Tài liệu hạn chế xem trước, để xem đầy đủ mời bạn chọn Tải xuống
1
/ 96 trang
THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Thông tin cơ bản
Định dạng
Số trang
96
Dung lượng
776,94 KB
Nội dung
Chapter 1
Introduction
Online interactions may seem impoverished, “lacking” intra‐linguistic
features such as tones and paralinguistic features such as gaze, hand gestures
and facial expressions when compared to face‐to‐face interactions. The rise
of instant messaging (IM) attests to the fact that people are able to
communicate online despite this “lack”. Far from being limited or
impoverished, this online medium is rich with possibilities as users continue
to adapt and use the resources creatively. Werry (1996:47) captured the
essence of conversations in this relatively new medium aptly:
[Interactive written discourse] provides fertile ground for
analysis since it makes possible interesting forms of social and
linguistic interaction, brings into play a unique set of temporal,
spatial and social dimensions, reconfigures many of the
parameters that determine important aspects of how
communicative acts are structured…
Anderson, Beard & Walther (2010) have also noted that people adapt to new
forms of communication, the media enriched by the users’ creativity to
harness a radically different set of resources to successfully negotiate
interactions online.
1
Much of the research done on online interactions deals with the social or
linguistic aspects of CMC. Comparatively, fewer studies have concentrated on
the structural aspects of IM specifically. This thesis belongs in the last field,
and concerns itself with how interaction is achieved in online conversations.
With the resources available, how are online conversations organized? What
are some of the potential trouble sources and how are they resolved?
Situated in the tradition of conversation analysis (CA), this research aims to
discover and present patterns of interaction in online conversations
pertaining to the structural aspects of conversations in IM. In particular, we
will see how MSN users continue to build on and use organization strategies
employed in face‐to‐face interactions and where regular use is disrupted due
to the constraints within the CMC mode, adapt and find new ways to achieve
the same end.
The data is obtained from a closed group of nine people who meet in person
regularly. They were instructed to auto‐archive their online conversations on
the popular IM programme MSN Messenger for this study. Each archived
conversation is a transcript, a copy of how talk unfolded for at least one of
the participants in the conversation.
The transcripts were read and where the conversation does not flow or make
sense, an explanation was sought by appealing to a variety of theories and
analytic tools found in textual analysis or conversation analysis. The analyses
were done mostly by observation. Features unique to online conversations
2
were documented, making note of what was available and what MSN users
were using them for.
In the next chapter, look at what past research has uncovered about
structural features of IM. Data collection and preliminary problems in dealing
with the available data will be discussed in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, we would
look more closely the concept of turns and how they are split into smaller
units in speech (Chafe’s intonation units), then in IM (transmission units). The
organizational functions of transmission units will also be explored. In
Chapter 5, we will explore if the concept of “overlap” is relevant to IM in
MSN. If they do, what are some of the resources that users employ to make
sense of and repair overlapping talk? Following that, we will also see how
other kinds of repair are done online with the resources available as
compared to face‐to‐face conversation.
We will visit, in the next chapter, a brief overview of earlier studies dealing
with computer‐mediated communication (CMC) in general then specifically in
IM.
3
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Much of the computer‐mediated communication (CMC) research on online
interactions places emphasis on the social impact of CMC on real life
interpersonal relationships and interactions. Baym (1995) has written on the
emergence and maintenance of a community through CMC. Specific studies
have looked at the use of CMC and how it affects or changes group making
decisions (see Bates et al., 2002), perception of others (see Tidwell &
Walther, 2002) and presentation of self (see Walther, 2007) as compared to
face‐to‐face interactions.
Another area of research in CMC concentrate on the kind of language used in
CMC interactions by a particular group (e.g. American college students) or
across groups (see Prinsen, Volman & Terwel (2007) on gender‐related
differences), many of which are context‐specific, taking place in the
workplace (see Isaacs et al., 2002 and Luor et al., 2010) or classroom (see
Kinzie, Whitaker & Hofer, 2005).
Few studies have concentrated on the structural aspects of IM specifically.
Below are some of them that undergird this paper, dealing with the
organisational aspects of online talk such as turn‐taking and construction of
messages or turns.
4
2.1 Transmission Unit: A Structural Feature
Every text has its building blocks. A text is made up of smaller chunks or
constituents. In grammatical analysis, the concepts of sentence, clause,
phrase and word are used to describe these units. This presupposes that
there is a way of identifying these units or where they break off in the larger
text.
Baron (2010), while investigating whether the structural features of IM is
more like that of spoken language or paradigmatic written language, noted
that IM exchanges are broken down into small transmission units (with an
average transmission length of 5.4 words) by the users themselves. She
observed that entire utterances, complete sentences are broken down by
users themselves and sent as separate smaller units to other participants of
the conversation.
The same phenomenon is observed in the MSN conversations collected in
this study. While Baron (2010) was concerned with the grammatical
relationships between the break pairs (the two chunks 1 or constituents which
are separated by a break), this study attempts to relate the “transmission
unit” to concepts already present in CA. Where do these lines break? What
do these boundaries mark? How are they related to the notions of turns and
turn transitions units?
1
Baron (2010) refers to each chunk as a transmission unit.
5
The purpose of the short transmission units have generally been attributed to
ease of decoding on the part of the recipient. Short transmissions require
shorter processing time, which in turn makes for shorter time lag between
responses. Anderson, Beard & Walther (2010) attributes this to the “no gap,
no overlap” required of face‐to‐face conversations, where gaps of more than
3 seconds are considered socially awkward (McLaughlin, 1984).
Besides the practical reason of speed of exchanges, there seems to be some
relationship between punctuation (in written texts), pauses (in spoken
discourse) and the breaks (in IM). In written text, punctuations are to mark
boundaries. When these texts are read, places of punctuation are indicated
by their appropriate length of pauses. In the cases of question marks and
exclamation marks, they even indicate emotive intensity and function of
utterance, signaled by appropriate intonation.
Halliday (2004) noted the absence of punctuation in the transcription of
spoken language into the written from for corpus. The same absence is
observed in MSN conversations. It will be reasonable to think that these
transition units are thus divided for purposes of punctuation. Also, the
average length of 5.4 words per transmission unit in IM (Baron 2010) is
comparable to Chafe’s notion of intonation units (IUs) of roughly 5 words in
face‐to‐face conversation (Chafe 1987).
By looking at the functions of intonation units, this study hopes to shed light
6
on the question: Why should information be packed this way (i.e. into short
lines when other longer alternatives are certainly possible)? In addition, we
observe see certain communicative actions like laughter and hesitation being
done as separate transmission units. We will explore the purposes of
transmission units through the aid of the speech act theory (Searle, 1975).
2.2. Talk Management
A preliminary look at the archived IM conversations can prove to be
confusing. Garcia and Jacobs (1999) noted that in quasi‐synchronous IM,
“messages do not display an orientation to their sequential placement in the
conversation.” This is because the participants do have any access to what
the other parties might be doing – constructing a response to previous
utterance, reading and catching up on previous utterances etc. With short
transmission units coinciding with possible turn transition units, there is
always a possibility that the next speaker self‐selects and makes a response
before the current speaker actually finishes his intended turn or utterance.
To complicate matters, participants are usually multi‐tasking when signed on
to the IM programme at their terminals (Anderson, Beard & Walther, 2010),
it might take a while before the next speaker provides the appropriate
response to prior utterances. In the lapse, other participants may interject
and move on away from the current topic.
As a result a highly complex and intertwined dialogue may result. Werry’s
(1996) study on interactions on the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) reported:
7
“The kind of sequencing contrasts significantly with that of oral
discourse, as well as to most forms of written discourse…this
leads to rapid shifts in topic, and also to a greater chance of
separate conversations intertwining.”
Though temporal overlap is impossible in one‐way CMC like IM on MSN,
overlaps and interruptions in sequences, adjacency pairs and topics occur
frequently. Herring (2006) found that users within IM situations and
conversation analysts dealing with IM transcripts appeal to notions of
coherence, turn completions and topic achievements to make sense of
intertwined talk. In the later chapters of this thesis, we will see how these
overlaps and interruptions look like on MSN exchanges and what resources
the speakers have or depend on to resolve such disruptions.
Prior to any analysis, we will take a brief look at the development of instant
messaging and some features of the archived MSN conversations collected in
Chapter 3.
8
Chapter 3
Data
3.1 Instant Messaging and MSN
Early studies of online interactions derive their data from the chat rooms of
the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) (see Werry (1996), Rintel, Mulholland & Pittam
(2001)). While there was a main channel for interaction among all users in
one chat room, individuals could also choose to communicate with specific
users, one on one. Since then IM developed and gained popularity in
Singapore first through ICQ (I‐Seek‐You) (see Lim 2001) then to the IM service
on The Microsoft Network (MSN). MSN now co‐exists with Yahoo IM, Skype
(for IM and LAN calls) and Facebook 2 chat as the main means through which
users interact online.
MSN is a one‐way system 3 (Herring, 2006) mode of CMC. An entire
transmission unit is sent each time the user chooses to do so. Real time
construction of a transmission unit is not displayed in the conversation
window. The programme is designed for “quasi‐synchronous” (not
completely synchronous, since the construction of transmission units is not
shown as it is being constructed) interactions though asynchronous
exchanges are possible.
2
Facebook is an online social network.
A one‐way system is contrasted with a two‐way system. In a two‐way system,
participants can see an utterance in construction, keystroke by keystroke. For a study of
two‐way system mode of CMC, see Baron (2010).
3
9
Figure 1 displays a typical MSN chat window. This is a chat session between
two parties ♪ `lexophile and a bittersweet life as viewed by a bittersweet life.
The nickname and sub‐nickname of the other party is displayed at the top of
the window. This makes for clear indication when a user toggles between
chat windows and maintains separate conversations with different parties
who are logged on to the network. ♪ `lexophile’s status is displayed on the
chat window and may be changed in the course of a conversation between
“available”, “busy”, “away”, “(appearing) offline”, “out to lunch”, “on the
phone” among others, and it informs a bittersweet life about ♪ `lexophile’s
level of engagement in conversation.
The chat log displays the messages that are exchanged between the parties
as received at the user’s terminal. This is accompanied by a scroll bar near
the right margin for users to scroll upwards and view prior exchanges. The
text box is the space designated for users to construct messages. As MSN is a
one‐way system, the process of message construction is not shown to the
other parties at their terminals.
A toolbar is located just above the text box for the user to use predisposed
emoticons, nudges or other animated actions (or “winks”, e.g. rolling on the
floor laughing), change their font colour or customize the backdrop display of
the chat window.
10
Figure 1: A Typical Chat Window
1
2
Labels
1 nickname
2 sub‐nickname
3 status
4 chat log
5 display pictures
6 text box
7 toolbar
a) emoticon
b) winks
c) nudge
d) voice‐clip
e) font
f) font colour
g) wallpaper/
background
3
4
5
7
6
11
3.2 Data Collection
The data were collected from users of Microsoft Network (MSN) and its
Messenger services. This web‐based programme was chosen because of its
widespread use for social interaction in cyberspace. In addition, it also
provides an auto‐archive function that enables users to save all online
conversations in their entirety (as text) on their computer hard‐disks when the
option is activated.
However, the version number of the MSN programme and the type of
terminals used by the subjects were not taken into account when the data
were recorded. Users may have used different versions (but still compatible
nonetheless) to record their data separately on their computer terminals.
A call to participate in the research drew a group of nine subjects all of whom
are youths or young adults between 15 and 26 years of age. They belong to a
youth group in church (which I co‐mentor with another volunteer) and meet
face‐to‐face at least once a week. The participants consist of five males and
four females, all Singaporeans and ethnically Chinese. Under the influence of
the bilingual education system in Singapore, they are capable of conversing in
both English and Mandarin Chinese colloquially, though notably less frequent
in Mandarin. Among their friends, their language of choice is English. At the
time of data collection, the youngest of them was in Secondary Three and the
oldest was an undergraduate.
12
They were asked to engage in online interaction via MSN Messenger as per
normal with the auto‐archive function activated. They were then asked to
voluntarily retrieve these online interactions from their archives, censoring
sensitive information that the participants might want to protect. The
retrieved data were then sent to the researcher at the convenience of the
participants (e.g. online file sending, e‐mail attachment, data transfer via a
portable hard drive).
Data collection started on 15 December 2008 and ended on 30 June 2009. The
total number of conversations obtained was 80, all of which are text‐based
synchronous online interactions. The number of files collected from each
participant varied from 1 to 51, with 78 being two‐party conversations and
two files being multi‐party conversations. One of the two multi‐party sessions
involved only two terminals A and B, with various people taking turns at A to
communicate with the same person at B. A was simultaneously transmitting
images from a web camera to B. The total number of transmission units
exchanged over 80 files is 7724, excluding file sending and MSN system
messages. A sample of an archived conversation is shown on the following
page.
13
Sample extract of recorded data
Original
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (11:59 PM):
i want to watch red cliff 2!
a bittersweet life says (12:13 AM):
I never watch Red Cliff 1 leh
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:13 AM):
ahya
a bittersweet life says (12:13 AM):
LOL
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:13 AM):
wasyed
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:14 AM):
wasted*
Formatted for labeling purposes
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (11:59 PM):
nicknames
i want to watch red cliff 2!
a bittersweet life says (12:13 AM):
I never watch Red Cliff 1 leh
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:13 AM):
timestamp
ahya
responses
(different font colours)
a bittersweet life says (12:13 AM):
LOL
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:13 AM):
wasyed
★Starsparkx in s2★ says (12:14 AM):
wasted*
14
3.3 Initial Problems With and Evaluations of Archived Conversations
There were several problems that emerged as I worked with the archived
interactions. The first was the lack of detailed and necessary information,
usually present and available in transcripts for analysis in the face‐to‐face
conversations. The archived online conversations were retrieved from
different machines using different versions of MSN. Although the different
versions are still compatible with one another, the recorded data varied with
regard to the amount of detail that was recorded. For example, the version
used with the MacBook had timestamps down to the seconds whereas the
versions used with most other personal computers had it down only to the
minute.
The archived conversation preserved primarily the textual elements. Most of
the emoticons and small animated clips were not captured. In their place, a
blank turn is documented. The final textual exchange is captured with no
access to the time taken for production.
Working with the constraints, this study focuses on the aspects of
conversation that are not so dependent on these factors such as sequences,
structure of exchanges, repair. Perhaps, a useful question to address at the
end of this study is: How do available forms of archiving limit the extent to
which meaningful conversation analysis can be done for online
conversations?
15
The second problem pertains to the completeness of the chat logs. Machines
and networks are susceptible to disruptions. There are instances where
messages are not delivered to the intended recipient due to bad connection
or a random technical error. This would mean that some of the conversations
archived might not be ‘complete’ in the sense that it is not the same as what
the participants had intended.
MSN has a feedback system that informs the sender that their messages
“could not be sent”. But even this feedback system fails from time to time. As
a MSN user myself, I have experienced instances where problems arise in
interactions due to missing messages which are unaccounted for.
One way to verify this would be to get the archived conversation from all the
parties involved to get an idea of what was intended by all the participants.
This was not done in this study because an archived conversation is still a
documentation of how the talk unfolded for one of the participants. It would
still be interesting to see how the participants come to realize that they are
not receiving all the messages that the other party is sending, if such an
occasion were to arise.
The third problem relates to the amount of context needed to make sense of
a conversation. The data collected for this study is from a closed‐group of
youths who already know each other. The online conversation is a mode of
communication, an extension of social activity, a spillover from real life
16
interaction for them. This means that they may refer to events that they have
participated in or witnessed. It also means that they know each other
personally, including but not limited to their personal styles, tones, flair,
preference of rhetorics (sacarsm, humour, hyperbole etc.). This knowledge
aids them in making pragmatic sense of each other’s utterances.
It is unclear at this point how much of their interpersonal relations need to be
brought in to make sense of the data from the researcher’s point of view. The
participants are available for clarification of data when the need arises. This
issue will be kept in the background and will be revisited at the end of the
study to see if it is indeed pertinent.
17
Chapter 4
The transmission unit as basic organization unit
4.1 The transmission unit as basic organization unit
How exchanges work on MSN
The MSN user engages in conversation by typing words on the screen in the
designated textbox (see Figure 1). S/he presses the ENTER button to send the
prepared message across to the intended recipient(s). Each ENTER places the
message on a new line.
An observation: ‘Redundancy’
In the excerpt below, the 3 consecutive lines by eunice occur in rapid
succession (3 lines in one minute) and can very well appear a single,
undivided chunk in the conversation.
(1)
a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM):
the secular songs are our pursuits of the world: friends, love, school, country,
lifestyles etc.
a bittersweet life says (11:13 PM):
we give up the song soon after because we realize these things are not satisfying,
we're still lost
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
wow
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
nice concept
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
who came up with it?
___________________________________________
This ‘redundancy’ is observed frequently in the collected data and not just in
extended narrative sequences (e.g. recollecting of an anecdote). We see
another example of it in the next excerpt.
18
(2)
a bittersweet life says (11:03 PM):
how was your posting?
mabel says (11:03 PM):
oh got into np!(:
mabel says (11:03 PM):
chinese media and communication
mabel says (11:03 PM):
hahah
a bittersweet life says (11:03 PM):
haha!
np: Ngee Ann Polytechnic
___________________________________________
The message exchanges tend to be short, despite the fact that the medium is
fully capable of carrying and sending longer messages (up to 400 characters
per message). There are instances, as exemplified by the above 2 excerpts,
when pressing ENTER several times seems to be redundant. These short lines
or transmission units are created by deliberate action of the participants
even though they have the resources to give longer responses. In other
words, the participants have the option of presenting their separate short
lines in a longer single line instead. Unless the chunking serves a particular
function, the breaks are superfluous.
The transmission units are observable structural units in the archived
conversation. Since the creation of these units (pressing of the ENTER key)
require deliberate action by the participants, it will be interesting to take a
closer look at where the lines break off, why they break off where they break
off and consider what these might mean for online conversations.
Taking the transmission units as the basic unit of organization unit in the
19
archived conversations, we will first look at what characteristics these units
have and what functions the units serve.
4.2 Transmission Units – What do they do?
The placement of the line breaks is not arbitrary. There are structural and
functional principles at work here, sometimes simultaneously in the
organization of online talk.
Syntax
(3)
a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM):
the secular songs are our pursuits of the world: friends, love, school, country,
lifestyles etc.
a bittersweet life says (11:13 PM):
we give up the song soon after because we realize these things are not satisfying,
we're still lost
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
wow
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
nice concept
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
who came up with it?
___________________________________________
In the brief exchange above, we see eunice breaking up her transmission
units at word (wow), phrasal (nice concept) and sentential (who came up
with it?) boundaries. A transmission unit minimally consists of a word. Going
through the data, the transmission unit cuts off at a variety of places: word,
phrasal, clausal and sentential boundaries. These 4 boundaries correspond to
the possible turn transition places raised by Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson
(1974) where speaker changes have been observed.
Though most of data the do not deviate much from these boundaries, there
20
are exceptions. In excerpt (3) above, we see that a bittersweet life’s second
transmission unit consists of 3 clauses, which is quite rare.
Punctuation and Intonation Units
The absence of punctuation is striking in the data. When punctuation does
occur, the distribution is not equal. The question mark is used most
consistently to mark an interrogative and exclamation marks, to indicate
more heightened emotions (i.e. excitement, shock, elation). The transmission
unit breaks seem to take on the function of punctuation (like the comma or a
full stop), to break up a longer utterance into smaller manageable structural
units 4 .
Halliday (2004) writing about transcribing the spoken language into the
written form for corpus, noticed the absence of punctuation:
It is ironical that many of the transcription systems abandoned
the one feature of writing that gives some indication of those
prosodies [the melody and rhythm of speech], namely
punctuation. … [punctuation] now usually embodies a
compromise between the prosodic and the compositional
(constituent) dimensions of grammatical structure; but it does
give a significant amount of prosodic information.
4
We also observe that in longer lines (lines that consist of more than one sentence),
punctuation (mostly the comma) is likely to be found.
21
The function of punctuation, as suggested by Halliday, marks constituent
units and provides prosodic information. The instant messages are similar to
transcripts in this aspect, where participants’ talk is presented in print.
Punctuations seem to be abandoned in online talk, as seen in the archived
conversations but we also see that the transmission unit breaks are marking
constituent units at the word, phrasal, clausal and sentential levels.
Also, Baron (2010) noticed that the average length of 5.4 words per
transmission unit in IM is comparable to Chafe’s notion of intonation units
(IUs) of roughly 5 words in face‐to‐face conversation (Chafe 1987). Chafe
(1987, 1994) argues that prosodic units (intonation units or IUs) are
cognitively motivated, that the observed IUs are shorter than a clause and
represents the limitation on the amount of information that speakers and
listeners can deal with at one time. Do transmission units represent the same
limitation? If talk online is “edited” rather than “spontaneous”, “read” rather
than “heard” (Garcia & Jacobs, 1999), prior information can be retrieved by
scrolling up chat log and consulting the earlier exchanges. Why are
transmission units generally short, comparable to the length of IUs?
Efficiency of Lines and Information Packaging
As mentioned in Section 4.1, the transmission units are usually short and
there are a couple of pragmatic reasons for this:
22
1. There is already a time lag between thinking and typing, the
programme (based on the principles of word processing) makes
editing possible before the messages are finally sent out by the user.
Keeping the transmission units short would cut down the time spent
by the participants in waiting for the current speaker to complete
his/her response.
2. Short transmission units facilitate fast and easy reading, reducing the
time required for the next speaker to make a response. The short
lines allow information to be packed in a way that it is digestible and
easily accessible by participants in the conversation.
In other words, the short transmission units (like the IUs) could represent the
limitation on the amount of information that speakers and listeners can deal
with at one time in the text‐based interactional medium.
On Information and Information Status
Prince (1981: 224) wrote on conveying and packaging of information in
language:
The crucial factor appears to be the tailoring of an utterance
by a sender to meet the particular assumed needs of the
intended receiver. That is, information packaging in natural
language reflects the sender’s hypotheses about the receiver’s
23
assumptions and beliefs and strategies.
Brown & Yule (1983:155) presenting the Hallidayan view of information
organization in spoken discourse, wrote:
According to Halliday, the speaker is obliged to chunk his
speech into information units. He has to present his message
in a series of packages. He is, however, ‘free to decide where
each information unit begins and ends, and how it is organized
internally’. … Information units are directly realized in speech
as tone groups. … The speaker distributes the quanta of
information he wishes to express into this phonologically
defined unit.
Halliday supposed that one of the functions of intonation in
English is to mark off which information the speaker is treating
as new and which information the speaker is treating as given.
He was particularly concerned to specify the organization of
information within spoken English and to relate this
organization to phonological realization, especially to
intonation.
Although text‐based conversations have similarities with spoken discourse ,
the phonological and tonal aspects are not captured in the former. Since
24
there is still a need to package information in text‐based conversation, there
must be some other resource. Based on its similarity to the IUs purported by
Chafe, it seems then that the break points in MSN conversation could be the
boundaries that mark information units, and the short transmission units
function as an information packaging strategy. What one chooses to include
(or exclude) in a transmission unit, what is to be placed in a unit is significant
and clues into the speaker’s perceived needs of the intended recipient.
While the Hallidayan model of information structure is based on prosodic
features, Prince (1981) developed it on the syntactic resources. She focused
on reference chains (necessarily restricting it to noun phrases) in particular
and found correlations between the speaker‐perceived information status
(new, inferrable and evoked entities) and the syntactic forms (e.g.
definite/indefinite expressions, pronominals, pro‐verbals) that speakers
employ.
Consider the earlier excerpt which was raised as an example of ‘redundancy’.
Taking eunice’s short transmission units as strategies for information
packaging, we can see her perceived needs of the recipient a bittersweet life
and in turn gain insight into information units in online conversations.
(4)
a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM):
the secular songs are our pursuits of the world: friends, love, school, country,
lifestyles etc.
25
(4 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (11:13 PM):
we give up the song soon after because we realize these things are not satisfying,
we're still lost
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
wow
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
nice concept
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
who came up with it?
___________________________________________
The two participants are discussing a recorded performance that they have
both heard recently. A bittersweet life gives an interpretation on the
presentation of the piece in the first two transmission units here. eunice
responds with “wow”, “nice concept” and “who came up with it?” in quick
succession.
The one distinct reference chain starts with “nice concept” and ends with
“it”. Using Prince’s taxonomy of information status, the analysis is presented
in the table below:
Expression
(a) nice
concept
Form
Information Status
(a) (+property) X Inferable entities
(referring to the content that a
bittersweet life was articulating in the
first 2 lines)
Pronominal
Evoked entities: textual – current
It
The antecedent (first mention) “nice concept” takes the form of “(+property)
X” where “nice” is the property that is attributed to the noun “concept”.
eunice was using this noun phrase to encapsulate the content that a
bittersweet life was articulating directly before this turn, which puts this noun
phrase into the category of “inferable entities”.
26
The next mention of “nice concept” took the pronominal form “it” in the
following transmission unit. Having just been mentioned, this noun phrase is
current and still active in the minds of the speaker and falls under the
category of “evoked entities”, its referent textual rather than contextual.
Since information status is dependent on the perceived needs of the listener
(or recipient), then from eunice’s point of view, she separated first mention
and subsequent mention into two transmission units. The explicit form used
in the first mention indicates that this piece of information is considered
“new information”. The pronominal form used in the second mention
indicates that eunice took “nice concept” to be “old information”, still active
in the mind of a bittersweet life.
As further evidence that the transmission unit is (at least partially)
dependent on information status, the analysis of another excerpt is
presented below.
In this excerpt, a bittersweet life is enquiring about mabel’s school posting
results and mabel uses 3 transmission units “oh got into np!(:”, “chinese
media and communication” and “hahah” to complete her response.
(5)
a bittersweet life says (11:03 PM):
how was your posting?
mabel says (11:03 PM):
oh got into np!(:
27
(5 cont’d)
mabel says (11:03 PM):
chinese media and communication
mabel says (11:03 PM):
hahah
a bittersweet life says (11:03 PM):
haha!
___________________________________________
The reference chains are:
Entity
Referring expressions
mabel (the person)
your
(I)
(used by a bittersweet (elided by mabel
life)
herself)
posting/school
np
chinese media and
(full form = Ngee Ann
communication
Polytechnic)
Reference Chain 1 – mabel (the person)
Expression
Form
Information Status
Your
Pronominal
Evoked entity: situational (defined by
context)
(I)
Pronominal
Evoked entity: situational (defined by
context)
The reference chain for the entity mabel (the person) is not of interest here
as the two referring expressions were used by two different participants and
necessarily placed in separate transmission units. Instead, we focus on the
next reference chain, where the two referring expressions for the same
referent were used by the same participant in separate transmission units.
Reference Chain 2 – posting / school
Expression
Form
Information Status
np
proper noun
New entity: brand new
(Ngee Ann Polytechnic)
(definite)
chinese media and
proper noun
Inferable entity
communication
(definite)
(a specific course in the school)
In response to a bittersweet life’s question “how was your posting?”, mabel
28
replied in two separate transmission units “oh got into np! (:” and “chinese
media and communication”. Using Prince’s model of taxonomy of
information status, the noun phrase “np” (an abbreviation for the proper
noun Ngee Ann Polytechnic) is perceived by mabel as brand new information
for a bittersweet life. The next noun phrase in the reference chain “chinese
media and communication”, which also pertains to mabel’s school posting, is
considered an inferable entity, since “np” has just been brought up earlier
and the connection between the course and the school is easily established.
Both Halliday and Prince’s models place emphasis on noun phrases,
overlooking the other elements in the sentences, utterance or discourse. A
transmission unit is not always made up of a noun phrase (NP) (e.g. eunice’s
“wow” and mabel’s “hahah”). In other words, Prince’s taxonomy of
information status is not sufficient in accounting for all of the data on
transmission units here, since some of them are not purely constituted by
noun phrases. If the transmission unit corresponds to a unit of information,
then what do the other elements (non‐NP elements) in the unit do? What
purpose does the entire unit serve?
Transmission Unit: Function and Action
In the excerpt below, ervine responds to a bittersweet life’s question and
does another transmission unit consecutively, with a single word “myself”
following from “scold la”.
29
(6)
a bittersweet life says (1:08 AM):
wah, why your sub-nick so fierce?
ervine; says (1:09 AM):
scold la
ervine; says (1:09 AM):
myself
a bittersweet life says (1:10 AM):
why?
ervine; says (1:10 AM):
always scared i scratch my racket
sub‐nick: sub‐nickname
___________________________________________
This excerpt leads us to a possible explanation of what the chunking or the
units serve to do – the transmission units reflect what the speaker wants to
do with talk. ervine’s first transmission unit is a direct response, an answer to
a bittersweet life’s question. His second transmission unit is appended to his
first to clarify (probably as an afterthought) that he was the object and target
of his scolding, the content of which is displayed on his sub‐nickname 5 on
MSN.
The packaging strategy facilitates the fulfillment of the intended function in a
way that is efficient and sufficient. In this case, ervine’s next unit takes on the
function of clarification. It was necessary and a single word was sufficient to
fulfill this function.
Each transmission unit takes on a function intended by the speaker. We also
see strong evidence of that in the way laughter and hesitation is presented in
5
Sub‐nicknames are not captured in the archived conversations.
30
the archived conversations. Overwhelmingly, laughter and hesitations are
placed as separate transmission units, as shown in excerpts (7) to (10).
Laughter
(7)
a bittersweet life says (11:44 PM):
come back to it when you're older
a bittersweet life says (11:45 PM):
haha
♪ `lexophile says (11:45 PM):
i'll take it as they never had authorial intent.
a bittersweet life says (11:45 PM):
or maybe it's just that some ppl are hard-wired that way
a bittersweet life says (11:45 PM):
LOL
♪ `lexophile says (11:45 PM):
eh i've done john donne okay.
♪ `lexophile says (11:45 PM):
lol.
ppl: people
___________________________________________
In excerpt (7), all the instances of laughter (haha, LOL, lol) are done by the
current speaker, broken off from the previous line and placed as a separate
transmission unit.
Hesitation
In excerpts (8) to (10), all the instances of hesitation start a turn in response
to a question or suggestion by the previous speaker. Whatever follows the
hesitation (er, erm, hmm, hmmm) is placed in the next transmission unit.
(8)
a bittersweet life says (1:27 AM):
when was that post again?
♪ `lexophile says (1:27 AM):
erm
♪ `lexophile says (1:27 AM):
juno 2006
31
(8 cont’d)
♪ `lexophile says (1:27 AM):
*june
a bittersweet life says (1:29 AM):
he lived somewhere near me
___________________________________________
(9)
a bittersweet life says (8:52 PM):
I think we're going to talk to him
a bittersweet life says (8:53 PM):
or you want to do it 1st?
♪ `lexophile says (8:54 PM):
hm
♪ `lexophile says (8:55 PM):
let me think
___________________________________________
(10)
♪ `lexophile says (12:45 AM):
yeah you write something lah
♪ `lexophile says (12:45 AM):
lol
a bittersweet life says (12:45 AM):
er.......
a bittersweet life says (12:46 AM):
no lah
a bittersweet life says (12:46 AM):
I sti;ll do prose
a bittersweet life says (12:46 AM):
*still
♪ `lexophile says (12:46 AM):
maybe you could make us do langsong
a bittersweet life says (12:54 AM):
hmmm....
a bittersweet life says (12:54 AM):
maybe, see how lah
langsong: hanyu pinyin for a chinese lexical item, meaning ‘recital’
___________________________________________
As demonstrated in excerpts (6) through (10), the way the transmission units
break off from subsequent units seems to suggest that the units serve a
communicative function, much like that of speech acts.
Austin is known for his influential work Doing Things with Words. He noticed
32
that some utterance do not have stable meaning across different contexts. In
order to understand how the same utterance can mean different things in
different context, he proposed three levels of meaning for analysis of
utterances ‐ the locutionary, the illocutionary and the perlocutionary force.
The locutionary force of an utterance is its literal or surface meaning, the
content of what is being said. The illocutionary force refers to the real or
intended meaning of the utterance and the perlocutionary force is the effect
of the illocution the hearer (Thomas, 1995).
Searle (1975) further classified illocutionary acts into 5 classes:
1. Representatives (or assertives)
When uttered, they commit the speaker to something
being the case.
2. Directives
These utterances are aimed at making the hearer perform
a (desired) action.
3. Commissives
They commit the speaker to doing something in the future
(e.g. “I promise to…”)
4. Expressives
They express attitudes, how the speaker feels about a
person or situation.
5. Declarations
These utterances change the state of the world in an
33
immediate way (e.g. naming, sentencing)
We revisit the earlier excerpt but instead of analysing it with an interest in
information status, we look at the function, the illocutionary act of each of
eunice’s transmission units. By doing so, I am proposing that the transmission
units are thus broken because each unit does a separate illocutionary act.
(11)
a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM):
the secular songs are our pursuits of the world: friends, love, school, country,
lifestyles etc.
a bittersweet life says (11:13 PM):
we give up the song soon after because we realize these things are not satisfying,
we're still lost
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
wow
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
nice concept
eunice. says (11:14 PM):
who came up with it?
___________________________________________
According to Searle’s taxonomy of illocutionary speech acts (Searle 1975),
eunice’s response can be classified as follows:
Transmission Unit
wow
Speech Act
an expressive
nice concept
a representative
Function
to express
awe/admiration
to provide reason for
awe/admiration
to elicit information from
hearer
who came up with it? a directive
(more specifically, an
interrogative with a
pragmatic focus on
WHO)
In excerpt (12), eunice has just landed in London early winter and a
bittersweet life is asking if eunice has brought enough clothing over to keep
warm.
34
(12)
a bittersweet life says (6:15 PM):
so did you bring enough clothing?
eunice. says (6:15 PM):
not really actually
eunice. says (6:15 PM):
im alr running out of clothes
eunice. says (6:16 PM):
and my clothes are only good enough for the current temperature
a bittersweet life says (6:16 PM):
oooh.....
eunice. says (6:16 PM):
any lower i'll be in trouble
eunice. says (6:16 PM):
that's y gotta go shop very soon
alr: already
y: why
___________________________________________
Transmission Unit
Speech Act
not really actually
a representative
im alr running out of clothes a representative
and my clothes are only good a representative
enough for the current
temperature
any lower i’ll be in trouble
a representative
Function
to respond to question posed
to inform on the situation
to elaborate on the situation
to describe the extent of the
situation
to justify an action
that’s y gotta go shop very
a representative
soon
In excerpt (13), ♪ `lexophile is complaining about having to go to school
during the official school holidays. Again we see four transmission units done
consecutively within a minute of conversation time towards the end of this
excerpt. An analysis is attempted to tease out the speech acts and the
possible functions of each short line.
(13)
♪ `lexophile says (12:12 AM):
sigh i need to go to sch tmr and the day after.
a bittersweet life says (12:12 AM):
how come?
♪ `lexophile says (12:12 AM):
extra lessons and council gm.
35
(13 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (12:13 AM):
lessons....after exams?
♪ `lexophile says (12:18 AM):
yalah
♪ `lexophile says (12:18 AM):
english
♪ `lexophile says (12:18 AM):
hardcore.
♪ `lexophile says (12:18 AM):
doing twelfth night.
sch: school
tmr: tomorrow gm: general meeting
___________________________________________
Transmission Unit
Speech Act
Function
yalah
a representative
to respond to question
English
a representative
to inform on the situation
hardcore.
an expressive
to convey a sense of resignation
doing twelfth night.
a representative
to elaborate on the situation
Elements at work
In the previous excerpts, we have been able to attribute one function to each
line. However, it is conceivable that a unit of information can be used to do
many things at once. We also observed a combination of elements at work
that gives the transmission unit its function.
In excerpt (14), ♪ `lexophile and a bittersweet life are talking about the norms
of part‐writing in choral music, with a bittersweet life tagging on her
contribution after ♪ `lexophile commented on his work.
(14)
♪ `lexophile says (12:59 AM):
for one i think the range of notes that i wrote for tenors was perhaps too
challenging
a bittersweet life says (12:59 AM):
yup
a bittersweet life says (12:59 AM):
normal part writing, I keep it to F
36
(14 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (12:59 AM):
that's like MAX
a bittersweet life says (1:01 AM):
for now
___________________________________________
Transmission Unit
Speech Act
Function
Yup
a representative
to express agreement
normal part writing, I keep it a representative
to assert a state of affairs
to F
that’s like the MAX
an representative
to indicate truth of assertion
for now
a representative
to qualify on the assertion
The use of the uppercase on “MAX” indicates its prominence in the line,
giving the expressive the strength of its assertion. The visual prominence is
not unlike the stress prominence in a tone group, highlighting important
information to the recipient.
It is possible to see the final transmission unit “for now” as a tag on to the
previous one, but placed on the next line as a separate information unit.
Taking into account the time lapse of approximately 2 minutes, it is more
likely that it is an afterthought, added in after some thinking on a bittersweet
life’s part to qualify her assertion.
In excerpt (15), we see a case of genuine tag on, separated to signal a
difference in information status:
(15)
♪ `lexophile says (12:50 AM):
oh could you send me the minus one for jok2k
♪ `lexophile says (12:50 AM):
*joy2k
37
(15 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (12:50 AM):
YUP!
a bittersweet life says (12:50 AM):
I wanted to let you hear
a bittersweet life says (12:50 AM):
the completed version
♪ `lexophile says (12:51 AM):
oh you got it!
*minus one: a music track with the singing removed
*joy2k: a song’s name
___________________________________________
Transmission Unit
Speech Act
Function
YUP!
A commissive
to grant a request
I wanted to let you hear
A representative
to inform of intention
the completed version
(cont’d)
(afterthought)
“I wanted to let you hear” and “the completed version” could have been said
in one utterance but was split into two transmission units, with “the
completed” version placed on the next line. Since it is the speaker who
signals information status, a bittersweet life probably thought “the
completed version” would be significant new information to ♪ `lexophile, as
contrasted to the minus one version (the incomplete version) that he was
expecting. This is confirmed by ♪ `lexophile’s reaction on reception – an
expressive, to show excitement.
Though Searle’s taxonomy does not explicitly include laughter and hesitation
as illocutionary acts, they are mostly attitudinal, much like the expressives
that convey the attitude of the speaker towards surrounding talk.
38
4.3 Transmission Units and Turns
Thus far in this chapter, we have explored the transmission unit as the
smallest organization unit of MSN conversation. The ‘redundancy’ of breaking
up talk into the smaller sub‐units led the inquiry into what the transmission
unit does for information packaging and later the role of the unit in shaping
talk through their illocutionary force.
It would be interesting to see how the transmission units relate to the
concept of turns in conversation. Can each transmission unit be considered a
turn? Can we take a transmission unit to be a turn‐construction unit (TCU)?
According to Sacks et al. (1974), a TCU is defined as a segment of talk that can
be taken as a whole turn. It has two key features:
1. Projectability
– it is possible for one to tell how the turn is going to end before it
ends
2. Boundaries (transition relevance places TRPs)
– points where another speaker can start a turn or current speaker
may continue with another TCU.
Below, I will demonstrate how a transmission unit is sometimes inadequate
as a whole turn and also show that the notion of ‘projectability’ is
problematic for this medium.
39
The excerpt below shows an instance of a very neat alternation in a two‐
party conversation.
(16)
a bittersweet life says (1:02 AM):
hey
Try to lift yourself using your shoelaces says (1:02 AM):
yo
a bittersweet life says (1:02 AM):
you going to ervine's house tomorrow ah?
Try to lift yourself using your shoelaces says (1:03 AM):
hms ya why?
a bittersweet life says (1:03 AM):
nothing in particular
Try to lift yourself using your shoelaces says (1:03 AM):
hms ok
___________________________________________
It would be convenient to take each transmission unit as a new turn, as it
appears in the archived conversations. However, we will run into instances of
incomplete or inadequate turns.
In the collected data, there are transmission units that break off before the
turn is completed. In the following excerpt, a bittersweet life starts on a list –
“…food, transport...” that is still left unfinished by the end of that
transmission unit. The next unit consists of the lone word “books” and a
question mark to end of the list, as well as the question that was being set up
in the prior line.
(17)
eunice. says (6:18 PM):
just one wk alone i've spent almost 200 pounds!
eunice. says (6:18 PM):
thats like more than 500 sing
a bittersweet life says (6:18 PM):
tsk tsk
eunice. says (6:18 PM):
and i its not on shopping
40
(17 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (6:18 PM):
but what did u spend on? food, transport....
a bittersweet life says (6:18 PM):
books?
eunice. says (6:18 PM):
all food and basic necessities
eunice. says (6:19 PM):
and just for internet connection its 70 pounds
a bittersweet life says (6:19 PM):
wow......
wk: week
sing: Singapore dollars
___________________________________________
Though Eunice replies in two transmission units (also a list of sorts), she uses
the discourse linker “and” in the second line to show that her second
transmission unit latches on to her first, a sign that her turn is not quite
complete. If we take a transmission unit to be a turn, we may be
compromising the coherence of a person’s talk.
There are cases where the transmission unit is cut off because the maximum
number of characters (400) per message has been reached. It can happen
when chunks of discourse is quoted from another source (via the word
formatting function of copying and pasting). The sentences run on till it hits a
maximum of 400 characters (a limitation of the instant messaging
programme). The message may then be cut off mid‐word, as shown in the
excerpt below.
A bittersweet life’s long chunk starting from “I know you have external
commitments…” was copied and then modified from its source (a bittersweet
life says “allude to the post”, where the post refers to an external text, a blog
41
post) for the exchange with ♪ `lexophile. It runs on beyond 400 characters,
resulting in a premature cut off, which was rectified in the transmission unit,
by a bittersweet life appending the missing words, indicating that it was
meant to remain with the previous unit.
(18)
`♪ lexophile says (12:53 AM):
he wasn't here for the talk
a bittersweet life says (12:53 AM):
I know
`♪ lexophile says (12:53 AM):
which might have had an effect
a bittersweet life says (12:54 AM):
but perhaps you could allude to the post when you msg him
a bittersweet life says (12:54 AM):
he'll know
`♪ lexophile says (12:54 AM):
wah..
a bittersweet life says (12:57 AM):
I know you have external commitments but we still hope you would try your best to
make yourself available for the juhuis coz we really need it. You have been giving
seriously extremely unacceptable excuses like _________________ unless you
have high fever or something and needed to go see the doctor immediately, i want
you to at least be here for juhui, you can certainly take away something from i
a bittersweet life says (12:57 AM):
*from it
a bittersweet life says (12:57 AM):
LOL
`♪ lexophile says (12:57 AM):
LOL
msg: message
juhuis = juhui: hanyu pinyin for chinese lexical item, meaning ‘gathering’ + ‐s (english plural
morpheme)
___________________________________________
Cases of cut‐off like the above are extremely rare. Short transmission units
still dominate online conversations. In the body of collected data, excerpt
(18) is the only occasion when the spill over happened.
Excerpts (17) and (18) are instances where a transmission unit is not
adequate to constitute a whole turn, either by speaker design or programme
42
constraints. While the transmission units have well‐defined boundaries
where each break can function as a point where another can start a turn, the
users are able to get clues from the last transmission unit to infer if the
current speaker has finished a turn.
The notion of ‘projectability’ is slightly problematic for online conversations if
we do not adapt it for a one‐way CMC system. Projectability in face‐to‐face
conversation involves recognising the end of the turn based on the emerging
utterance. Given the limitations of the one‐way system, the talk does not
‘emerge’ but the entire unit appears at once in the chat log when it is sent.
This manner of “appearing” does not allow the participants to see or predict
how the unit is going to end, unlike in face‐to‐face or phone conversations,
therefore participants cannot project or predict what is to come (which also
explains why there are rare occurrences of collaborative turn completion in
IM). What the participants can see is the last transmission unit received and if
it forms an incomplete grammatical structure, the participants can infer that
the turn is incomplete and the current speaker intends to continue.
Conclusion
In the domain of conversation analysis, Hutchby & Wooffitt (2008:50) wrote
on turn construction units (emphasis mine):
Turns at talk can be seen as constructed out of units called
turn‐construction units (TCUs), which broadly correspond to
43
linguistic categories such as sentences, clauses, single words
(for instance ‘Hey!’ or ‘What?’) or phrases. It is important to
realize that it is not part of the analyst’s aim to define, in some
abstract way, what a TCU is, as a linguist may want to define
what a sentence is. Conversation analysts cannot take a
prescriptive stance on this question, because what a TCU
consists of in any situated stretch of talk is a members’
problem. That is, such a unit is essentially anything out of
which a legitimate turn has recognizably – for the participants
– been built.
Rather than saying a turn equates to a transmission unit, it is more plausible
to accept that transmission units constitute turns. A turn can consist of a unit
or several units. The transmission unit is a resource for use in online
conversations to organize talk within a turn. The sender/speaker organizes
his turn with deliberate breaks (with each ENTER) at word, clausal or
sentential boundaries, with information organization and illocutionary force
as the main possible motivating factors of transmission unit formation.
From the next chapter onwards, we depart from the discussion of the
transmission unit and focus on how overlaps are resolved, how participants
can juggle multiple topics intertwined in the same conversation.
44
Chapter 5
Overlaps and Disruptions
5.1 Speaker Transitions
As observed by the early CA researchers (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974),
in turn taking:
1. overwhelmingly, one speaker speaks at a time
2. speaker change recurs
The same is observed in the archived MSN conversations and can be taken to
be trivially true. The nature of a one‐way system necessitates that the
transmission units are sequenced one after another as received on the
terminal. As a result, there are no overlaps of the kind that are found in face‐
to‐face conversations in MSN conversations. Speaker changes happen too in
MSN conversation as the participants create messages in the text‐based
medium to interact with one another. We see an example of smooth speaker
transitions in excerpt (19), where each transmission unit follows from the
previous one.
(19)
ervine; says:
hello meliss
ervine; says:
a
MelPNG says:
hello ervin
MelPNG says:
e
MelPNG says:
haha
ervine; says:
haha you know just now after service
ervine; says:
i was walking up to the office
45
(19 cont’d)
ervine; says:
i heard someone singing
ervine; says:
haha
ervine; says:
turned out to be your daddy (:
MelPNG says:
omg
_________________________________________________
For smooth speaker changes to recur, the participants will need to know and
recognise when the other party has finished his/her turn. In online
interactions, without the aid of paralinguistic features like gaze and auditory
cues (tones, intonation contour) how do we know where is a good place to
start a new turn? Below are some of the resources available for the MSN
users to identify when the appropriate time to start a turn is.
Signs of possible turn completion
•
MSN’s visual cue: “XX is writing…”
While MSN does not display the message as it is being composed, it does
inform the other participants that another is currently composing a
message at the message window, to be sent shortly afterwards.
Figure 2 shows a chat window on a bittersweet life’s terminal. A
bittersweet life is talking to DJ – why does a caged bird sing? (or just DJ in
short). When DJ is composing a message, a visual cue appears at the
bottom of the chat window. A bittersweet life can sees the visual cue,
anticipates incoming message and can act accordingly. The visual cue
disappears when DJ’s cursor moves away from the message window, an
46
indication his attention is turned away from the composition of the
message to other tasks on his terminal.
Figure 2. MSN visual cue
• Identification of conversation work
When talk turns to an extended account, narration, recount of a story or
incident, the speaker would probably take a long turn to complete the
conversation work. The listener may interrupt for clarification and provide
backchannels to indicate interest but generally waits for the account to be
complete before moving on to a new topic.
In face‐to‐face conversations, Goodwin (1987) and Tanaka (1999) among
others have found that adding constituents, especially noun and adverbial
phrases, aids in extending a turn beyond the first transition relevance
47
place, without other participants interrupting except to give appreciative
comments or backchannels. In online conversations, the structure and
function of the transmission units helps a user to hold the floor.
In excerpt (20), ♪ `lexophile recounts a separate online incident for a
bittersweet life. At the timestamp of 9:25 PM, ♪ `lexophile says “read this.”
signaling that there was more to follow. Starting at 9:26 PM, he follows up
with a series of cut‐and‐paste segments 6 from a different MSN
conversation.
(20)
a bittersweet life says (9:24 PM):
hey
a bittersweet life says (9:24 PM):
so did you pon school today?
♪ `lexophile says (9:24 PM):
yeah
♪ `lexophile says (9:24 PM):
lol
♪ `lexophile says (9:25 PM):
read this.
a bittersweet life says (9:25 PM):
did any good for you?
a bittersweet life says (9:25 PM):
haha
♪ `lexophile says (9:25 PM):
yeah somewhat
a bittersweet life says (9:25 PM):
read what...?
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:27 PM)
hi
♪ `lexophile says: (9:04:33 PM)
hey
♪ `lexophile says: (9:04:36 PM)
what's up
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:43 PM)
nothing
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:57 PM)
what r u doing
6
To aid reading, ♪ `lexophile’s account (or the cut‐and‐paste segments) are indented
in excerpt (20).
48
(20 cont’d)
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:16 PM)
preparing for some presentation tomorrow
ccsdhy77 says: (9:05:26 PM)
u seem busy
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:42 PM)
yeah i am, sigh.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:44 PM)
haha
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:50 PM)
oh well, i'm getting by.
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
♪ `lexophile says: (9:08:15 PM)
enjoy while ya still can.
ccsdhy77 says: (9:08:53 PM)
have u made any good friends yet?
♪ `lexophile says: (9:10:23 PM)
lol you dont remember who i told you i was, do you
ccsdhy77 says: (9:10:35 PM)
no
ccsdhy77 says: (9:10:58 PM)
(un)fortunately i dont remember
♪ `lexophile says: (9:11:04 PM)
let's see if i can find it.
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:11:26 PM)
suuuuuure
♪ `lexophile says: (9:11:32 PM)
♪ `lexophile says: (8:53:44 PM)
i'm your group leader in sunday school man.
ccsdhy77 says: (8:54:01 PM)
really??????
♪ `lexophile says: (9:11:45 PM)
that was, sometime ago.
ccsdhy77 says: (9:11:55 PM)
i remem now
♪ `lexophile says (9:27 PM):
this was in quotes
♪ `lexophile says: (8:53:44 PM)
i'm your group leader in sunday school man.
ccsdhy77 says: (8:54:01 PM)
really??????
49
(20 cont’d)
♪ `lexophile says (9:27 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:13:02 PM)
do u ever have fun now
♪ `lexophile says: (9:13:14 PM)
sure, all the time.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:13:39 PM)
well like you said, friends count for a lot.
ccsdhy77 says: (9:16:27 PM)
i feel kinda bored without u 100km nearby
♪ `lexophile says (9:27 PM):
at this point, i laugh
♪ `lexophile says (9:27 PM):
♪ `lexophile says: (9:17:28 PM)
lol i told you, i'm your group leader in sunday school.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:17:33 PM)
i see you every week.
ccsdhy77 says: (9:17:52 PM)
lol, very funny
♪ `lexophile says: (9:18:16 PM)
you dont think i'm being serious do you
♪ `lexophile says: (9:18:19 PM)
Lol
♪ `lexophile says (9:27 PM):
♪ `lexophile says: (9:19:19 PM)
i just made you guys play chubby bunny yesterday
♪ `lexophile says: (9:19:25 PM)
that's good enough?
ccsdhy77 says: (9:19:44 PM)
how do u know??????????????????????/
♪ `lexophile says: (9:19:59 PM)
because i am your group leader, i'm really not kidding!
♪ `lexophile says: (9:20:07 PM)
you've got the wrong person.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:20:08 PM)
heh.
a bittersweet life says (9:28 PM):
LOL
♪ `lexophile says (9:28 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:20:43 PM)
no im serious, tell me
♪ `lexophile says: (9:20:50 PM)
you guys also had to feed each other with marshmallows coated with
nutella, and played with tennis balls and stockings.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:21:05 PM)
and i shared a message after wenxin at the end of the session
♪ `lexophile says: (9:21:14 PM)
that should be good enough.
50
(20 cont’d)
♪ `lexophile says (9:28 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:22:27 PM)
..... are u really tianci or someone else
♪ `lexophile says: (9:22:37 PM)
im tianci.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:22:58 PM)
lol i tried to tell you the first time you talked to me
♪ `lexophile says (9:28 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:22:59 PM)
i always thought u were my old friend...............
ccsdhy77 says: (9:23:40 PM)
i even have your name as Dwaipayan Chouldary
♪ `lexophile says: (9:24:10 PM)
sorry about that really, i didnt mean to cause this.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:24:39 PM)
i just added everyone's email on msn after we collated the details
ccsdhy77 says: (9:25:10 PM)
nvm, we can still chat
a bittersweet life says (9:28 PM):
OMG
a bittersweet life says (9:28 PM):
so blur........
♪ `lexophile says (9:29 PM):
it was so retarded.
a bittersweet life says (9:29 PM):
who's s/he?
_________________________________________________________
The long stretch of external conversation was spliced into many segments
by ♪ `lexophile and sent as separate transmission units to a bittersweet
life, indicated clearly in (20a).
(20a)
a bittersweet life says (9:25 PM):
read what...?
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:27 PM)
hi
♪ `lexophile says: (9:04:33 PM)
hey
♪ `lexophile says: (9:04:36 PM)
what's up
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:43 PM)
nothing
ccsdhy77 says: (9:04:57 PM)
what r u doing
one transmission unit
51
(20a cont’d)
♪ `lexophile says (9:26 PM):
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:16 PM)
preparing for some presentation tomorrow
ccsdhy77 says: (9:05:26 PM)
u seem busy
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:42 PM)
yeah i am, sigh.
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:44 PM)
haha
♪ `lexophile says: (9:05:50 PM)
oh well, i'm getting by.
another transmission unit
Firstly, we see that his transmission units are sent at a rapid rate (about 4
units a minute). Considering that includes time for him to decide where to
segment the external conversation ♪ `lexophile appended his next unit
quite quickly, leaving little time for a bittersweet life to insert a response
in between.
Secondly, the external conversation was strategically spliced while
keeping each transmission unit to the constraint of a maximum of 400
characters. For example, we see in (20a) that the first transmission unit
ends with a question by ccsdhy77 “what r u doing”. This creates the
expectation that it will be followed by an appropriate second part, an
answer or response to the question. It is likely the next transmission unit
will follow, containing the second part of the pair.
The combination of speed in appending the next transmission unit and
function of the unit helped ♪ `lexophile to extend his turn. In addition to
that, a recount also typically has a climax or punchline. In this case, the
52
climax of the story was reached when it was clear that ccsdhy77 had
mistaken ♪ `lexophile for someone else. The content in the prior
transmission units were building up to it.
Notice that a bittersweet life does not interrupt the series, except
responding with laughter “LOL” at 9:28 pm. When ♪ `lexophile finishes the
series of segments, she ends off with “OMG” and “so blur……...”,
indicating that she knew ♪ `lexophile had finished his account and it was
an appropriate place to place her next turn. Incidentally, the last
timestamp in ♪ `lexophile’s cut‐and‐paste series (9:25:10 PM) is
approximately the time around which he said ‘read this’ (9:25 PM) to a
bittersweet life.
•
Out‐modes (Wilson 1989)
Wilson (1989) defines an outmode as “any utterance which differs in
structure (or content) from the ongoing speech event as established by
the previous or surrounding talk”. Conversationally tied out‐modes
introduce speech events which supplement the flow of the conversation
as a process of ongoing talk. Among these, he lists jokes and banter as
examples of out‐modes in conversation.
Excerpt (21) started the conversation it was taken from, at the very
beginning. ♪ `lexophile shares a joke with a bittersweet life, again cutting
53
from its source and pasting it to the message window.
(21)
♪ `lexophile says (9:47 PM):
C, E-flat and G go into a bar. The bartender says, "sorry,
but we don't serve minors." So E-flat leaves, and C and G
have an open fifth between them. After a few drinks, the
fifth is diminished and G is out flat. F comes in and tries
to augment the situation, but is not sharp enough.
♪ `lexophile says (9:48 PM):
D comes in and heads for the bathroom saying, "Excuse me.
I'll just be a second." Then A comes in, but the bartender
is not convinced that this relative of C is not a minor.
Then the bartender notices B-flat hiding at the end of the
bar and says, "Get out! You're the seventh minor I've found
in this bar tonight."
♪ `lexophile says (9:48 PM):
E-Flat comes back the next night in a three-piece suit with
nicely shined shoes. The bartender says, "you're looking
sharp tonight. Come on in, this could be a major
development." Sure enough, E-flat soon takes off his suit
and everything else, and is au natural.
♪ `lexophile says (9:48 PM):
Eventually C sobers up and realizes in horror that he's
under a rest. C is brought to trial, found guilty of
contributing to the diminution of a minor, and is sentenced
to 10 years of D.S. without Coda at an upscale correctional
facility.
a bittersweet life says (9:49 PM):
LOL!!
♪ `lexophile says (9:49 PM):
haha this is quite funny right
♪ `lexophile says (9:50 PM):
came in with one of my guitar email newsletters
a bittersweet life says (9:50 PM):
my goodness, how long did that guy take to come up with it?
___________________________________________
This is not a typical way to start a conversation. A quick check with a
bittersweet life reveals that she knows they are not in “casual
conversation” because ♪ `lexophile “does not usually talk in this manner”.
A bittersweet life responds only after the entire joke has been presented,
indicating that the conversation outmode of a joke (Wilson 1989) was
identified correctly and its humorous purpose achieved.
54
•
Identification of sequences and adjacency pairs
This is not to say that the participants require the skills to analyse
conversation as it unfolds but a sense of expectancy is implied. For
example, a question would fulfill its function if the relevant information
is acquired. An invitation would achieve its end with the invited making a
response to the host.
(22)
a bittersweet life says (10:44 PM):
tired?
rebecca says (10:45 PM):
nope
rebecca says (10:45 PM):
hahah
rebecca says (10:45 PM):
slept when i was coming back to singapore
a bittersweet life says (10:45 PM):
long trip right...
a bittersweet life says (10:46 PM):
bus?
rebecca says (10:46 PM):
yuppp
rebecca says (10:46 PM):
bus
rebecca says (10:46 PM):
very long
___________________________________________
In excerpt (22), a bittersweet life asks two questions – one at 10:44pm,
another at 10:46 pm. After both questions, Rebecca takes her turns and
responds promptly, fulfilling the expectations that the questions had
created.
•
Inactivity
After a period of inactivity, participants can pick up the floor and start
talking again. In excerpt (23), a bittersweet life picks up the floor after a
55
time lapse of approximately 34 minutes, from 1:42 pm to 2:16pm. After
such a long lapse, it is unlikely that the ‘current’ speaker ★Sparkx★ has
yet to finish what he wanted to say.
(23)
★Sparkx★ says (1:39 PM):
i just wish there was another way
★Sparkx★ says (1:39 PM):
lol
a bittersweet life says (1:39 PM):
HAHA
a bittersweet life says (1:42 PM):
such is NS life
★Sparkx★ says (1:42 PM):
yup
a bittersweet life says (2:16 PM):
have you eaten?
★Sparkx★ says (2:16 PM):
yea
★Sparkx★ says (2:16 PM):
eaten at 12+
___________________________________________
5.2 Overlaps and Interruptions
Overlaps in face‐to‐face conversations usually result in auditory mess in the
recordings for the transcriber to sort out. In speech, the utterances produced
are not discrete and one can interject another mid‐word or mid‐utterance
and there are conventions to reflect these overlaps and interruption in
transcripts.
In MSN conversations, the archived conversations are neat. The transmission
units are displayed ‘in print’ on screen in the order that they are received at
the terminal. The words do not appear as they are being typed by
participants at their terminals. With each ENTER, their message will be sent
56
as a separate transmission unit, even an interruption in essence will appear
as the next transmission unit in print on screen. As mentioned in Section 5.1,
the nature of a one‐way system necessitates that the transmission units are
sequenced one after another as received on the terminal. There are no
overlaps or interruptions of the kind that are found in face‐to‐face
conversations in MSN conversations.
However, it can be puzzling to assume that there is strictly no overlap and
take the transmission units in an archived conversation in its chronological,
sequential order. For example, B might start up and transmit a unit on
something else entirely while A is composing a message to elaborate on the
current topic. This is illustrated in excerpt (24).
(24)
a bittersweet life says:
I hven't had choc for so long......
a bittersweet life says:
deprived
♪ `lexophile says:
how come
a bittersweet life says:
since the last time I fell sick, I stopped eating choc
♪ `lexophile says:
i see
a bittersweet life says:
I took so long to recover
♪ `lexophile says:
you've got mail!
a bittersweet life says:
it was like a habit not to take choc
a bittersweet life says:
AWWWW
a bittersweet life says:
you didn't have to
___________________________________________
In excerpt (24), a bittersweet life is recounting and elaborating on her
reasons for not eating chocolates, with ♪ `lexophile providing asking for more
57
information (‘how come’) and giving feedback through the backchannel ‘I
see’.
♪ `lexophile ‘s utterance “you've got mail!” appears abrupt in this excerpt and
does not relate to the transmission unit directly before that, where a
bittersweet life commented on her length of recovery. In the following
transmission unit, a bittersweet life’s “it’s like a habit not to take choc” makes
no reference to the prior transmission unit “you’ve got mail!” too. Unless we
take this to be an overlap of some sort, we cannot make sense of this
excerpt. Below, excerpt (24) is organised into two separate threads:
(24a)
a bittersweet life says:
I hven't had choc for so long......
a bittersweet life says:
deprived
♪ `lexophile says:
how come
a bittersweet life says:
since the last time I fell sick, I stopped eating choc
♪ `lexophile says:
i see
a bittersweet life says:
I took so long to recover
a bittersweet life says:
it was like a habit not to take choc
(24b)
♪ `lexophile says:
you've got mail!
a bittersweet life says:
AWWWW
a bittersweet life says:
you didn't have to
___________________________________________
The abrupt change in topic is not to be taken as an insertion sequence as it
does not serve the main sequence, nor does it return to the main sequence
thereafter.
58
We also observe that the introduction of the new topic occurs at a transition
relevance place (TRP). The utterance “I took so long to recover” is a complete
unit syntactically (a sentence), subsequent talk by a bittersweet life is placed
in a separate transmission unit, and the content can potentially end the
previous topic on not eating chocolates. It is possible to take ♪ `lexophile’s
abrupt turn as an overlap in topic, that did not need explicit resolution as the
separate strands of talk can still be made out by principles of coherence and
relevance.
There is another possible way to place ♪ `lexophile’s abrupt turn. We could
interpret his “i see” as an acknowledgement to a bittersweet life’s
explanation in the previous transmission unit, an intended closure to the
topic of eating chocolates. ♪ `lexophile then proceeded to self‐select for the
next turn and initiates the new topic “you’ve got mail!”, while a bittersweet
life went on to add on to the previous topic.
Both placements are possible. A more detailed analysis would be gleaned if
the excerpt was recorded with timestamps as the time lapse between each
transmission unit can be obtained and give us an idea of how rapid the
sequences and the overlap took place.
5.3 Resolving overlaps
Overlaps occur when more than one participant self‐selects. Sometimes in
the course of a conversation, both parties can start off at the same time,
59
sometimes on two different topics. When that happens face‐to‐face, it is
usually the case that one person stops talking at the first possible instance
and allows the other to continue (Schegloff, 1987).
In Section 5.2, we have seen in excerpt (24) and example of what an overlap
may look like in MSN conversation. We also observe that a bittersweet life
has no problem resolving the overlap, picking up the new topic and resuming
the talk. What are some of the strategies available for dealing with overlaps
in online conversations? Are they any different from the strategies employed
in face‐to‐face conversations?
Interruption and recoverability
In the way that MSN conversations are organised and archived, utterances
are recoverable by sight, revisited or reread when overlaps or disruptions
happen. This is not the case in speech where interruptions will mean that at
least one party’s speech cannot be perceived clearly. The ease of
recoverability helps the participants sort out the intentions of the other
speakers and ‘repair’ the talk, continuing where the other has left off.
The recoverability also makes possible the juggling of multiple threads in a
single stretch of online talk, as we can see in the following conversation
excerpt.
60
Juggling multiple topics
(25)
a bittersweet life says:
are there more guitarists among you?
♪ `lexophile says:
there are
♪ `lexophile says:
and the point is
♪ `lexophile says:
if you just put and acoustic guitar in the room
a bittersweet life says:
that would make a strong point, and they'll get to serve
♪ `lexophile says:
people will just go up and play
a bittersweet life says:
yup
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we want goes up to 5150.
a bittersweet life says:
I told esther it's tiring to carry guitar back and forth from home to church
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we need urgently goes up to 2k plus.
a bittersweet life says:
and she says it' the price you have to pay for being guitarists......
a bittersweet life says:
what the........
♪ `lexophile says:
lol what on earth
a bittersweet life says:
throw in what you want, and be able to justify it
a bittersweet life says:
that's most impt
___________________________________________
Something amazing is happening here: On the surface, the conversation
seems haphazard and messy because each transmission unit do not always
link to the previous line, or even to the last line by the same speaker.
Somehow, the participants can still make relevant and coherent sense of the
conversation. An analysis is attempted to show how one can make sense of
the talk presented here.
Analysis: Sorting out 3 strands of talk
♪ `lexophile and a bittersweet life are talking about budgeting for some
61
musical instrument for the church youth group they are in. The conversation
has several interjections or interruptions. We can possibly re‐organise the
excerpt into 3 sub‐topics:
1. the justification for buying a guitar
2. update on budget for instrument
3. an aside about guitar and guitarists
The sorting out of the transmission units into the three sub‐topics is done
with principles of relevance in mind, which includes:
1. identifying topic carriers (nouns and verbs)
2. identification of pro‐terms (elements that orientate talk to topic at
hand, thus preserving topic organization).
3. identification of topic shift or change
We assume, in accordance with Grice’s Maxim of Relation that subsequent
transmission units of ongoing talk is motivated to be relevant to previous talk
in some way, unless a topic shift is indicated.
Sub‐topic 1: Justification of buying a guitar
(26)
a bittersweet life says:
are there more guitarists among you?
♪ `lexophile says:
there are
♪ `lexophile says:
and the point is
♪ `lexophile says:
if you just put and acoustic guitar in the room
62
(26 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says:
that would make a strong point, and they'll get to serve
♪ `lexophile says:
people will just go up and play
a bittersweet life says:
yup
___________________________________________
A bittersweet life opens the sequence with a query containing the topic
carrier “guitarists”. The topic persists in this excerpt tied by the usage of pro‐
terms such as “acoustic guitar” and “play”.
If we focus on ♪ `lexophile’s transmission units we see the flow of a turn
constructed by floor holding devices, signaling that there is more to follow
when he is done with the current transmission unit. The use of discourse
linkers “and” and “if” to start a new unit builds expectation of more content
to be provided by the same speaker. A bittersweet life responds with an
acknowledging “yup” at the end of this sequence, a sign that she recognizes
that the expectation built up has been satisfied.
We can now make better sense of a bittersweet life’s next turn. “that would
make a strong point…” appears sandwiched between ♪ `lexophile’s
transmission units. If we order the talk as it appears, it would be rather
awkward. A bittersweet life’s sandwiched transmission unit will only make
sense if it is said in response to ♪ `lexophile’s answer to her opening query,
otherwise “that” will have no identifiable referent or antecedent to latch
onto.
63
Though there are overlaps, a plausible order of talk emerges. Before a
bittersweet life could make the reply to ♪ `lexophile’s answer, ♪ `lexophile had
already went on with the next few units. The ‘intended’ order of units would
look something like this:
(26a)
a bittersweet life says:
are there more guitarists among you?
♪ `lexophile says:
there are
a bittersweet life says:
that would make a strong point,
and they'll get to serve
overlap
♪ `lexophile says:
and the point is
♪ `lexophile says:
if you just put and acoustic guitar
in the room
♪ `lexophile says:
people will just go up and play
a bittersweet life says:
yup
___________________________________________
This sub‐topic cuts off here because ♪ `lexophile in the next transmission unit
mentions “the budget”, a definite noun phrase, turning the focus back to the
task at hand. At about the same time, a bittersweet life also starts off with
the introduction of “esther”. The two starts overlap as both the speakers self‐
select for the next turn.
(27)
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we want goes up to 5150.
a bittersweet life says:
I told esther it's tiring to carry guitar back and forth from home to church
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we need urgently goes up to 2k plus.
a bittersweet life says:
and she says it' the price you have to pay for being guitarists......
a bittersweet life says:
what the........
♪ `lexophile says:
lol what on earth
a bittersweet life says:
throw in what you want, and be able to justify it
a bittersweet life says:
that's most impt
64
Sub‐topic 2: Update on budget for instrument
(28)
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we want goes up to 5150.
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we need urgently goes up to 2k plus.
a bittersweet life says:
throw in what you want, and be able to justify it
a bittersweet life says:
that's most impt
___________________________________________
The talk becomes more factual in nature when ♪ `lexophile reports an update
of the budget “the budget for what we want goes up to 5150.”. His next
transmission unit is grouped here even though it is preceded by a
bittersweet life’s unit because he employed the same structure with slight
modifications: the budget for what we need urgently goes up to 2k plus.
This sub‐topic related to the prior sub‐topic because the budget has been
altered according to what has been discussed and assessed – the need for a
guitar.
A bittersweet life’s response to the facts was found at the very end of the
entire excerpt, after a brief detour into the third sub‐topic. Her transmission
units are placed in this sub‐topic instead of the other two because it is most
directly relevant to the discussion of the budgeting, pertaining to justifying
proposed purchases.
65
Sub‐topic 3 ‐ Side story
(29)
a bittersweet life says:
I told esther it's tiring to carry guitar back and forth from home to church
a bittersweet life says:
and she says it' the price you have to pay for being guitarists......
a bittersweet life says:
what the........
♪ `lexophile says:
lol what on earth
___________________________________________
A third party, Esther, is introduced here, possibly a mutual acquaintance. The
talk ties in to the general topic heading as we see “guitar” and “guitarists”
recur in a bittersweet life’s transmission units. By making reference to
Esther’s response here, a bittersweet life is highlighting to ♪ `lexophile that at
least one person does not think it justifiable to budget for a guitar. This
makes a bittersweet life’s contribution ultimately relevant to the previous
sub‐topic of budgeting.
The sub‐topic ends off with ♪ `lexophile doing “what on earth”, a variation of
a bittersweet life’s prior transmission unit “what the” in form. By doing so, ♪
`lexophile echoes a bittersweet life’s sentiment.
66
(29a)
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what
we want goes up to 5150.
♪ `lexophile says:
the budget for what we
need urgently goes up to 2k plus.
overlap
a bittersweet life says:
I told esther it's tiring to carry guitar
back and forth from home to church
a bittersweet life says:
and she says it' the price you have
to pay for being guitarists......
a bittersweet life says:
what the........
♪ `lexophile says:
lol what on earth
a bittersweet life says:
throw in what you want, and be able to justify it
a bittersweet life says:
that's most impt
___________________________________________
As said earlier, the two participants self‐select for the next turn that resulted
in an overlap. Furthermore, they start on separate topic strands when they
make their turn. Both speakers negotiate the overlap by attending to the
other party’s talk, responding to it in immediate subsequent turns.
Sorting overlaps by content/topic
Interruptions on MSN conversation, unlike audio transcripts, cannot be
determined by form. However, Garcia and Jacobs (1999) noted that in quasi‐
synchronous IM, “messages do not display an orientation to their sequential
placement in the conversation.” This means that there are some turns in the
archived conversations that look displaced or abrupt. We can identify these
displacements and sort out the overlapping turns by virtue of coherence and
relevance.
This would mean that the overlaps will be largely determined by content of
the talk, which will depend heavily on the interpretation of the conversation
67
analyst. In a way, the analyst can make sense of the content because s/he has
the entire complete set of exchanges readily available. The participants in the
conversation would be coping with the conversation from moment to
moment as the talk unfolds, interpreting and creating and linking talk on the
spot. The main criticism is that the tools available for the analyst and the
participants are not quite the same.
The principles of relation and coherence are available for both the analyst
and the participants. If talk is not futile and random, then it must carry some
purpose and direction. The talk must be about something – a topic. The topic
if taken up by the other party will be made clear through the use of
subsequent mentions (reference chains), linkers and tie ups to previous talk.
Similarly, topic shifts can be detected by introduction of new elements (first
mention or antecedent) and touch‐offs (“by the way…”, “this reminds me
of…” to signal that the conversation has taken a turn.
Sub‐topics are difficult to define clearly because of the amount of detail the
analyst chooses to put into the analysis. One can choose not to sub‐divide too
finely. Take excerpt (25) for example, the entire stretch of talk could be
subsumed under the broad topic of “buying a guitar” but I have chosen to
break up the talk into three sub‐topics to make sense of how the overlaps can
be sorted out by the participants in real time.
68
Memory, Retrieval and Coherence
In face‐to‐face conversations, the content of prior talk is held in the minds of
the participants. Retrieval of information in prior utterances is dependent on
the memory of the participants. For online conversations, earlier talk is
displayed in the chat log or conversation window. One can scroll up to access
prior talk, making it easier to return to confirm or retrieve information. So
even if a new topic is introduced before the last sequence is finished, it is still
possible for the participants to make sense of each others’ input.
In addition to the prior talk being on display, the way information is packaged
and presented also helps participants juggle multiple strands of talk. Consider
the following excerpt:
(30)
♪ `lexophile says (11:12 PM):
comic relief
♪ `lexophile says (11:12 PM):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmG-AnkDekA
a bittersweet life says (11:14 PM):
LOL
a bittersweet life says (11:14 PM):
what the....
♪ `lexophile says (11:18 PM):
my pamilee...
♪ `lexophile says (11:18 PM):
lol
a bittersweet life says (11:19 PM):
I've got this friend who does the Filipino accent really well
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
her laugh was just damn retarded
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
lol
a bittersweet life says (11:20 PM):
and she used to do stand up comedies for us in the honours room
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
really cracked me up
♪ `lexophile says (11:24 PM):
cool.
___________________________________________
69
At 11:19 PM, a bittersweet life introduces brand new information (Prince
1981), signaled by the use of the indefinite noun phrase “this friend”. Though
“this friend” is indeed female (as indicated by a bittersweet life’s use of the
feminine pronoun “she” in the next transmission unit) we find no evidence
that a bittersweet life expects ♪ `lexophile to know this. So ♪ `lexophile’s use
of the feminine possessive pronoun “her” does not refer to a bittersweet
life’s friend but a lady featured in the video.
Subsequently, when ♪ `lexophile said “really cracked me up”, again a
bittersweet life has no reason to believe that he meant it in relation to the
“stand up comedy” but was again referring to the video. Re‐organising the
two strands of talk:
(31)
♪ `lexophile says (11:12 PM):
comic relief
♪ `lexophile says (11:12 PM):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmG-AnkDekA
a bittersweet life says (11:14 PM):
LOL
a bittersweet life says (11:14 PM):
what the....
♪ `lexophile says (11:18 PM):
my pamilee...
♪ `lexophile says (11:18 PM):
lol
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
a bittersweet life says (11:19 PM):
her laugh was just damn retarded
I've got this friend who does the
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
lol
Filipino accent really well
overlap
♪ `lexophile says (11:20 PM):
a bittersweet life says (11:20 PM):
really cracked me up
and she used to do stand up
comedies for us in the honours
room
♪
`lexophile
says (11:24 PM):
cool.
___________________________________________
70
In this chapter, we have seen the crucial role that transmission units play in
turn management in online conversation. The structure and the function of
the transmission unit create expectations of what is to follow. We have also
looked at how topical overlaps can be managed and overcome by appealing
to principles of relevance and coherence.
There are other potential problems not related to topical overlaps that need
to be addressed. In chapter 6, we will look at other kinds of trouble sources
and how users adapt and use the resources available for repair.
71
Chapter 6
Repair
Repair is a sequential phenomenon in ongoing talk involving a trouble source,
typically followed by an initiation segment and an outcome segment (where a
resolution is expected), each having an organization of their own (Schegloff,
Jefferson, & Sacks, 1977). In face‐to‐face conversation, a self‐initiated repair
could be placed in placed at the same turn as trouble source, the turn
transition space or the third turn from trouble source and the initiator
techniques employed include non‐lexical speech perturbations (e.g. “uh…”)
to signal that a repair segment is coming up. A repair initiated by another
party is almost always placed at the next turn and repair techniques include
the employment of turn construction device (e.g. “huh?” and “what?”), a
partial repeat of the trouble source with a question word or a “you mean”
expression, with a possible interpretation offered.
The repair phenomenon is also found in online conversations and its text‐
based nature makes the forms of repair interesting. We have observed earlier
that hesitations are “verbalized” and typed out on screen as separate
transmission units. However, for self‐repair in online conversation, the
speech perturbation such as “uh…” or “er…” does not happen. This could be
because the participants can edit their transmission units before sending it
other participants, correcting mistakes before they can be presented to other
participants. As such, self‐repairs seldom have initiator segments but rather,
72
they are done immediately in the next transmission unit, with the help of the
asterisk.
The use of asterisk
Repairs or corrections are easily spotted due to the prevalent use of the
asterisk (*).The asterisk is placed just before the corrected response, which is
made after a problem source is perceived by either party. Because MSN
conversation is text‐based, the typed symbol is used to indicate repair
overtly.
There are instances of repairs done without the use of the asterisk and we
will see a couple of them among the excerpts in this section.
6.1 Self‐repair
In instances of self‐repair, the same party perceives his/her prior
transmission unit(s) as the trouble source and proceeds to correct it in
his/her next transmission unit. An asterisk is placed before the corrected
response. The repair is usually shorter than the trouble source and contains
only the problematic element.
The correction is sometimes made by the same speaker even when there are
no indications or signs of misunderstanding between the parties involved.
73
Typological Error (word)
(32)
a bittersweet life says (12:48 AM):
but seriously, sleep late for maths paper, very bad
a bittersweet life says (12:48 AM):
you need clear head for maths
ervine; says (12:48 AM):
but i sleep with a uncleared hear
ervine; says (12:49 AM):
*head
ervine; says (12:49 AM):
i wake up with uncleared hear
ervine; says (12:49 AM):
*head
ervine; says (12:49 AM):
same same la
ervine; says (12:49 AM):
haha
___________________________________________
ervine corrects his “uncleared hear” twice following immediately after the
trouble source. Both repairs contain only the problemtic element “*head”.
The misspelling of “head” is probably due to the proximity of r and d on the
qwerty keyboard.
Typological Error II (smiley)
(33)
♪ `lexophile says (1:17 AM):
wah seriously can't find
♪ `lexophile says (1:17 AM):
haha you sure it's not in the box right
a bittersweet life says (1:18 AM):
yeah, it's empty
♪ `lexophile says (1:18 AM):
:9
♪ `lexophile says (1:18 AM):
* :(
♪ `lexophile says (1:19 AM):
oh well
♪ `lexophile says (1:19 AM):
at least i'll have a "so there it is!" moment to look forward to.
a bittersweet life says (1:20 AM):
LOL
74
(33 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (1:20 AM):
nvm la
:9 a smiley with the tongue curled upwards, conveys mischief
:( a sad ‘smiley’
___________________________________________
In the above excerpt, we see that this repair strategy goes beyond lexical
typological errors and extends to smileys as well.
♪ `lexophile had typed the lowercase on the keyboard instead of the
uppercase of the same key, resulting in the formation of :9 . The correct
form :( stands in the next transmission unit, again marked again by the use of
the asterisk.
Incomplete Response
(34)
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
AAHHHHHH!!!!!
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
I WAS ABOUT TO BEAT MY HANDPHONE GAME'S HIGHSCORE!
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
??????
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
sorry....
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
HAHA
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
LOL
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
oh, you mean it's not smart enough to put your game on hold??
a bittersweet life says (10:34 PM):
awww....how sad?
a bittersweet life says (10:34 PM):
*how sad is that?
___________________________________________
75
The error and correction in focus are in the last two transmission units 7 of
this extract. Taking the repair to be the target response, we can conclude that
the penultimate transmission unit by a bittersweet life is an incomplete
response, with two words missing.
Note that “awww….” is not repeated in the repair transmission unit,
indicating that repair is done only on the smallest problematic element in the
trouble source. In ervine’s case, the problematic element is the word “hear”
and only the word “head” is involved in the repair transmission unit. In the
above excerpt, the entire sentence “how sad is that?” had to stand corrected,
indicating that the sentence was the problematic element and a partial
repeat of a previous transmission unit is sufficient for repair.
Unintended Action
The MSN chat window offers a set of default actions, winks and emoticons as
resources for the ongoing talk. Sometimes, these objects are triggered by
accident, resulting in unintended meaning.
Nudging is a feature available in MSN, that can be triggered by users to get
the attention of the other participants to attend to the ongoing conversation
immediately. The use of nudging is revealed through the reflective
conversation between a bittersweet life and ♪ `lexophile in the excerpt below.
7
More contextual information is needed to make sense of the talk found earlier in the
excerpt. This will be revisited in Chapter 7.
76
(35)
♪ `lexophile just sent you a nudge.
a bittersweet life says (11:21 PM):
hey, did you say something?
♪ `lexophile says (11:21 PM):
lol what did it appear as
♪ `lexophile says (11:21 PM):
i was trying out some other messenger
a bittersweet life says (11:21 PM):
nudge, that's all
♪ `lexophile says (11:22 PM):
ah ok.
a bittersweet life says (11:22 PM):
I thought u'd said something before
♪ `lexophile says (11:23 PM):
nope.
___________________________________________
The nudge appears at the very beginning of the conversation, triggered by ♪
`lexophile and a bittersweet life asks subsequently in two separate later turns
“hey, did you say something” and “I thought u’d said something before”,
indicating that the nudge is usually taken as purposeful and the trigger by ♪
`lexophile was taken by a bittersweet life as a sure sign that there was
something that required her immediate attention. Since no transmission
units were exchanged before the nudge in this archived conversation, a
bittersweet life thought she had missed something that ♪ `lexophile said.
The nudge also appears in the excerpt below, triggered by time stopped.
(36)
time stopped says (11:11 PM):
chinese?
time stopped says (11:12 PM):
didnt care
77
(36 cont’d)
time stopped says (11:12 PM):
doesnt count, and school is spamming mock chinese papers
after promos
time stopped says (11:12 PM):
i figured worrying for it, is incessant worry
a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM):
taking the paper this year is it?
time stopped says (11:12 PM):
yeah
time stopped just sent you a nudge.
time stopped says (11:13 PM):
OOPS
time stopped says (11:13 PM):
SORRY
___________________________________________
time stopped says “yeah” in response to a bittersweet life’s question “taking
the paper this year is it?”. In the next transmission unit time stopped triggers
a nudge. This is immediately followed by “OOPS” (signaling the problem site –
the trigger) and an apology “SORRY”.
The use of a nudge usually signal impatience and indicates that the user
perceives the speed of response of the other participants in the conversation
to be slow, which is not what time stopped intended to convey here. The
explicit apology is used to cancel the meaning generated by the accidental
trigger (the trouble source), thus preventing a potential misunderstanding.
6.2 Collaborative Repair
In instances of collaborative repair, different parties are involved in locating
the trouble source and repairing the trouble source, to arrive at the target
utterance. The conversation excerpt below is an example of collaborative
repair.
78
(37)
ervine; says (11:01 PM):
i want ta dog!
a bittersweet life says (11:07 PM):
the dog?
a bittersweet life says (11:07 PM):
oh, a dog
ervine; says (11:07 PM):
*a dog
ervine; says (11:07 PM):
hahah
a bittersweet life says (11:07 PM):
haha
ervine; says (11:07 PM):
oops
___________________________________________
ervine made a typological error in “ta dog” in the first transmission unit
(there is no t in his repair turn). There was a gap of approximately 6 minutes,
where neither party made any indication that ervine’s transmission unit was
problematic.
a bittersweet life then sought clarification in the next two transmission units
by offering possible alternatives of the same syntactic structure (“the dog”
and “a dog”), afforded by the ambiguity of the typological error. By doing so,
a bittersweet life has located and alerted ervine to the problem site.
ervine affirmed one of the options a bittersweet life offered and his repair
response is marked by an asterisk. By doing so, ervine has also acknowledged
that his first transmission unit was indeed potentially problematic.
In this case, the one who performs or accomplishes a repair is not the one
who initiates the repair operation.
79
The following is another excerpt, where the problem source is signaled by the
party who did not create the problem site. The repair is initiated by the same
party.
(38)
a bittersweet life says (12:05 AM):
hey, ask you
a bittersweet life says (12:05 AM):
do you guys book the basement room is you want to use it?
♪ `lexophile says (12:09 AM):
lol i don't understand your question
♪ `lexophile says (12:10 AM):
*when, you mean?
a bittersweet life says (12:19 AM):
yeah, sorry
a bittersweet life says (12:19 AM):
type too fast
___________________________________________
a bittersweet life starts this conversation off and poses a question in her
second transmission unit. For approximately 4 minutes, neither party
responds. During this time, a bittersweet life does not realize that her
transmission unit is problematic. The need for repair is identified by ♪
`lexophile’s negative feedback “i don’t understand your question” in response
to her query.
Following his negative feedback, ♪ `lexophile proceeds to suggest a possible
target, and marks it by the asterisk. By doing so, he initiates the repair. The
target is followed by a tag “you mean?”, indicating a request for
confirmation. This is one of the other‐initiated repair techniques that
Schegloff, Jefferson, & Sacks (1977) mentioned in their paper.
80
a bittersweet life returns about 9 minutes later, accepts his suggested
response as the target and apologizes for causing ♪ `lexophile’s confusion.
Repair is completed and meaning is successfully negotiated.
Notice that the repair segment by ♪ `lexophile is done with a single word
“*when” instead of replicating the entire interrogative form from a
bittersweet life’s problem source. From the economy of the negotiation, we
can see that a bittersweet life had no problems figuring out what the single
word was meant to do in the repair – to replace “is” in her prior utterance to
get “do you guys book the basement room when you want to use it?”
(39)
a bittersweet life says:
what subject?
mabel says:
chem!
a bittersweet life says:
well, what can I say?
a bittersweet life says:
bond with your paper!
mabel says:
hahah yeah i will!
mabel says:
just a lil a;ks df;als jflasku jnow
a bittersweet life says:
wah, what happened?
mabel says:
huh?
a bittersweet life says:
"just a lil a;ks df;als jflasku jnow"
a bittersweet life says:
panic?
mabel says:
yeah
mabel says:
hahah
mabel says:
like it's FINALLY here that kinda thing
chem: chemistry
lil: little
___________________________________________
81
a bittersweet life and mabel are on the topic of mabel’s impending exams.
mabel’s third transmission unit in this extract contains a string of letters “a;ks
df;als jflasku j”, created by randomly hitting the keyboard rapidly,
sandwiched between “just a lil” and “now”. By convention, it expresses a
general sense of negativity and can be taken to be a kind of grousing,
complaint or whining.
mabel’s “huh?” indicates a disjunct in the conversation, expressing
puzzlement at a bittersweet life’s response to her random transmission unit.
This repair initiation segment acts as a negative feedback for a bittersweet
life, who then makes reference to mabel’s earlier utterance by quoting her to
demonstrate relevance. In addition, she offers her interpretation (“panic?”)
of mabel’s transmission unit. mabel accepts the interpretation (“yeah”),
adding more information subsequently, thus both parties negotiates
successfully to make the necessary repair.
The employment of “huh?” as a turn construction device as an other‐initiated
repair is also done in face‐to‐face conversations (Schegloff, Jefferson, &
Sacks, 1977). We have also seen in earlier examples that online conversations
borrow or build on face‐to‐face repair techniques. The typed‐faced IM mode
enables the use of a symbol (the asterisk *) to indicate repair. The use of
asterisk is most effective when the error is confined to a word or a short
segment that involves a simple replacement.
82
It is impossible to void an action through the use of the asterisk. The
cancellation, retraction or clarification has to be done explicitly through the
text. When the problem source deals with problems of interpretation, the
symbol is not adequate as the repair usually requires a longer explanation
and some negotiation.
83
Chapter 7
Final Words
7.1 Summary of findings
This thesis concerns itself with how interaction is achieved in online
conversations. With the “lack” of tonal information, online conversations
make use of short transmission units to organise information and configure
turns. With the “lack” of paralinguistic features such as the gaze to aid in
smooth turn taking, users turn to situational clues in the chat windows (“XXX
is writing a message”) and contextual clues in the conversation to infer when
is a good time to start a new turn and consequently, manage their talk.
Users can juggle different topics or strands of talk at once online, unlike in
face‐to‐face conversations, and make sense of potentially confusing
intertwining, overlapping talk by appealing to principles of coherence and
relevance. We also see how conventional face‐to‐face repair techniques
continue to be employed online as well. These are some of the resources that
IM users employ to successfully negotiate interactions online.
7.2 Issues for Consideration
A) Forms of conversation and their limitations to analysis
Although the thesis has treated the conversations as they are, the amount of
detailed, meaningful analysis that can be carried out on the data is limited.
Compared to audio transcripts, there seem to be a ‘lack’ of features in the
84
archived conversations. Below are some aspects or features that were found
wanting, that would have given the analyses more weight and certainty.
Timestamp
Most of them have timestamps that go down to the minute, rather than
seconds. This is a limitation of the MSN programme on PCs. Precious details
like speed of production of consecutive transmission units by the same
speaker can be gleaned from timestamps with a finer unit of measurement.
Recently, the MSN version available for Apple computers have refined the
timestamps down to seconds, which was not available during data collection
time. Perhaps the version for PC will be enhanced in the same manner soon,
giving researchers and analysts a handle on more aspects of conversation,
particularly,
1. The speed of production of consecutive transmission units by the
same speaker
2. The timings of overlaps / interruptions
3. The length of gaps, lapses or silences
Emoticons
The emoticons were available for use but could not be included in the
archive. The only evidence that an emoticon was used is a blank transmission
85
unit 8 in its place. The emoticons, as the name suggests, are emotive icons
that can provide insight into the mood of the conversation and the
pragmatics of an utterance (e.g. whether an utterance is meant to be a joke
or a sarcastic remark). The usage of emoticons could also be systematic in
certain sequences (e.g. for politeness, face‐saving purposes), which would
have given more material for inclusion in this thesis.
B) Context
In this study, the participants are familiar with each other and belong to an
in‐group. MSN is an extension of their social space and online conversation is
another mode that they use to engage with one another. It is precisely this
‘spill over’ that we sometimes have to bring in information from outside the
text to understand what the talk is about or how a sequence is created or
completed.
Consider the following excerpt again:
(40)
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
AAHHHHHH!!!!!
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
I WAS ABOUT TO BEAT MY HANDPHONE GAME'S HIGHSCORE!
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
??????
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
sorry....
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
HAHA
♪ `lexophile says (10:33 PM):
LOL
8
Users cannot send a blank message over MSN, so when a blank line is registered under a
users nickname in the conversation, it indicates the use of an emoticon.
86
(40 cont’d)
a bittersweet life says (10:33 PM):
oh, you mean it's not smart enough to put your game on hold??
a bittersweet life says (10:34 PM):
awww....how sad?
a bittersweet life says (10:34 PM):
*how sad is that?
___________________________________________
This excerpt is extracted right from the beginning of an archived
conversation. A bittersweet life’s “??????” indicates a slight confusion to ♪
`lexophile’s outburst. This is followed by an apology “sorry….” by a
bittersweet life. The sequence is puzzling because in the excerpt we do not
see a prior action or a reference to that which she is to be held accountable
for.
A clarification with the two participants found that a bittersweet life had sent
an SMS 9 to ♪ `lexophile moments before this conversation took place. The
incoming SMS had disrupted his playing of a game on his handphone. A
bittersweet life had taken a moment to link the relevance of his transmission
units to her, then getting its intended function – a complaint.
Without this information, we cannot understand a bittersweet life’s
utterances “??????” and “sorry….” and place them meaningfully in the
sequence. In this case, a bittersweet life accomplished an apology by
successfully linking it to an act that was brought into this extended social
9
SMS: short message service, also used to refer to the messages sent out using this service
available to handphone users.
87
space.
The excerpt below is a more extreme case of bringing in the immediate
context into understanding and analyzing talk. This conversation took place
with † ervine sending ‘live’ images to a bittersweet life using the web camera.
(41)
† ervine; says (12:43 PM):
hey
a bittersweet life says (12:54 PM):
yo
a bittersweet life says (12:55 PM):
they baking at your house now?
a bittersweet life says (12:55 PM):
LOL
† ervine; says (12:58 PM):
ha
† ervine; says (12:58 PM):
yeah
† ervine; says (12:58 PM):
take a look
† ervine; is inviting you to start viewing webcam. Do you want to Accept (Alt+C) or
Decline (Alt+D) the invitation?
You have accepted the invitation to start viewing webcam.
a bittersweet life says (1:00 PM):
HAHA
† ervine; says (1:01 PM):
its....
† ervine; says (1:01 PM):
not very successful
† ervine; says (1:01 PM):
haha
a bittersweet life says (1:01 PM):
haha
† ervine; says (1:01 PM):
can you hear?
a bittersweet life says (1:01 PM):
as long as eat already no stomach ache la
a bittersweet life says (1:01 PM):
can't hear
† ervine; says (1:02 PM):
look at the cupcakes
a bittersweet life says (1:02 PM):
there's spposed to be colouring right?
a bittersweet life says (1:02 PM):
*supposed
88
(41 cont’d)
† ervine; says (1:02 PM):
yep
† ervine; says (1:02 PM):
mixing now
a bittersweet life says (1:02 PM):
ah, I see
a bittersweet life says (1:02 PM):
oooh
a bittersweet life says (1:02 PM):
haha
† ervine; says (1:02 PM):
green and red
† ervine; says (1:02 PM):
haha
a bittersweet life says (1:03 PM):
only 3 of you?
† ervine; says (1:03 PM):
yongkai is picking dehui up
a bittersweet life says (1:03 PM):
oh, I see
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
hello!!
† ervine; says (1:04 PM):
hello
† ervine; says (1:04 PM):
did u eat our muffins? or cup=fins?
† ervine; says (1:04 PM):
haha
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
LOL
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
now to eat?
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
*how?
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
wah wah
a bittersweet life says (1:04 PM):
now so many ppl
† ervine; says (1:04 PM):
yep
† ervine; says (1:04 PM):
haha
ppl: people
___________________________________________
A group of mutual friends were over at † ervine’s house, baking for an
upcoming event. There are clues in the archived conversation that there were
several speaker changes over at † ervine’s terminal. For example, the
greeting exchange (“hello!!” and “hello”) halfway into this excerpt was
89
probably done with a speaker other than the one a bittersweet life started
out talking with, since there was already a greeting as the opening sequence.
The occurrence of the directives related to sight like “see” and “look” points
to something outside of the text itself, where something else could be
presented in front of the web camera by the current speaker (e.g. † ervine’s
“take a look” before he enabled the webcam). A bittersweet life could react
to the images she was receiving via the web camera (“now so many ppl”).
In view of topic shifts (which relates to resolution of overlapping talk), it is
important that such conversations be analyzed with the images or video
recording, to understand the tie ups between images and text, how they are
sequentially positioned in relation to each other, so that a more coherent talk
emerges for analysis.
In the same vein, Marcoccia, Atifi & Gauducheau (2007) analyzed the kinesic
behaviours of participants engagaed in instant messaging (online
conversations) and suggested the benefits of doing a multi‐modal analysis
would complement the text‐centred analysis of instant messaging:
In order to go beyond the limits of a text‐centered analysis,
this study takes the kinesic behaviors of participants into
account. An analysis of nonverbal communication, facial
expression, and the relationship between text and kinesic
90
behaviors in video recordings of four instant messaging
discussions reveals that some kinesic behaviors can be seen
as markers of engagement in interaction. … the observation
of the participants' facial expressions permits a more precise
analysis of the emotional dimension of the discussion and
highlights the discrepancy between text and nonverbal
behaviors.
This does not indicate that conversation is made lesser in a text‐based
medium. From the various excerpts in this thesis, we can see that the
participants are still able to communicate with each other adequately via this
medium using the resources available. By incorporating multi‐modal analysis
to complement text‐based analysis Marcoccia et al. (2007) suggests that
when we engage in online conversation, we do more than just talking (i.e. our
bodies at different terminals orientate to the talk as well).
7.3 Future Research
Experimental set‐up
It is possible to collect online data by experimental methods. If the researcher
is also a user of the chat programme, s/he can set up contexts to test
hypotheses made with reference to the data already available.
For example, a researcher could take advantage of the form and design turns
in an MSN conversation without breaking them into shorter transmission
units. By seeing how the other participants react to the stimulus, we can
91
confirm if short transmission units are preferred in online interactions. By
varying the amount of new information in a transmission unit, we can see
what kind of new information the participants can better latch on to, which
part of the previous transmission unit they orientate their talk to.
Software development
Technological advances and software developments make for more exciting
research possibilities. The present archived conversation only shows the final
text that is produced by the participants. It does not show the process of
production. During the crafting of a message, a user can exercise self‐
censorship, self‐correction (self‐repair) all of which the other parties are
unaware of.
With further software development, total synchrony could become a reality,
where what is being typed on the sender’s text box shows up on the
receiver’s screen at the same time. Real time recording and playback would
also enhance the analysis of online conversations, providing more details for
analysis in areas like turn and topic constructions. Whichever form the data
takes, the conversation analyst will have to decide what kind of analysis is
possible and meaningful with the data at hand.
92
References
Anderson, J.F., Beard, F.K. & Walther, J.B. (2010). Turn‐taking and the local
management of conversation in a highly simultaneous computer‐mediated
communication system. Language@Internet, 7, article 7. Retrieved from
http://www.languageatinternet.de/articles/2010/2804
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to Do Things With Words. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
Baltes, B. B., Dickson, M. W., Sherman, M. P., Bauer, C. C., & LaGanke, J. S.
(2002). Computer‐mediated communication and group decision‐making: A
meta‐analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 87: 156–179.
Baron, N.S. (2010). Discourse structures in instant messaging: The case of
utterance breaks. Language@Internet, 7, article 4. Retrieved from
http://www.languageatinternet.de/articles/2010/2651/index_html/
Baym, N.K. (1995). “The emergence of community in computer‐mediated
communication.” In: Jones, Steven G. (Ed), CyberSociety: Computer‐mediated
communication and community, 138‐163. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage
Publications.
Blimes, J. (1997). Being Interrupted. Language in Society 26, 507‐531.
Brown, G. (1995). Speakers, Listeners, and Communication: Explorations in
Discourse Analysis. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Chafe, Wallace L. (1987). “Cognitive constraints on information flow”. In:
Tomlin, Russell S. (ed.), Coherence and grounding in discourse, 21–51.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Chafe, Wallace L. (1994). Discourse, consciousness, and time: the flow and
displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Crystal, D. (2006). Language and the Internet. (2nd ed). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
93
Drew, P. & Heritage, J. (2006). “Editors' introduction”. In: Drew, P. & Heritage
J. (eds.), Conversation Analysis (Volume 1), xxi‐xxxvii. London: Sage.
Eggins, S. (2004). An Introduction To Systemic Functional Grammar (2nd ed.).
London: Continuum.
Eggins, S. & Slade, D. (1997). Analysing Casual Conversation. London: Cassell
Gajadhar, J., & Green, J. (2003). An Analysis of Nonverbal Communication in
anOnline Chat Group, The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, Working Paper.
Garcia, A.C. & Jacobs, J.B. (1999). The Eyes of the Beholder: Understanding
the Turn‐Taking System in Quasi‐Synchronous Computer‐Mediated
Communication. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 32(4): 337–
367.
Goodwin, C. & Goodwin, M.H. (1987). Concurrent Operations on Talk: Notes
on the Interactive Organization of Assessments. IPrA Papers in Pragmatics,
1(1): 1‐52.
Halliday, M.A.K. “The spoken language corpus: a foundation for grammatical
theory”. In: Aijmer, K. & Altenberg, B. (eds.), Advances in Corpus Linguistics,
Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004, 11‐38.
Herring, S.C. (2006). Interactional Coherence in CMC. Journal of Computer‐
mediated Communication, vol. 4(4). doi: 10.1111/j.1083‐
6101.1999.tb00106.x
Hutchby, I. & Wooffitt, R. (2008). Conversation Analysis. Polity Press.
Isaacs, E., Walendowski, A., Whittaker, S., Schiano, D., and Kamm, C. (2002).
“The Character, Functions, and Styles of Instant Messaging in the
Workplace”. In Proceedings of CSCW 2002, New Orleans LA, November 2002,
ACM Press, 11‐20.
Jefferson, G. (1983). On a Failed Hypothesis: 'Conjunctionals' as Overlap‐
Vulnerable. Tilburg Papers in Language and Literature, 28, 1‐33. Tilburg:
Tilburg University.
Jefferson, G. (1984). “Notes on some orderlinesses of overlap onset”. In: V.
D'Urso and P. Leonardi (eds.), Discoure analysis and natural rhetoric, 11‐38.
Padua, Italy: Cleup Editore.
Kinzie, M. B., Whitaker, S. D., & Hofer, M. J. (2005). Instructional uses of
instant messaging (IM) during classroom lectures. Educational Technology &
Society, 8(2): 150‐160.
94
Lim, Li (2000). A Conversation Analysis of ICQ Messaging, National University
of Singapore, Honours Thesis.
Luor, Tainyi (Ted), Wu, Ling‐ling, Lu, Hsi‐Peng & Tao, Yu‐Hui (2010). The effect
of emoticons in simplex and complex task‐oriented communication: An
empirical study of instant messaging. Computers in Human Behavior 26: 889–
895
Marcoccia, M., Atifi, H. & Gauducheau, N. (2007). Text‐Centered versus
Multimodal Analysis of Instant Messaging Conversation. Source:
http://www.languageatinternet.de/articles/2008/1621
McLaughlin, M.L. (1984). Conversation: How Talk Is Organized. England: Sage
Publications.
Prince, E. (1981). “Toward a taxonomy of given‐new information”. In: Cole, P.
(ed.), Radical Pragmatics, 223 – 255. Academic Press.
Prinsen, F.R., Volman, M.L.L., & Terwel J. (2007). Gender‐related differences
in computer‐mediated communication and computer‐supported
collaborative learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 23(5): 393–409.
Rintel, E.s., Mulholland, J., & Pittam, J. (2001). First things first: Internet relay
chat openings. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication 6(3). Retrieved
from http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol6/issue3/rintel.html
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. & Jefferson, G. (1974). A Simplest Systematics for the
Organization of Turn‐Taking for Conversation. Language 50 (4), 696‐735.
Schegloff, E. (1987). “Recycled turn beginnings: A precise repair mechanism
in conversation’s turn‐taking organization. In: Button, Graham, and Lee, R.
(eds.), Talk and Social Organization. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters,
70‐85.
Schegloff, E., Jefferson, G. & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self‐
correction in the organisation of repair in conversation. Language 53, 361‐
382.
Schegloff, E. (1987). Some sources of misunderstanding in talk‐in‐interaction.
Linguistics, 25(1): 201‐218.
Searle, J. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In Cole, P. & Morgan, J.L. (ed) Syntax
and Semantics, 3: Speech Acts. (pp. 59–82). New York: Academic Press.
Reprinted in (1991). Pragmatics: A Reader. Davis, S. (ed) (pp. 265–277).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
95
Tanaka, H. (1999). Turn‐Taking in Japanese Conversation: A Study in
Grammar and Interaction (Pragmatics & Beyond, New Series). Amsterdam:
John Benjamins.
Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer‐mediated communication
effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations. Human
Communication Research, 28: 317–348.
Walther, J. B. (2007). Selective self‐presentation in computer‐mediated
communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and
cognition. Computers in Human Behavior, 23: 2538–2557.
Werry, C.C. (1996). Linguistic and interactional features of Internet Relay
Chat. In Herring S.C (ed.), Computer‐Mediated Communication: Linguistic,
Social and Cross‐Cultural Perspectives. (pp. 47‐64). Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
Wilson, J. (1989). On the boundaries of conversation. Elmsford, NY:
Pergamon.
96
[...]... Data collection started on 15 December 2008 and ended on 30 June 2009. The total number of conversations obtained was 80, all of which are text‐based synchronous online interactions. The number of files collected from each participant varied from 1 to 51, with 78 being two‐party conversations and two files being multi‐party conversations. One of the two multi‐party sessions involved only two terminals A and B, with various people taking turns at A to ... 3.3 Initial Problems With and Evaluations of Archived Conversations There were several problems that emerged as I worked with the archived interactions. The first was the lack of detailed and necessary information, usually present and available in transcripts for analysis in the face‐to‐face conversations. The archived online conversations were retrieved from different machines using different versions of MSN. Although the different ... Working with the constraints, this study focuses on the aspects of conversation that are not so dependent on these factors such as sequences, structure of exchanges, repair. Perhaps, a useful question to address at the end of this study is: How do available forms of archiving limit the extent to which meaningful conversation analysis can be done for online conversations? 15 The second problem pertains to the completeness of the chat logs. Machines ... closer look at where the lines break off, why they break off where they break off and consider what these might mean for online conversations. Taking the transmission units as the basic unit of organization unit in the 19 archived conversations, we will first look at what characteristics these units have and what functions the units serve. 4.2 Transmission Units – What do they do? The placement of the line breaks is not arbitrary. There are structural and ... not receiving all the messages that the other party is sending, if such an occasion were to arise. The third problem relates to the amount of context needed to make sense of a conversation. The data collected for this study is from a closed‐group of youths who already know each other. The online conversation is a mode of communication, an extension of social activity, a spillover from real life 16 interaction for them. This means that they may refer to events that they have ... The data were collected from users of Microsoft Network (MSN) and its Messenger services. This web‐based programme was chosen because of its widespread use for social interaction in cyberspace. In addition, it also provides an auto‐archive function that enables users to save all online conversations in their entirety (as text) on their computer hard‐disks when the option is activated. However, the version number of the MSN programme and the type of ... different context, he proposed three levels of meaning for analysis of utterances ‐ the locutionary, the illocutionary and the perlocutionary force. The locutionary force of an utterance is its literal or surface meaning, the content of what is being said. The illocutionary force refers to the real or intended meaning of the utterance and the perlocutionary force is the effect of the illocution the hearer (Thomas, 1995). ... face‐to‐face at least once a week. The participants consist of five males and four females, all Singaporeans and ethnically Chinese. Under the influence of the bilingual education system in Singapore, they are capable of conversing in both English and Mandarin Chinese colloquially, though notably less frequent in Mandarin. Among their friends, their language of choice is English. At the time of data collection, the youngest of them was in Secondary Three and the ... Consider the earlier excerpt which was raised as an example of ‘redundancy’. Taking eunice’s short transmission units as strategies for information packaging, we can see her perceived needs of the recipient a bittersweet life and in turn gain insight into information units in online conversations. (4) a bittersweet life says (11:12 PM): the secular songs are our pursuits of the world: friends, love, school, country,... personally, including but not limited to their personal styles, tones, flair, preference of rhetorics (sacarsm, humour, hyperbole etc.). This knowledge aids them in making pragmatic sense of each other’s utterances. It is unclear at this point how much of their interpersonal relations need to be brought in to make sense of the data from the researcher’s point of view. The participants are available for clarification of data when the need arises. This ... Situated in the tradition of conversation analysis (CA), this research aims to discover and present patterns of interaction in online conversations pertaining to the structural aspects of conversations in IM. In particular, we ... and concerns itself with how interaction is achieved in online conversations. With the resources available, how are online conversations organized? What are some of the potential trouble sources and how are they resolved? ... sense, an explanation was sought by appealing to a variety of theories and analytic tools found in textual analysis or conversation analysis. The analyses were done mostly by observation. Features unique to online conversations 2