationship in which visitors to Bintan have with some of the local community. It can be argued then that this goes in contrast with the typical host-guest relationship where the host is usually welcoming the guest, and where the guest is usually pleased to be hosted. Most of the people whom I interviewed that visited Bintan outside the ‘resort route’ often complained to me about the way they were treated by the locals. They agreed that whilst most of the locals did not ‘harass’ them outrightly, there were some who did get aggressive when approaching them, this in turn made them wary and resulted in them keeping to themselves instead of wanting to interact with the locals. 129 We had dinner at a huge, half-empty seafood restaurant. To start with, the menu was dubious. No price was stated but we made verbal enquiries. Not for the first time, Bintan had proved to be an expensive place. Prices were quoted in Singapore Dollars and two of us spent the equivalent of US$25 altogether for some vegetables, fried rice and prawns that was mediocre and meager at best. For that kind of quality, we would spend less in Singapore, a country where the cost of living was much higher. I had a similar experience on a visit to the nearby island of Batam. That's why the Riau Islands has attracted so few tourists from nearby Singapore. The lack of transparency and desire to cheat the most from the tourist leaves a bitter aftertaste. Not again, many would say. Not only does one get harassed by touts and conmen, there's simply no value-formoney in Bintan. - Field interview with Mr. Jason N., Singaporean tourist. From the interview above, we can see that for people who visit Bintan outside the resort are often treated as people who can be easily exploited or taken advantage of and are expected to pay higher prices than the local population. This characteristic is not uncommon in many parts of the developing countriesworld, where tourism is seen as a way to alleviate the poverty. However, this type of treatment has caused much 130 unhappiness from the tourists, as I have gathered from my various interviews. Some of my respondents went as far as saying that they felt that this unequal treatment was unfair and because of it, they would not visit Bintan again. Some of them though, would still visit Bintan, however, they would choose to stay in the resort. I know the resort is expensive relative to the standards in Tanjung Pinang itself, however I would rather stay there than at the hotels elsewhere. I feel that as tourists, or shall I say, visitors to the island, the locals shouldn’t exploit us. I know not all of them do, but when I was there, I felt the people in many of the places I went to, like the restaurants, the taxis and even the moneychangers, tend to charge us prices or rates which were higher than usual. I think there should be some standardization in the prices at least, so that tourists wouldn’t feel like they are exploited, you know? - Field interview with respondent who chose to remain anonymous. In the marketplaces that can be found in Tanjung Pinang, the contexts of interaction are spaces through which both tourists and locals can freely move through the stalls that line the path and streets. For those who wish to participate in an interaction, the marketplaces are spaces where individuals voluntarily choose to engage with each other. Tourists can come and go as they please, choose if they want to respond to the 131 stallholders, and likewise for the stallholders, they can avoid tourists if they choose to. Although the statement threatens to oversimplify the complex relationship between the two groups, as most often, tourists are economically dominant and have more freedom to engage or disengage as they please than the locals, this does not mean, that stallholders and locals are without agency in the interactions. They have a choice as to whether or not to offer their services to the tourists. The issue of people going places is important because it relates to notions of boundary, inside and outside, distance and difference, all of which enter into the construction and renegotiation of the self. It is commonplace that identities are constructed in relation to difference and not outside of it. That is, only in the context of the relation with the Other –concerning what it is not or what it precisely lacks–can ‘identity’ be produced and conceptualized (Butler 1993). Identity is constructed in a way which is analogous to language–as is, according to Lacan, the unconscious–in that, the assignment of meaning takes place within relations of similarity and difference between the words of a language code. Philosophers of language, like Derrida, argue that the speaker cannot produce a firm and unchanging meaning–including the meaning of identity–because, by its nature, conceptualization is something changeable: it seeks stability and integration (of identity) but it is continuously ruptured and transformed (because of the difference). Overall, the process of identity construction is subject to the ‘game’ of difference and presupposes the drawing of symbolic boundaries. 132 Despite such attempts to engage tourists, the reality of enclave tourism is that local people and informal enterprise are relegated to a marginal ‘Other’, occupying the vacant plots between hotels and the few restricted enclave exits. During the time at Tanjung Pinang, I observed several of the tourists as they were walking about and found that the locals’ eyes always lit up as they saw them, especially if the tourists were Westerners. Most of these locals do not have access to the resort area, and it is only when the tourists come to the main town that they get to ‘extract a livelihood from the few limited contacts with overseas visitors’ (Shaw and Shaw, 1999: 76). Speaking to a few of the locals, I found out that they will generally charge tourists a higher price or exchange money with them at a lower rate. We don’t usually have many tourists here, they only come during months like June to August […] But anyway, all of you [tourists] come from places like Singapore or Australia, surely got more money than us [locals], so if we charge you more a bit, take pity on us… - Field interview with Uncle Lim, a Teochew moneychanger in Tanjung Pinang (translated from Teochew). My observations of tourist-local interactions led me to believe that these roles are neither assumed with full awareness, nor the acting out of an unexamined self, but rather something subtle and in between. What I often saw were individuals using aspects of their selves (composed with respect to the rules and mores of their culture) as a theme around which they would spin variations. While most encounters between the tourists in 133 the group and locals were relatively lighthearted, non-confrontational experiences, I saw some occasions where some sections of the informal sector can at times be intimidating. Such instances usually took place along the streets near Senggarang, where small stalls selling items ranging from clothes to accessories, line the roads. Most often the interaction begins began with the storeowners hawking their goods, calling out to the tourists to buy from them, saying that they offered cheap prices. If the tourist spots spotted something of interest, (s)he would stop and browse around. The storeowner, taking advantage of any momentary hesitation or interest in their wares, would then become very friendly and would ask the tourist where (s)he is from, etc. This is was then followed by individual negotiations between visitor and vendor; if the transaction is was successful, both parties would be pleased, but more often than not, the beleaguered tourists were seen repelling the advances of the storeowners. Such persistence of such these informal operators creates created a vicious circle of behaviour whereby tourists become wary of any street contact with locals and store vendors become persistent with those they can could engage. A Singaporean tourist, Mr. Lim, whose email account was quoted above, shared with me his experiences on dealing with a local ‘tout’ (whom he called Irritating Ali). And so we devised a plan - I would walk out of the restaurant leaving Vernon to deal with him, and find a hotel as soon as possible. As I stood and walked away, Irritating Ali stared with at us with a puzzled look. The skies started to drizzle and 134 Irritating Ali stayed where he was. He must have concluded that I would not go far and decided to try his luck with Vernon instead. I checked out two hotels 20 meters away. Didn't really like the places but was a little tired and on the verge of accepting the offer from one of them. At this moment, Irritating Ali appeared suddenly at the hotel doorway speaking loudly in Indonesian to the hotel reception lady. Oh idiot! That's the standard way bums and touts worldwide attempt to get a ‘commission’ for claiming credit for the customer, and any commission paid this way would be translated into a higher price for the customer. Irritated, I opened my umbrella, and walked out of the hotel, into the rain, now pouring madly. I gave him a nasty stare, ‘Don't follow me! I am very angry with you’. This time round, Irritating Ali did not follow. He might have realized that wasn't going to lead to anything and it wasn't worth getting wet for the effort. - Off-site interview with Mr. T.H. Lim. This particular tourist’s experience with a local in Bintan illustrates Freitag’s (1994) argument perfectly – that if the host population perceives tourism as a source of exploitation, resentment of its presence can provoke a hustling mentality. The resulting impasse heightens the attraction, for tourists, of the increasing number of large, privately owned, air-conditioned shopping centres, which provide a familiar haven offering 135 western fashions and food at ‘fixed prices’ under the eye of uniformed security guards (Causey, 2003). In this manner the ‘trickle down’ benefits of package tourism are restricted even further and the experience of the package tourist is one of alternating safe havens, from hotel lobby to tourist bus, to air-conditioned restaurant, to shopping centres, and finally back to the hotel’s protected beachfront. It is not to say that tourists are the only ones who are ‘harassed’ by the locals; the relationship goes both ways, and locals are also subjected to certain type-casted attitudes and behaviours. One of the most common attitudes assumed by tourists to Bintan is that because they can pay for their travels, they deserve them. That is, tourists seem to feel that their finances give them the power to avoid obligations and responsibilities. Examples of this include tourists to Tanjung Pinang stopping whenever and wherever they pleased to take photos of the locals or of places. In one instance, during the a daytrip, one of the tour members went so far as to stick his camera inside a local house to take pictures of it, without the owner’s permission! When the guide saw it, he tried to rectify the situation by gently persuading the tourist to move away and by apologizing to the house’s owner. The tourist did not see anything wrong with his actions and wanted to go back for more photographs, saying that ‘it’s harmless to them (the locals)’. It would seem like this particular tourist treated everything and everyone like an attraction, not minding his manners. Besides this lack of respect and courtesy towards the locals, another example of the stereotyping of locals by the tourists is that some tourists I interviewed, believed that because locals have had chosen to be in the tourism business, 136 they are were obligated to fulfill their duty of serving the tourists, saying that tourists ‘pay them so they should do their job right.’ Some tourists implied that their patronage of a place should allow them to choose to what extent they would engage with the local people. One of the common complaints I heard during my interviews with tourists was that they felt pestered by locals who wanted to find out more about them or to practice speaking English with them. For those who come go to Bintan to relax or enjoy the landscape, interactions with the local culture may be considered an encroachment on their time. In other words, they want to be left alone to enjoy their holiday rather than spend time interacting with locals, in order to maximize their financial investment (taking the holiday). For such tourists, local culture is a part of the ambience of travel, and local people a part of the background. When faced with other tourists who are also in Bintan for holiday, these individuals are kind and open, but they prefer to only interact with Bintan local inhabitants who are waiters, maids, guides and vendors, i.e. as service employees, ignoring them and their culture when they are in nonservice contexts. In effect, this group of tourists treats the locals as secondary to the surroundings. On several occasions, I managed to speak to some of the local storeowners and other locals and I found out that tourists like those aforementioned, were some of their most difficult customers because they refused to interact interpersonally. As a result, they these locals tended to treat such tourists in a reserved but civil way, just like they are were treated by the tourists themselves. As suchTherefore, there is very minimal engagement between the two parties, and the ‘enclave’ is maintained. 137 5.4 CONCLUSION This chapter has dealt with the relationships between locals and tourists, locating the various interactions within different contexts. I have likened such interactions to performances, with the various roles of hosts and guests involved and Bintan Island as a the stage. In general, for those who go to resorts, there is said to be limited engagement between the locals and tourists, with tourists interacting mostly with those in the service industry interacting most with the tourists. The limited interactions between the groups of people are due to certain biasness biases on both sides, with each having pre-conceived notions of the other, which in turn, translates into the way they treat and behave towards each other. In all such interactions, we see that power is involved, and whoever has the power will get to dictate the conditions in which interactions take place. Even though tourists are commonly viewed as having more power because they are financially better off, locals too, can have the choice of how to behave towards the tourists, and the relationship is thus dichotomicdynamic, with one group influencing the other’s actions. 138 Chapter 6 CONCLUSION One significant theme in tourism studies is power and my thesis has sought to add on to this theme by looking at power vis-à-vis touristic performances. The concept of power, or more accurately power differential, brings about many diverse and complex issues in tourism. I have chosen to look at how the power, inherently found in the tourism context, affects how tourists ‘perform’ amongst themselves, as well as when they interact with locals, thus locating these various interactions within different contexts. These issues are applied to Bintan Island, Indonesia and are held apart for a clearer picture. Power relations that exist in tourism has have always led to one group having more control over resources than the other(s), and this difference in power has led to various consequences, one of which is dependency. Dependency involves the direct result of the unequal relationships inherent in the world economy; and that within the present structure of international tourism, Third World countries can assume only a passive role. In the same light, the power differentials that exist between First and Third World countries are also reflected in the promotion and advertising strategies of a tourist site, with the ‘owner’ of the site deciding what attractions to highlight. With the ‘filtering’ of what aspects to highlight or downplay in tourist advertising and guidebooks, tourists’ expectations are inevitably shaped in a certain way and this in turn affects the way they behave. I have looked at the development of the resort area and its facilities, and how it has coame about to be ‘sold’ as a subset of Singapore’s tourism attractions. 139 In order to understand the concept of power and dependency, I have used Bintan Island, Indonesia as a case study, as the island is unique in that it has a resort – Bintan Beach International Resort – created and maintained exclusively for tourists, on the northern end of the island, and a main town of Tanjung Pinang where ‘locals’ live and where tourists can also visit. These two sites differ greatly from each other and provide interesting ‘stages’ on which varied touristic performances take place. The main focus of my thesis is on the tourists’ experiences with the island: how they view Bintan as a tourist destination, and how they interact with each other, as well as with the locals living and working on the island. The thesis starts with the premise that the Bintan resort is an enclave. Using ‘the big picture’ approach, it examines how the entire touristic process is enclavic in nature, how this ‘enclave’ is perpetuated and maintained by the various groups involved, ranging from the tourism authorities, travel agents and even the tourists themselves. The argument here is that the ‘enclave’ then in this sense, is borderless and transcends boundaries, of space and time. I have contextualized my argument by providing a brief historical background of the crossborder relations between Singapore and Riau islands, which had, till the early 1990s, been relatively easy and relaxed. However, with the advent of the Growth Triangle agreement, instead of the promised cooperation between Singapore and the Riau islands, border relations have become stricter and have resulted indue to widening income disparity between Singapore and Bintan/Batam, as well as tighter security due to terrorism fears. It is relatively difficult for a person living in Bintan (Tanjung Pinang) to 140 cross over to Singapore. Hence, the tourism enclave is perpetuated by the more powerful Singapore, to control the flows of people to and from Riau islands. I will further postulate that this view of Bintan is then translated from the tourism authority’s authorities’ and resort developers’ minds into the minds of tourists, via firstly, via promotional brochures and/or tourism literature and secondly in how the resort area is physically structured to be away from the rest of the island, and also via promotional brochures and/or tourism literature. This then in turn, has an effect on the tourists’ way of thinking about Bintan, whereby they (literally and figuratively) see the resort area as separate from the rest of the island. The point that this thesis is making is that social control is present even before tourists arrive on Bintan Island because tourism brochures and guidebooks inevitably have an effect on how tourists perceive a place, which will subsequently affect how they behave in it. The second part of the thesis deals more with the micro aspect of the enclave, and have has shown how these tourists then take this mental separation of the ‘resort’ from the ‘other’ (side of the island) to negotiate their way around the various parts of the island, inside and outside the resort area. It shows that even when the tourists from the resort are out of the ‘enclave’, they still fall under the control of the resort’s enclavity operators in terms of the types of places they visit or and the sights they see. Subsequently, the theoretical framework used for this later part is the combination of ‘tourism as power’ with the concept of ‘tourism as performance’ to show the struggles that take place within tourism between tourists and locals on the island. The resort is 141 shown to be a site of social control as well as an agent of social control, directing the way tourists and staff at the resort act amongst each other and between the two groups. Studies which are about the Riau Islands have focused mainly on the economic aspects of the island vis-à-vis Singapore or the development of the Bintan Beach International Resort. This thesis in turn looks at the resort and its impacts with a more humanistic approach. Tourists’ experiences with the island are examined through the use of ‘tourism as power’ and ‘tourism as performance’ as conceptual lenses. The ‘tourism as power’ lens enable us to see the various inequalities in tourism, of how the local islanders on Bintan were removed in order to construct the resort and were also excluded when it came to its operational aspects. We saw in Chapter 3 how the flows of tourism capital and Indonesian labour work to limit local islander opportunities and restrict not only their physical movement but also socioeconomic mobility. The ‘tourism as power’ concept continues in Chapter 4, when I showed how the enclavic nature of the resort maintains its boundaries in two ways – via the physical landscape where there is a distinctive separation of the resort’s vegetation from the rest of the island, as well as in intangible ways vis-à-vis the immigration procedures and tourist promotion methods. This power then in turn affects interactions between tourists themselves and also tourists and the locals. I have likened these interactions to performances, with the various roles of hosts and guests involved and Bintan Island as the stage. Thus using the ‘tourism as performance’ lens, I showed how generally, there is limited engagement between tourists and the locals due to certain biases which affects the 142 way they treat and behave towards each other. In all such interactions, whoever has the power gets to dictate the conditions in which interactions take place. Even though tourists are commonly viewed as having more power because they are financially better off, the conclusion drawn is that the tourists in the resort are clearly under the control of the resort; this can become even more evident when they venture outside of it. 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Resort makes a unique case study for resort tourism as the enclavic nature of the resort goes beyond its physical boundaries I will utilize the two concepts of tourism as power and tourism as performance to show how the separating of the resort area of Bintan from the rest of the island has an effect on the way tourists, as well as residents, behave amongst themselves 19 as well as with each other... as a case study, I will be arguing that the resort functions as a tourism peripheral area to Singapore’s core area The thesis will go further to argue that this relationship, like most relationships in tourism, involves the use of power, and that the resort functions as a site as well as an agent of social control The thesis focuses on the tourists’ experiences of the island: how they view Bintan as. .. second concept that I will be utilizing will be that of tourism as performance This will be linked with the first concept of tourism as power to show the struggles that take place within tourism between tourists and locals residents on the island 2.2 PERFORMANCE IN TOURISM: LOCATING SOCIAL CONTROL Studies on social and cultural theory of tourism have focused mainly on the discourse, mythology and... thesis, tourism performance is used as a framework to build upon the vast actions and inactions of tourists Performance here can be seen as a partly semiotic approach which MacCannell (1976) and Urry (2002) used in their studies of cultural tourism What differs here is how this approach places more emphasis on how touristic practices are performed and how they intersect with everyday life The performance. .. Frank), which emphasize the marginalization of the powerless and the recreation of relationships to establish a dependency These ideas have been used fruitfully by Mowforth and Munt (1998) in regards to tourism developments They suggest that the global expansion of capitalism has drawn the Third World into increasingly tight economic relationships with the First World, and tourism, has been a significant... domination Nash (1989) argues that tourism only exists in so much as the metropolitan core generates the demand for tourism and the tourists themselves He concludes that ‘it is this power over touristic and related developments abroad that makes a metropolitan centre imperialistic and tourism a form of imperialism’ (Nash, 1989:35) In the same light, Bruner (1989) argues that colonialism and tourism are... ‘outsiders’ are defined as the tourism authorities of both Singapore and Indonesia, the private enterprises that are in charge of developing the resort area, as well as the tourists who visit the resort area The discussions so far have indicated that domination/subordination, i.e power, is the central theme in modern day tourism The lack of power is most often used to critique Third World tourism (for example... said to characterise mass tourism As Britton (1987) argues, Third World countries need to move beyond mass tourism and 27 develop alternative forms, where there is a promotion of local ownership of tourism resources, creation of local employment and solutions to the ‘leakage’ of foreign exchange from the economy This thesis has chosen to focus more on the enclavic nature of the tourism process with... to occasionally use covert research methods through participant observation By covert research, I mean that my identity as a social researcher was not disclosed This was done so as to not initially affect the types of conversation that were exchanged between myself and the various people I interviewed, for I was concerned that some people may not be as comfortable being a ‘research subject’ than as a... accounts of tourists’ experiences with the resort and/or island as a whole – and how their perceptions of the island are being shaped and influenced by existing tourism promotional literature, as well as how these perceptions are being perpetuated by the staff of the resort and sometimes by the locals on the island 20 Chapter 2 TOURISM AS POWER & PERFORMANCE 2.1 PERIPHERIES & ENCLAVES The idea of ‘periphery’ ... concept of power, or more accurately power differential, brings about many diverse and complex issues in tourism This thesis utilizes the two concepts of tourism as power and tourism as performance ... – SINGAPORE’S PLEASURE PERIPHERY This thesis deals with the concepts of tourism as power and tourism as performance I will look at how the power, inherently found in the tourism context,... concepts of tourism as power and tourism as performance to show how the separating of the resort area of Bintan from the rest of the island has an effect on the way tourists, as well as residents,