Architectural inculturation and transformation case study on the three catholic churches in java

... by the author On the other hand, author decodes the meanings of the three churches based on personal experience during exploring the data and engaging in the activities in churches during the. .. defines inculturation as follows: Inculturation is the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integrations in Christianity, and the insertion of Christianity in the. .. discussion 1.4 Limitation of the Study Based on the experience during survey for this study, there are many cases on architectural inculturation which could be found in the Catholic churches in Java

ARCHITECTURAL INCULTURATION AND

TRANSFORMATION: A CASE STUDY ON THREE

CATHOLIC CHURCHES IN JAVA

ADI SANTOSA

[BA (Hons.), Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta]

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2010

During my studies and preparation for this thesis research, the role of supervisors has been very important to me I express my infinite gratitude to Dr Johannes Widodo as my supervisor who has guided me with all the discussions that opened my mind, the instructions that facilitated the process of writing my research, and the wise advices that made me stay motivated until the completion of this research My gratitude also goes to Dr Lilian Chee as my previous supervisor Her coaching in the early days has been very important as a basis for subsequent writings

My research would not have progressed smoothly without any person or institution willing to help provide the data and information Therefore, on this account

I also wish to express my gratitude and appreciation to those who have helped provide materials for my research in the field survey:

• Mgr Ignatius Suharyo, Pr, former Archbishop of the Archbishopric of Semarang

• Sariyanto, Pr, Vicar General of the Vicariate of Yogyakarta

• Dominicus Bambang Sutrisno, Pr, Director of the Museum of Mission of Muntilan, and staffs: mas Anton and mas Seno

• Hendrikus van Opzeeland, SJ, former supervisor for Propaganda Fide building projects, Jesuits Province of Indonesia

• Yoseph Suyatno Hadiatmojo, Pr, Priest of the St John the Apostle of Somohitan Church

• Christophorus Sutrasno Purwanto, Pr, Priest of the Santa Maria Assumpta of Klaten Church

• Krismawan Aris Dwiyanto, Secretary of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Ganjuran Church

• Sumardiyanto, Ir., M.Sc, Ismartono P Rahardjo, Ir., MIH.Sc, and Benny Kristiawan, ST, architects from Atmajaya University, Yogyakarta

• Albertus Bagus Laksana, SJ, theologian from Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta

• St Ignatius Seminary Library, Yogyakarta, and Library of Department of Architecture, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta

I am also grateful to all my friends for sharing and helping during my study in Singapore Finally, I thank all my family, especially my beloved wife and son, and my parents and parents-in-laws All their love, care, support and prayers have allowed me

to survive and enable me to complete my study

Adi Santosa Singapore, 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ………

Acknowledgement ………

Table of Contents ………

Summary ………

List of Figures ………

i ii iv vi vii Chapter 1: Introduction ………

1.1 Background ………

1.2 Objective of the Study and Research Question ………

1.3 Methodology ………

1.4 Limitation of the Study ………

1 1 3 4 5 Chapter 2: Theoretical Review ………

2.1 Levels of Cultural Encounter ………

2.2 Development of Inculturation and Church Councils ………

2.3 Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City ………

2.4 Javanese Architecture ………

2.5 Religious Architecture in Java ………

2.6 New Dutch-Indies Architecture and Indonesian Modern Architecture ……

2.7 Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago ………

6 6 9 12 20 24 27 30 Chapter 3: Development of the Three Churches ……… ……

3.1 The Ganjuran Church ………

3.2 The Klaten Church ………

3.3 The Somohitan Church ………

37 38 49 56 Chapter 4: Architectural Inculturation and Transformation ………

4.1 Juxtaposing … ………

4.2 Superimposing … ….………

4.3 Interlocking ………

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Chapter 5: Discussion ……… ………

5.1 The Significance of the Church Architectural Inculturation … …………

5.2 Benchmark in the Church Architectural Inculturation ………

5.3 Design Approach in the Church Architectural Inculturation ………

5.4 The Role of Architects, Parish Priests and Parishioners ………

5.5 Social Communication in the Church Architectural Inculturation ………

87 87 91 93 94 98 Chapter 6: Conclusion ……… 99

Bibliography ………

Appendix 1: Articles ………

Appendix 2: The Ganjuran Church ………

Appendix 3: The Klaten Church ………

Appendix 4: The Somohitan Church ………

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SUMMARY

Inculturation is a movement in Catholicism to respect local wisdoms and customs of various cultures in the world and to harmonize them with Gospel In practice, inculturation has materialized in Church liturgy By inculturation, Latin liturgy was not the only liturgy in Catholicism Each archbishop has had a chance to develop their own liturgies by accommodating local cultural values Inculturation in church architecture is needed to fulfill various spatial needs for distinctive expressions

in those liturgies Inculturation has enabled forms and functions of church architecture transformed from universal standards to local variations Besides, interpretation of meanings in church architecture has become more plentiful, and it contains a duality between local and universal meaning

Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study tried to reveal architectural inculturation by analyzing their development and examining their transformation of forms, functions, and meanings Furthermore, this study aims to generate broader understandings about the church architectural inculturation through a discussion based on the result of developments analyses and transformation examinations

Employing a typological approach, this study found that the way the three churches transformed their forms, functions, and meanings can be classified in three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking Through a discussion on this typological analysis and combined with interviews data, this study has generated some points especially related to the significance of the church architectural inculturation and the requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation

Keywords: architecture, inculturation, transformation

LIST OF FIGURES

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Maps of Indonesia and Central Java ………

Level of cultural encounter diagram ………

Timeline chart of Inculturation ………

Timeline chart of the Church Council ………

Prambanan and Borobudur Temple ………

Ancient and recent cities in Java ………

Capital city of Majapahit according to Mclaine Pont ………

Ancient Yogyakarta City ………

Joglo, limasan, and kampong building typology …… …………

Room division in Javanese traditional house ………

Sequence of the Javanese architectural culture ………

Timeline chart of the religious architecture in Java ………

Variation of the New Dutch-Indies architectural conceptions ……

Neo-gothic churches in Jakarta, Surabaya and Malang …………

Churches with local forms in Sidikalang and Tuka ………

Timeline chart of Catholic Church in Indonesia ………

Map of the Chosen Churches ………

Site of the Ganjuran Church complex ………

Exterior and interior of the early Ganjuran church ………

A Mass in front of the Monument of the Sacret Heart of Jesus …

First phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex

Second phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex ………

Exterior and interior of the temporary church ………

Façade of the early Ganjuran church after earthquake ………

Exterior and interior of the recent Ganjuran church ………

Third phase of the development of the Ganjuran Church complex Compilation of the building typologies at the Ganjuran Church … Site of the Klaten Church complex ………

First phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex …

The early Klaten church ………

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Second phase of the development of the Klaten Church complex

Exterior and interior landscape of the recent Klaten Church ……

Compilation of the building typologies at the Klaten Church ……

Site of the Somohitan Church complex ………

First phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex The early Somohitan church ………

An illustration by H Caminada, SJ ………

Illustration details by H Caminada, SJ ………

Second phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex ………

Site of the second Somohitan church ………

Façade of the second Somohitan church ………

Situation at the site of the Somohitan cultural hall ………

Third phase of the development of the Somohitan Church complex Façade of the new Somohitan church ………

Compilation of the building typologies at the Somohitan Church

Transformation of the early Ganjuran church ………

Transformation of the early Somohitan church ………

Transformation of the second Somohitan church ………

Transformation of the early Klaten church ………

Transformation of the new Ganjuran church ………

Transformation of the new Klaten church ………

Transformation of the new Somohitan church ………

The “astuti”, a ritual to parade the monstrance around the Ganjuran temple ………

Gamelan for liturgical music in the Ganjuran church ………

A pilgrim is praying in front of the statue of Jesus inside the Ganjuran temple ………

The luwengan, a small and hidden space to put the tabernacle in the Klaten church ………

Community support from various religious groups in the renovation of the Somohitan church ………

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policies, and inculturation is one of the issues which were discussed The Redemtoris Missio, an encyclical of the Gaudium et Spes decree of the Second Vatican Council,

defines inculturation as follows:

‘Inculturation is the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integrations in Christianity, and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures By inculturation, the Church implements the Gospel into various human cultures and puts them into the alliance of the universal Church’1

Inculturation is a movement in Catholicism to respect local wisdoms and customs of various cultures in the world and to harmonize them with Gospel In practice, inculturation has materialized in Church liturgy By inculturation, Latin liturgy was not the only liturgy in Catholicism Each archbishop has had a chance to develop their own liturgies by accommodating local cultural values Inculturation in church architecture is needed to fulfill various spatial needs for distinctive expressions

in those liturgies Inculturation has enabled forms and functions of church architecture transformed from universal standards to local variations Besides, interpretation of meanings in church architecture has become more plentiful, and it contains a duality

      

1

Cited by Robert Hardawiryana, 2001:28-29

between local and universal meaning Local meaning is interpretations towards the church architecture that is interpreted by local parishioners based on their local cultural values, while universal meaning is interpretations that is interpreted by the church institution based on the Gospel teachings

The term of “inculturation” had just gained an official recognition since the Second Vatican Council, held in Vatican, Rome, from 1962 until 1965 However, the practices of inculturation had been existed since many years before Many missionaries in the past used to employ inculturation as a strategy to localized

is an important case because of its success in christianized Javanese by inculturation Fransiscus Georgius Josephus van Lith, S.J (1863-1926) is a Dutch missionary in Java who pioneered in applying inculturation by using Javanese language to introduce the Christian values among the Javanese Moreover, he translated Latin prayers also

in Javanese, employed the gamelan for liturgical music instrument, and built his first Church in a Javanese traditional architecture typology of “limasan” in Muntilan in the

early twentieth century Since the era of van Lith, the number of Javanese parishioners increased rapidly They dispersed in many regions in what is now known

as Central Java Province and Yogyakarta Province of Republic Indonesia territory, or

in Semarang Archdiocese of Catholic territory

of the last two Javanese kingdoms, Surakarta and Yogyakarta. 

Figure 1: Maps of Indonesia and Central Java (author, 2010)

1.2 Objective of the Study and Research Question

Choosing three Catholic churches in Java as the case study, this study tried to reveal architectural inculturation by analyzing their development and examining their transformation of forms, functions, and meanings Furthermore, this study aims to generate broader understandings about the church architectural inculturation through a discussion based on the above development analyses and transformation examination results

More specifically, these broader understandings will be achieved through some research questions including: How the transformation can be categorized? What

is the significance of the church architectural inculturation? What is the benchmark in the church architectural inculturation? What design approach is suitable to be applied

in the church architectural inculturation? How is the role of architects, parish priests and parishioners in the church architectural inculturation? Why social communication

is important in the church architectural inculturation? Finally, all the questions lead to

a formulation: What are the requirements to success the conducting of church architectural inculturation?

1.3 Methodology

In this study, the discussion begins with a review of theories and data as the basic knowledge to recognize the context of the issues raised They include: levels of cultural encounter; development of inculturation and church councils; Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City; Javanese architecture; religious architecture in Java; new Dutch-Indies architecture and Indonesian modern architecture; and Catholic Church

in Indonesian Archipelago

Architecture of the three parish churches in Java are taken as the case study including: the Ganjuran church, the Klaten church, and the Somohitan church They are chosen based on a consideration that each churches has unique characteristics related to architectural inculturation, however all of them have a similarity in using Javanese architectural culture as the basic idea to form their architectures

In order to analyze the development of those three churches, the author used typological analysis Using typological approach, architecture is analyzed based on its physical forms to reveal its functions and meanings Typological approach allows the analysis relies on the materialized forms so inculturation study could be more focused

on the architectural point of view Functions in the three churches are revealed through typological approach Other factors including historical, social and cultural is also chronologically analyzed to build an integrative analysis

Architectural inculturation is a transformation of architecture caused by interaction between two different architectural cultures In another words, identifying architectural transformation could be used as a tool to reveal an architectural inculturation phenomenon In this study, ‘transformation’ itself is defined as the change of form, function, and meaning of the church architecture that is caused by intercultural interactions These transformations related to the process of ‘meeting’ of

inner and outer architectural culture Analysis of the transformations results three configurations including juxtaposing, superimposing, and interlocking

The results of development and transformation analyses are used as the bases

to reveal architectural inculturation of the chosen three churches in a broader point of view Interviews with parish priests, church leaders and officials, parishioner leaders and architects of the churches are the main sources for this discussion Meanings in the three churches are encoded through their opinions Names of the above respondents are cited to keep the authenticity of opinions as long as they do not interfere with privacy and ethics Thus, all original interview recordings are kept by the author On the other hand, author decodes the meanings of the three churches based on personal experience during exploring the data and engaging in the activities

in churches during the research in the field Personal knowledge was acquired through the theoretic studies about inculturation and church architecture New understandings

on the church architectural inculturation are raised through this discussion

1.4 Limitation of the Study

Based on the experience during survey for this study, there are many cases on architectural inculturation which could be found in the Catholic churches in Java The more cases are taken, the more uniqueness could be revealed However, because of

insufficient documentation in several churches complicated this study For these limitations, the author’s personal interpretation toward incomplete data may not be so valid

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.1 Levels of Cultural Encounter

For Catholic Church, inculturation is a strategy to enter various cultures in the world and an awareness to respect the diversity of cultures However, Catholic retains its own cultural values from melting or fusing of cultures Therefore, to avoid the emergence of syncretism, Catholic formulated its own terminology As stated in the background of this paper, “inculturation” is a specific term in Catholicism which relates to the meeting of Christianity and various indigenous cultures in the world Related to the “meeting” of cultures, there are several terms and terminologies which could be arranged based on their levels of connectivity, as follows:

1 Inculturation: revealing a relationship between Christian values and worldwide cultures Churches receive all the world cultural heritages (customs, traditions, wisdoms, art and knowledge) as a contribution to enrich Christianity; on the other hand, they are improved by the Christian values

2 Enculturation: a process for an individual to enter his/her own culture He/she needs someone else to support and train him/her in all his/her aspects of life This learning process differentiates human beings and the other creatures; and by this process a human being will live by his/her cultural manners

3 Acculturation: a meeting of various cultures, or intercultural contact that results changes and impacts when different cultural groups are in contact continuously This process will result the changes of the basic cultural pattern of one or both cultures

4 Transculturation: the transfer of cultural characteristics, cultural symbols, cultural meanings, cultural pattern, cultural values, or cultural institutions to another different culture The transference is repressive and creates a universal characteristic following the repressor On the other hand, the repressor is reclusive

5 Syncretism: Reconciliation or fusion of differing systems of belief, as in philosophy or religion, especially when success is partial or the result is

 

Based on the above definitions, it could be concluded that inculturation is different from enculturation since inculturation occurs in institutional level while enculturation occurs in personal level Inculturation is also different from acculturation In inculturation, an outer culture (church) takes the initiative to meet inner cultures (indigenous cultures) to enrich each other; however, they still retain its basic cultural pattern Acculturation will occur when the initiative has come from the both parties to make continuous and intensive relationships in such a way that one or both of them release some basic cultural patterns Comparing to transculturation that

is repressive, in inculturation, none of any party becomes the repressor or the repressed Both of them are in an equal position and respect each other Syncretism is the most intimate relationship among the cultures It happens when they have melted themselves to create a new hybrid culture

Inculturation occurs by a process For this research, the process was divided into three steps: early, middle, and late process All of them, together with the terms

of acculturation and syncretism are arranged in a diagram to show their levels of cultural encounter as follows:

to juxtapose each another Therefore, both of them will stand on their own cultures while they learn to find each entry points

it will superimpose the other one

Enculturation occures in individual level It happens when a person enters to a culture and learns to accept that culture to become her/his new culture

In acculturation, relationships between two (or more) different cultures continue intensively in such a way that one or both of them release some basic cultural patterns

Figure 2: Level of cultural encounter diagram (author, 2009)

2.2 Development of Inculturation and Church Councils

According to Franzen, he explained that inculturation is a long historical process in Catholicism His description on inculturation can be summarized in a time line chart as follow:

 

Figure 3: Timeline chart of Inculturation (author, 2009, referring Franzen, 1988)

The formulation of inculturation by the Catholics, before this term was formally declared in the Second Vatican Council, has been inspired and developed for many centuries Franzen wrote that the phenomenon of inculturation started from the Pentecost, when Saint Paul spoke to the Greek at the Aeropagus of Athens by their language Later, in the history of missions, missionaries such as St Patrick in Ireland (400s) and Sts Cyril and Methodius in the Eastern Europe (800’s) adapted

In transculturation, an outer culture enters and penetrates an inner culture to become its patron

In syncretism, the two (or more) different cultures meet and melt each other to result a new hybrid culture

Christianity to the local cultural contexts After discoveries of the Americas, Asia and Africa by Spanish and Portuguese after Renaissance, the Jesuits Matteo Ricci and others had successfully introduced Christianity to China by adapting the Catholic faith

to Chinese thinking and cultural practicing

Finally, the long term practices of inculturation have also influenced the

In 1894, Pope Leo XIII produced encyclical Praeclara Gratulationis that

praised the cultural and liturgical diversity of expressions of faith within the Church Pope Benedict XV, since 1919 has attempted inculturation by de-Europeanization of the Catholic missions to develop the autonomy of local

clergies In 1939 Pope Pius XII wrote in Summi Pontificatus that a deeper

appreciation into the various civilizations and their good qualities are necessary to the preaching of the Gospel of Christ He also demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European culture After Pius XII, John Paul II addressed the issue of inculturation in several encyclicals and

public appearances In the encyclical Slavorum Apostoli (1985), he defined

inculturation as “the incarnation of the Gospel in native cultures and also the introduction of these cultures into the life of the Church”; and in the encyclical

Redemptoris Missio in 1990, he also defined inculturation as “the intimate

transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures."

Finally, Redemptoris Missio 52 stated that “inculturation is a theological term

The above description implied that from practical actions, inculturation has become the papal teachings In the history of Christianity, some of the papal teachings have also influenced to or been influenced by the church councils, the meetings of all churches representations from all church territories to discuss and produce decrees related to Gospel canons, ecclesiastical teachings and protocols Church council has become an important inheritance for Christianity, and Catholic Church deeply concerns to it During its history, Catholic Church has acknowledged 21 councils which were divided into three periods as follows:

Figure 4: Timeline chart of the Church Council

(author, 2009, referring Tanner, 2003)  

The first seven councils, Nicaea I until Nicaea II, are the most ecumenical since it represented universal churches Western (Rome), Orthodox, and Eastern (Constantinople) Churches took equal roles in those councils Early Christianity councils were held in Eastern Europe and employed Greek as the main language In the discussions, they were more focusing on Gospel canons and ecclesiastical teaching Nevertheless, in the Medieval Ages, all councils were identical with Western Church councils since a schism between Western and Eastern Church occurred Besides, they were held in Western Europe and Latin has been used instead

of Greek In the discussion, they were more focus on issuing ecclesiastical protocols

The emergence of Protestantism in the fifteenth century revealed a modern council of Trento Although the early aim of this council was to accommodate the reformist’s indictments, it finally delivered contra-reform decisions The First Vatican Council was held to complete some suspended decisions of the Trento Council related

to the role of pope Nevertheless, the Second Vatican Council did not continue the First Vatican Council but innovated new and unpredicted decisions related to

      

7

According to Tanner, 2003:120-121, they include: Sacrosanctum Concilium (constitution concerning Holy Liturgy, 1963), Inter Mirifica (decree concerning mass media, 1963), Lumen Gentium (dogmatic

Gentes and Gaudium et Spes, are the most important decrees related to inculturation Later, Slavorum Apostoli and Redemptoris Missio, two encyclicals by Pope John Paul

II which concerned to inculturation (as it has been discussed above), was produced to respond these decrees

2.3 Java: History, Cultural Identity, and City

Java is one of the five biggest islands in Indonesia It is about 1.100 kilometers length and 120 kilometer width in average The total area of Java is approximately 132,187 square kilometers, occupying approximately seven percent of the total land area in Indonesia Despite the relatively small percentage, but Java is currently inhabited by about 40% of the total Indonesian population which amounted to more than 250 million people So Java is an island with the densest population in Indonesia, and the density is accumulated in the big cities in Java such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and Malang

Historically, Java has evolved and has a prominent role as a center of civilization in the archipelago since the 8th century, under the Buddhist kingdom of the dynasty of Syailendra Artifacts that can be seen up to now are the Buddhist temples scattered in the region of Central Java Two of the most famous temples are Borobudur and the temple complex of Sewu Progress was caused by the proliferation

of Java that allows the development of the agricultural culture Since the dynasty of

      

constitution concerning Church, 1964), Orientalium Ecclesiarum (decree concerning Eastern Catholic Church, 1964), Unitatis Redintegratio (decree concerning ecumenicalism, 1964), Christus Dominus (decree concerning bishop’s ecclesiastical pastoral tasks, 1965), Perfectae Caritatis (decree concerning renewal and adaptation of religious life, 1965), Optatam Totius (decree concerning priest course, 1965), Gravissimum Educationis (declaration concerning Christian Education, 1965), Nostrae Aetate (declaration concerning relationship between Church and non-Christian religions, 1965), Dei Verbum (dogmatic constitution concerning divine revelation, 1965), Apostolicam Actuositatem (decree concerning laity apostolate, 1965), Dignitatis Humanae (declaration concerning religious freedom, 1965), Ad Gentes (decree concerning Church mission, 1965), Presbyterorum Ordinis (decree concerning priesthood service and life, 1965), Gaudium et Spes (pastoral constitution concerning

Church in the recent world, 1965).

Syailendra, Java has become a major rice producer in the archipelago, and a surplus of rice production has enabled Java become suppliers to other regions outside of Java

Figure 5: Prambanan and Borobudur Temple

(Siswantoro, 2010)

active volcanoes Volcanic ash which became the source of soil fertility is a result of the eruptions of volcanoes Until now there are 35 active volcanoes on the island of Java

The advance of agriculture in Java continued until the next period of the Hindu Mataram kingdom in the 9th century AD, with its greatest heritage includes the temple complex of Prambanan and Ratu Boko Palace in Central Java Due to a disaster that so far not been recorded clearly, in the year 1006 AD, Hindu-Javanese kingdom in Central Java moved to East Java, and it reached its prosperity during the

golden age, the power of the Majapahit Kingdom is thought to cover almost the entire territory of the archipelago Although some historians doubt the truth that the source power of Majapahit was caused by their military power, but it could hardly indisputable that the strong influence of Majapahit to other regions outside of Java, is because those areas dependent on rice supplies from Java

Since the late 15 century, Majapahit Kingdom declined due to the internal conflicts, along with the decline of the Hindu-India cultural polarization in Southeast Asia, as well as the increasing influence of Islamic and Chinese cultures into Java through the merchants of Gujarat (India-Islam) and China The development of trade and maritime culture, particularly in regions along the northern coast of Java Island, has given birth to the cities of independent trade such as Banten, Jayakarta, Cirebon, Semarang, Demak, Kudus and Jepara The strengthening of these trading cities eventually led to a new political force which can ultimately defeat the power of Majapahit Demak finally emerged as the first Islamic kingdom in Java that could take over the role of power of Majapahit in the early 16th century

The power of the maritime kingdom of Demak in Java did not last long Pajang, a kingdom based on agriculture in inland Central Java, managed to take power from Demak and shifted the center of power back into the inland of Java Thus, trading towns on the north coast of Java was again controlled by agriculture-based empires Islamic-Mataram, established in Kotagede at the end of the 16th century, was the next agriculture-based kingdom that took power from Pajang, and it had reached the peak of success at the time led by Sultan Agung in the early 17th century

In the subsequent period, Islamic-Mataram kingdom was experiencing a lot of conflicts and eventually divided into two kingdoms, Surakarta and Yogyakarta in

1755.8

The weakening of the political power of Islamic-Mataram has allowed the

      

8

These two kingdoms still exist today, and become part of the Republic of Indonesia In fact, the Sultanate of Yogyakarta is still recognized its political power by the Indonesian government by determining the region of Yogyakarta as a special province, where the Sultan automatically has the right to lead the region as the governor

century, finally mastering the entire Java as part of the Dutch colony in the East Indian region Until the end of the Dutch colonial period, namely in 1942, Java retained as a granary for the Dutch East Indies territory

Figure 6: Ancient and recent cities in Java

(Zahnd, 2008) Agriculture that had been the source of life for Javanese for centuries had shaped the character of Javanese culture First, farming is closely related to natural cycles, namely the planting and harvesting rice performed at certain seasons, and they are done repeatedly with the same pattern Thus, the Javanese are familiar with regularity, not drastic changes Second, the work of the farming is work to do together Therefore, the Javanese prefer togetherness and unity of life Third, farmers like to collect Agricultural products are collected and stored so it can be eaten until the next harvest

      

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Once ruled by the Dutch, the name of Jayakarta was changed to Batavia, and after Indonesian independence in 1945, the name of Batavia was renamed Jakarta

With the above three characteristics, the basis of Javanese culture is formed Thus, many new cultures coming from outside are accepted, then be adapted to the pre-existing culture; so even though many foreign cultures entered and accepted in Java, but the native culture is not lost but melted in it ‘The typical of Javanese culture lies in its ability to let itself flooded by many waves of foreign cultures, and in that floods it retain its authenticity.’10

With the above historical development and cultural identity, the emergence of cities in Java are more influenced by the existence of agricultural-based kingdoms in inland Java rather than by the existence of maritime-based kingdoms in the north coast of Java The cities based on trading culture only lies along the north coast of Java such as Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya, while other cities in inland of Java are automatically based on agricultural culture Yogyakarta and Surakarta are two examples of inland cities in Java that inherited a pattern of agricultural-based cities from Hindu-Mataram Kingdom in Central Java and Majapahit Kingdom in East Java

According to Santoso (2008), cities in Java during pre-colonial era have two basic principles: sacred axis and circumference fence The principle of sacred axis has

Mendut Temple and Borobudur Temple laid in a sacred axis that shows a sacred route for pilgrims to reach Borobudur in the past The same pattern can also be found on the reconstruction of the capital of Majapahit Kingdom in Trowulan, East Java The principle of this sacred axis can be categorized as typical of the original town of Java, since this principle did not only exist in the Hindu and Buddhist, but also continued until the Islamic period The pattern of the capital of the Islamic Mataram Kingdom of Yogyakarta also continued to apply this principle

      

10

Suseno, 2001:1

Figure 7: Capital city of Majapahit according to Maclaine Pont

(Santoso, 2008)

Early development of the principle of the circumference fence can be found in the temple complex of Prambanan (Siva) and Sewu (Buddhism) The main function of this fence is not as a fortress but a territorial boundary that distinguishes the sacred area with the profane area In the Majapahit era, circumference fence only limited royal palace area, while other city elements such as city hall, religious buildings, market and settlements have absolutely no guardrails Thus, in contrast to the principles of the fortress town, cities in Java do not have a castle that serves as a

of Islamic Mataram Kingdom, where a fortified fence around the king’s palace was also not fully functioning as a bulwark of defense, considering civil and military settlements located outside the fortress palace Likewise, the royal officials and the princes also resided mostly outside the fortress palace

At the king’s palace, circumference fence is not enabled for personal sanctify

of the king, but royal heirlooms Inheritance-heirlooms were believed to have supernatural powers to protect the safety of the Kingdom of the threat of the enemy as well as the nature Besides, they are also believed to be the source of fertility As in the Palace of Yogyakarta and Surakarta, every year these Palaces held a ritual of washing the heirlooms Villagers always come in the ceremony and they will be competing for the water that was used to wash the heirlooms They believe that the water can fertilize rice fields and drive away pests Furthermore, if extreme conditions such as famine due to weather and pests occurred, the heirlooms will be paraded out, and the accounts will be able to restore nature in normal conditions, paddy fields will return fruitful and harvest will overflow again

Figure 8: Ancient Yogyakarta City

(Santoso, 2008)

The above discussion shows how agricultural culture has affected the pattern

of the cities in Java, where its continuity can be seen from the era of Buddhism, Hinduism, until Islam However, this continuity was over since the Netherlands colonized Java Layout pattern based on the alignment of a cosmic relationship between man and nature is replaced with a layout pattern based on functional consideration and rationality As an example is the construction of the railway in the early 19th century connecting Yogyakarta with other cities in the west from Purworejo to Batavia, as well as in the East from Surakarta to Surabaya The railway stretched across the middle of the city from west to east, so that it cut frontally the north-south sacred axis As the impact of the construction of this railway, the development of the city was no longer following the north-south axis Development

of a new colonial housing complex in southeast of Yogyakarta Palace in the early 20th century, for example, cannot be separated from the existence of this railway The existence of a railway station near this colonial housing has enabled it to be very close

to the transit area of human and goods to and from major cities outside of Yogyakarta The placement of the new town is based on economic considerations, and nothing to

do with the principle of north-south sacred axis of the city of Yogyakarta

2.4 Javanese Architecture

Basically, Javanese architecture is divided into two categories: classical and traditional Classical Javanese architecture is influenced by Indian architecture It had developed since the seventh century and achieved its culmination in the ninth century Most of its masterpiece works were Hinduism and Buddhism religious buildings and they were stone structure Prambanan and Borobudur temple in Central Java are two examples that manifest the perfection of classical Javanese architecture The classical

Javanese architecture existed until the fourteenth century, and it was over together with the end of Hindu-Buddhism era in Java

Javanese traditional architecture is rooted from the autonomous local architecture It was shaped based on the adaptation to the local climate and material sources Java Island lays at the wet tropical climate which is characterized by the high volume of rain and the warm temperature during a year It influences the basic shape

of roof to anticipate heavy rain and the structure of partition to accommodate warm temperature

In Hindu-Buddhism era, Javanese traditional architecture had been developed

by the inclusion of religious philosophies into building form and structure Forms were no longer just follow functions but also to follow symbolic meanings Since Islam era in around the fifteenth century, Javanese traditional architecture had developed progressively to achieve its perfection Unlike the classical Javanese architecture which is dominated by stone structure, the Javanese traditional architecture is dominated by wooden structure

During the Islamic era, Javanese traditional architecture replaced the role of classical Javanese architecture for both public buildings including mosques and royal palaces, and private building including manor and commoner houses In this era, the influence of Chinese architecture occurred Similarity in the structure of building and construction system allowed Javanese architecture to get influence from Chinese architecture In its history, some building experts, especially for the wooden building,

came from China For example, Bangsal Pangrawit, a hall in Yogyakarta Sultanate

Palace, was built hiring experts from China

There are three most common typologies of Javanese traditional architecture

based on the roof shape: joglo, limasan, and kampong Joglo architecture has the most

complicated and sophisticated roof construction and technique comparing to the two other typologies These three architectures functioned as public or private building

As public building they functioned as meeting hall, and as private building they functioned as house Joglo architecture was used as the model for nobilities’ house, limasan architecture was for royal officials’ house, and kompong architecture was for common people’s house

Figure 9: Joglo, limasan, and kampong building typology

(UNESCO, 2007) Javanese traditional architecture consists of one story with the basic shape of a square or rectangle A Javanese architecture that functioned as a house divided into

• Pendapa, an open building with no walls supported by four main columns (saka guru) It is used for “public” activities such as receiving guests The pendapa is

located in the front most part of the house and can be seen from outside; therefore

it is usually built to impress dignitaries

• Dalem, which is located behind the pendapa, is the main building functioning as the family/living room The dalem is divided into two parts: senthong and middle

room

• Senthong consists of a row of three rooms: senthong kiwa (left), senthong tengah (middle), and senthong tengen (right) Senthong kiwa is for storing heirlooms and weapons Senthong tengah (also called petanen, pasren, or krobongan) is a

      

11

UNESCO, 2007:43

sanctified room to honor Dewi Sri, the goddess of prosperity Senthong tengen is

used as a bedroom

• Pringgitan is situated between the pendapa and dalem The pringgitan is used

especially to hold leather puppet performance

Figure 10: Rooms division in Javanese traditional house

(UNESCO, 2007)

Additional buildings consist of:

• Gandok is the building to the left and right side of the dalem The left-side gandok (gandok kiwa) is used as male bedroom, while the right-side (gandok tengen) is used as female bedrooms There is also an open yard between the gandok and dalem which is useful to keep the house comfortable

• Gadri is the building behind the dalem usually used as a dining room The gadri can be accessed from the back doors of the left or right senthongs The gadri is a

semi open building and is similar in shape to a porch

• Pekiwan and pawon is the service area which is located in the back part of the house complex The pekiwan is a bath room and the pawon is a kitchen A well

can also be found nearby the kitchen and the bathroom

2.5 Religious Architecture in Java

Since Javanese life was directed by the agricultural culture, Javanese architecture was formed based on the living requirements of peasantry Places for living and worship were the main requirements for peasantry society Koentjaraningrat (1985) describes the Javanese original genuine house of the average peasant family based on their physically features as follows:

The original genuine griya (house) of the average peasant family used to be a

rectangular structure measuring about 8 x 10 meters and made of wood pillars and crossbeams, of which the front is the length of the rectangle The walls are

made of gedeg (plaited bamboo), where often even a small window is absent

There are sliding bamboo doors at the front and the rear of the house, and easily removable plaited bamboo partitions divide the interior into a number of

rooms The floor is of jogan (packed dirt), and there is a peaked roof,

Related to the requirement for worship, Javanese considered the house as a space where human being and the spirit of ancestors or gods lived together in the same place but in two different zones: realm world and spiritual world Thus, in every Javanese traditional house, a sacred space was equipped in the center of the house

which is called senthong It functioned as the place of the worship to the fertility goddess,

      

12

Koentjaraningrat, 1985:134

relationship between human being and the spirits The Javanese house architecture,

In the peasantry culture, unity and continuity are the purposes of every living aspect Niels Mulder (2005) described this Javanese character thus:

Unity and order mean peacefulness, quiet continuity, mastery, success and well-being, a moral way of life, that all seem to be threatened by the chaotic forces of non-domesticated nature, the untamed drives and desire of the individual, and the lure of the spirit world.15

Thus, gathering among family and relatives has become an important aspect to maintain the unity and continuity Later, the “gathering” has had a wide meaning When outer cultures came to Java, they were gathered in order to maintain the unity and continuity with the former culture By this manner, all foreign cultures which came to Java - Hinduism and Buddhism, Chinese, Islamic, and European cultures – were absorbed into the Javanese culture

In architecture, the absorption process can be divided into four steps:

transplantation process, a foreign building type was erected by copying its original model Differences of climatic factors resulted an environmental disharmonious Therefore, in the adaptation process, a foreign building type was adapted to the local environmental factor Continuous contacts with the local culture encouraged an accommodation of the local architecture Local architectural forms and principles were accommodated into the latecomer architecture When experiments and efforts to create an adaptive and accommodative architecture were generated, it delivered the new hybrid architecture

Figure 11: Sequence of the Javanese architectural culture (author, 2009)

 Following the characteristic of peasantry culture, religious architecture in Java

is characterized by the absorbance of former religious architectural elements in the new ones Based on this characteristic, the reading of religious architecture in Java should be analyzed by a multilayer perspective as follows:

 

Figure 12: Timeline chart of the religious architecture in Java

During pre-history, when almost no alien architectural cultures had influenced Java, the veneration buildings were created vernacularly Since Hinduism and Buddhism came to Java, Indian architectural culture has influenced Java

Nevertheless, later this new architectural culture was developed by adding some local versions and variations, so it did not merely become a copy When Islam came, Java has been deeply influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism Therefore, to be acceptable

by Javanese, Islam took some Hindu building types to be Islamized For examples,

Hindu shrine was employed as a minaret by putting a drum in its top, and mandala joglo was employed as a mosque model by putting a pulpit in one of the borders and

turning the orientation to the west to face Mecca Chinese architectural culture came

to Java in the same time with the coming of Islam The early Chinese religious building adapted to Islam since some of its buildings basically was functioned as the mosque Christianity came to Java together with the western colonization In the beginning, Christian in Java was a religion only for European Therefore, no local architectural elements influenced its church architecture Nevertheless, since mission for Javanese started, the church architecture has begun to adapt itself to the local architectural cultures

2.6 New Dutch-Indies Architecture and Indonesian Modern Architecture

in the early 1900s, many new infrastructures were built Consequently, architects and engineers had a significant role for contributions Learning from the failures of colonial architecture in the past, they were challenged to formulate new ideas for the new Dutch-Indies architecture Formerly, colonial architecture had been delivered as the copies of European architecture Humid air, high temperature, and rapid rainfall were the environmental characteristic of Dutch-Indies as a tropical country This       

17

Ethic policy was a colonial policy to develop Dutch-Indies and Indonesian people to be autonomous and progress Netherlands parliament urged its government to apply this policy for Dutch-Indies as an ethical action since they realized the contribution of Indonesian people for the prosperity of the

Netherlands during “cultuurstelsel” (agriculture system policy, 1830-1870) By cultuurstelsel, the

Dutch-Indies government and Netherlands gained surplus income from agriculture export

condition had decayed European architecture faster, and it had raised the maintenance cost Besides, the height and the openness of the façade of European architecture had become the trap for sunshine to heat the interior of the building Hot temperature and humid air had created discomfort and unhealthy interior

Ideas to adapt architecture to the local condition in Dutch-Indies were urgent Many conceptions were proposed by architects and engineers as follows:

in it Therefore, this group put indigenous architecture as the base, and modernity as

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the supplement For their ideas, they proposed the term “Indo-European” as the architectural movement The other pioneers tend to be the second group For them, modernity was the base, while the most important of the local factors was climate, not indigenous architectural form or style; therefore, modernity with climatic adaptation was the answer for the new Dutch-Indies architecture

C.P Wolf Schoemaker was a modernist who had contradictory opinion to

H.M Pont Their debate on the Indo-European topic has been discussed in Indische Bouwkundig Tjidschrift Magazine in 1920s In this case - referring to the opinion of

Henri Petrus Berlage, a Dutch modern architect figure who visited Dutch Indies in

1923 – Pont’s opinion was supported by Berlage’s opinion The following was the pronouncement of Berlage after his visit to the Dutch Indies, cited from Akihary (1990):

"We probably can propose - while we are pursuing the better understanding - that an Indo-European Style can only arise from a synthesis of the Western

construction system and the Eastern art form; therefore, the Javanese pendopo

as an original building, should be further developed We can take an illustration that it is a possibility to find a Greek temple in a wooden structure version A real Indo-European architecture can be developed if the occupation

of architects is on the Javanese’s hand, and they are also educated by an architectural training utterly in Dutch Indies ( ) since the suitable form for Indo-European style, in this case Javanese art, can’t be found in Europe Therefore, that such form should be revitalized first, and later the construction and the art form can be harmonized as the final goal of the style That development, in which the Javanese presupposes to become an autonomous architect, will occur parallel with the efforts to reach the autonomy of the Dutch Indies”.18

Nineteen years after the visit of Berlage, the new Dutch Indies architecture aspiration ended along with the coming of Japan to Indonesia in 1942 After Indonesian independence in 1945, this aspiration has never come up again Nevertheless, the searching for Indonesian architecture continues

      

18

Akihary, 1990:42

2.7 Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago

Some evidences revealed that Catholicism has existed in Indonesian Archipelago since the seventh century The researcher, Jan Bakker, SJ, found the existence of some churches in Fansur, near Baros, Central Tapanuli, Sumatra, in his archival study The oldest archive that described the coming of Catholic Church in Indonesian Archipelago was written by Syeik Abu Salih al-Amini, a Moslem historian who lived in around 1150 He listed 707 Christian Churches and 181 retreats in Egypt, Nubia, Abessinia, West Africa, Spain, Arab, India, and Indonesia The list describes the founding years, building drawings, and historical information of the churches Related to churches in Indonesian Archipelago, al-Amini wrote that there were some churches in Fansur, Sumatra which were part of Nestorian Church One of them named the Virgin Mary Church This church was established in around 645 Another document stated that in the thirteenth century there were some bishoprics in Sumatra and Java The Abhd’ Isho, an archive of Syrian Church (1291-1319), included a list of bishoprics in Asia, and one of them was bishopric of Dabhagh which covered Sumatra and Java Two Franciscans, Odoricus from Pordenone and Bishop Johannes van Marignolle, visited parishioners in Sumatra in 1323 and 1346 They were delegation

of the Pope for their courtesy visit to Beijing.19

Catholic missions by Europeans in Indonesia which were led by Spanish and Portuguese occurred 450 years ago in Moluccas Their missions delivered significant

Portuguese mission in Flores Island was also gaining ground, and in the beginning of

one of the Jesuit Catholic order founders, carried out a mission to the Moluccas

including Ambon Island, Ternate Island, Halmahera Island, and Molotai Island from

1546 until 1547 During the mission he wrote a simple preacher book in Malay, opened schools for indigents, and with his gentle personality he could sympathize

after Xavier’s mission in Moluccas, some Dominicans came to continue the mission

in Solor Island, and there they built monastery, churches, and started to open seminary high school.23

During the eight year war against Spain (1568-1648), Dutch found their way

to the colony of Spain-Portugal in South East Asia In 1602 they established a trading

association named “Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie” (VOC) Ambon ruined by

VOC in 1605, and from Mollucas, the Dutch fleet leader, Jan Pieterszoon Coen sailed

to Java to subjugate Portuguese, English and local kings until 1619 He won the wars and established a government capital in Batavia, or now Jakarta An old motto

declares, cuius region, illius et religio, or “whoever occupy a region, they will be in

command to direct the religion” VOC forbade all Catholic missions in its region along with the enjoinment of Catholicism in Netherlands VOC era was the dark ages for Catholicism in Indonesia

French revolution in 1789 and later the fusion of Netherlands into the authority of French gave a new direction to the Netherlands colonies Because of bankruptcy, in December 1799 VOC was liquidated, and in 1808 H.W Daendles was appointed to be the General Governor (1808-1811) in Dutch-Indies to represent the Napoleon authority Manifesting Napoleon’s principles of freedom, equality, and

brotherhood, he freed all people in Indonesia to express their faiths A new chapter to carry on the Catholic mission in Indonesian Archipelago started

In April 4, 1808, two pioneer missionaries, Priest Nellisen and Lambertus Prinssen arrived in Batavia In May they received a barrack which was set to be a room of worship, and a house to be a parish house This is the beginning of a reconstruction after the long suspended animation of Catholic mission in Indonesian Archipelago In February 2, 1810 HM Daendles donated a chapel which had been built by Cornelis Chasteleijn in about 1714 for a Protestant Church When Du Bus de Gisignies, a Catholic, was the General Commissioner (1825-1830), he appointed Ir Tromp to design a new church He finished the design even though it was never been built The design was a cruciform shape building 33 x 17 meters with a combination style of baroque-gothic-classicism April 9, 1890 the old church collapsed Priest Antonius Dijkmans, SJ was entrusted to design the new church which is now known

as the Jakarta Cathedral He designed this cathedral with neo-gothic style Some

history books noted that he had taken a course with Violet-le-Duc, a famous French

neo-gothic architect, and Cuypers in Netherlands The success of the Jakarta Cathedral design stimulated the erection of some similar types in some other cities including: Surabaya, Menado, Magelang (1900), Sukabumi (1902), Mendut, Tomohon (1903), Bogor, Salatiga, Medan, Koting (1905), Malang (1906), Lela

 

      

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Kurris, 1992:160