Emotions in early confucianism 5

Chapter Lè 5.1. Lè as seen philologically 5.1.1. Lè, xǐ and yuè To understand the notion of lè philologically is to separate it from similar notions of xǐ and yuè, both of which I explored in detail in Chapter 2. Only then can we appreciate what it means when a Confucian maintains that he is in a state of constant lè. What is the distinctive feature of lè that stands out from xǐ and yuè to become a separate category of emotion? What is the role lè plays in Confucian cultivation? In this section, I attempt to answer the first question; in the next section, I will discuss the second question, after which I expect to be able to offer an explanation to the question of what constitutes a good life in the eyes of the early Confucians. Contrary to what was thought, the difference between the emotions xǐ and lè in the Chinese language is seldom discussed,1 and the fact that the Shuō Wén Jiě Zì defines xǐ as lè does not aid in understanding either. Recently received texts may provide some As Zhengdao Ye observed, “Why are there two basic emotions belonging to this ‘joy-like’ category in Chinese” is “a question seldom raised.” In his article which seeks to answer this question, Ye illustrates that xǐ and lè are two distinctly separate emotions with xǐ associated with “festive joy”; and lè with “attainable enjoyment/ contentment,” which, though partially correct, is not applicable to early Confucianism, mainly because he was illustrating his examples and conclusions from the novel, A Dream of Red Mansions, which was written two thousand years after Confucius. Nevertheless, his article serves to remind us of the importance of separating xǐ and lè as distinct emotional references. See Zhengdao Ye, “Why are there two joy-like ‘basic’ emotions in Chinese?” in Paolo Santangelo and Donatella Guida eds., Love, Hatred, and Other Passions: Questions and Themes on Emotions in Chinese Civilization, 59-80. 180 insights, but reading the texts is not without its complexities either. To give an example, the “Xìng Qíng Lùn” contains a verse that seems to explain lè as a more sophisticated state of xǐ, as compared to superficial laughter: Laughter is the surface of xǐ; lè is the depth of xǐ. 笑,喜之薄澤也; 樂,喜之[深澤 也.]2 It appears that the preceding line gives the impression of lè as a form of xǐ. However, there are several problems with this particular interpretation. For one, we cannot be sure of the actual characters in this clause. The last three characters are missing and the added characters “深澤也,” translated here as “depth,” are just speculations by the transcribers. Also, 樂 can also be interpreted as yuè*3, which means “music,” and this reading is further supported by the variant record in the “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū,” which reads “樂, 禮之深澤也”4 —that music is the depth of the rites. To give another example, the “Yǔcóng Èr” reads “xìng begets xǐ, and xǐ begets lè (喜生於性, 樂生於喜),”5 which seems to put xǐ and lè in a causal sequence. However, there are also other ways of reading this idiosyncratic account. Although we can interpret it as saying lè being a resultant emotion of xǐ, that is, to be lè, one has to first experience xǐ; we can also read it as saying every xǐ having the potential to become lè, without “Xìng Qíng Lùn” slips 13-14, in Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū vol.1, 238-239. To differentiate between “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” slip 23, in Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 180. “Yǔcóng Èr” slip 28, in Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 204. 悅 and 樂, I shall transcribe them as yuè and yuè* respectively. 181 committing ourselves to asserting that lè cannot exist without xǐ.6 Besides, defining lè as stronger xǐ leads to semantic complexity as we can think of significant celebratory events where the xǐ involved is overwhelming and, conversely, also cases of minute indulgences of delight in life which are often seen as small lè.7 In my view, xǐ and lè are distinct and separate emotions although there are several ways to make sense of their differences. One is the unlikely case of taking the difference between xǐ and lè as one of degree, that is, seeing lè as simply stronger xǐ like the problematic cases we have seen above; another is to see the difference as one of kind: that the two emotions are generated in different contexts and defined under different criteria, which might run into risks of oversimplification. There is yet another more popular way of separating these emotions. One can see xǐ, and related to it, yuè, as internal (a contained emotion that is not expressed overtly) and lè as external (as conversely, an overt and expressed emotion), which may imply either a difference in degree or one that is in kind, if not both. Zhū Xī, for example, in his comments on the difference between yuè and lè in Analects 1.1, pointed out that in the case of yuè, one’s emotion is experienced internally within oneself, and thus hidden from This is made clearer by the clause that follows immediately after— 悲生於樂 (lè begets bēi) in slip 29. Using the same rationale, the fact that lè can lead to bēi does not entail that bēi cannot exist without lè. Neither should we read bēi as a stronger form of lè. 桑柔,” where a foolish man was described as mad and full of xǐ ( 維彼愚人 , 覆狂以喜 ); and small lè in “Héng Mén 衡門 ” where lè in small indulgences like listening to the sound of a flowing stream was experienced in spite of one’s hunger (泌之 洋洋, 可以樂飢). Taking the Shījīng for example, one sees great xǐ in “Sāng Róu 182 others, whereas for lè, one’s feeling is expressed externally.8 This is perhaps aligned to the tradition, since Hàn times, of drawing a line between what is internal as opposed to what is external, and categorizing emotions exclusively to one or another side of this dichotomy. This interpretation seems tenable in explaining some important differences we see between lè and its semantic twins, especially since lè shares the same written character as yuè* (music), which is substantially material in the sensory sense. Additionally, music is an aural sensation often associated in ancient China with dances as its visual companion and poetry (shī) as its oral complement. But to so is to overgeneralize, for there are certainly cases, as shown in Chapter 2, where xǐ and yuè are accompanied by facial expressions and emotional behaviors. In view of all these intricacies, there is a need to step out of the traditional internal-external dichotomous framework and approach the characters philologically in order to have a better understanding of what exactly is lè. 5.1.2. Lè and yuè* As mentioned earlier, it is perhaps commonly known that though the character “ 樂” can mean “joy” when it is pronounced as lè; it can also mean “music” when it is read as yuè*. In fact, most etymological dictionaries agree that the original meaning of 樂 is “music,” rather than “joy.” The rationale for this belief is simple; one only needs to consider its etymological roots. The two “幺” in “樂” represent the strings of a string Lí Jìng Dé 黎靖德 ed., Zhū Xī, Zhū Zǐ Yǔ Lèi 朱子語類 (Běijīng: Zhōnghuá shūjú, 1986), 451. I thank Prof. Kwong-loi Shun for reminding me that Zhū Xī’s understanding of lè is typically put in terms of cóng róng zì dé 從容自得, which is near to the concept of ān, a greater depth of which we will discuss later in this chapter. 183 instrument, with the 木 below as its wooden stand. The 白 at the center actually symbolises the piece of white jade (白玉) used for strumming the strings. From here, it is often speculated that “樂” as “joy” actually first meant, narrowly, “joy in a person that is caused by music.” By and large, I agree with these views. However, when it comes to the understanding of later semantic development of the sense of “joy” in “樂” is concerned, I have my reservations. The Gǔ Cí Biàn, for example, has claimed that lè is different from yuè in the following sense: lè is joy caused by external objects and events, whereas yuè is more of pleasure caused by words that strike a chord in one’s heart. This is not necessarily the case; in chapter two, we have rejected the idea of interpreting yuè as an emotion caused solely by the hearing of words. Instead, we have interpreted it as pleasure involving deeper cognition. My understanding of lè actually continues along this line—seeing lè as a further development of one’s yuè. However, to understand this particular sense of joy, we need to go back to the original connection between music and lè, and appreciate how music is thought as being able to bring about the positive emotion of lè. It is only when we understand the psychological process involved in the appreciation of music that we are able to comprehend the nature of lè—both narrowly as an emotion caused by hearing music and its later semantic development in a more general sense. Past discussions on how ancient Chinese thinkers made use of the similarity between lè and yuè* to illustrate the connection between joy and music often mention the Gǔ Cí Biàn, 833. 184 “Yuè* Lùn 樂論” chapter of Xúnzi, where it was written that “music is joy (夫樂者、樂 也.)”10 In actual fact, we can see this manipulation of homographs in texts as early as the Analects: 子在齊聞韶,三月不知肉味,曰: “不圖為樂之至於斯也。” (Analects 7.14) According to the text, Confucius was so touched on hearing the music of the Sháo 韶 in the state of Qí 齊, that he was said to have forgotten the taste of meat for three months. Confucius’ exclamation on the effect of good music can be translated as “I never thought that joy could reach such heights” if we read 樂 as lè; or “I never thought that music could reach such heights” if we read 樂 as yuè*, which D. C. Lau has aptly translated as “I never dreamt that the joy of music could reach such heights.”11 As shown earlier, the ambiguity between lè and yuè* is precisely the underlying problem faced by transcribers when interpreting the newly-recovered archaeological texts. For example, a long string of nine unpunctuated characters like “用情之至者哀樂 10 John Knoblock trans., Xunzi: A translation and Study of the Complete Works vol III, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 80. 11 D. C. Lau trans., Confucius the Analects, 59. Cf. Legge’s “I did not think… that music could have been made so excellent as this” (James Legge trans., The Four Books, 84); and Waley’s “I did not picture to myself that any music existed which could reach such perfection as this” (Arthur Waley trans., The Analects of Confucius, 1956), 125. In ancient Chinese texts, it is customary to use linguistic similarities in the exposition of ideas, given the wide variety of homographs and homophones. Another good example would be the manipulation of homophonic similarity of 仁 and 人 in various Confucian texts such as the Mencius and the “Zhōngyōng.” 185 為甚”12 in the “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” can be read as “用情之至者,哀樂為甚” (Sad music is that which carries qíng to the utmost) or understood as “用情之至者,哀、樂為甚” (Sadness and joy are those which carry qíng to the utmost), but careful thought has to be made to the context, even if one can only speculate as to which is the more probable interpretation.13 The connection between joy and music is difficult to comprehend, since good music alone does not convey the emotion of joy. As Siu-chi Chang has pointed out, Music as an expression of man’s inner feeling is of different types: the prevalence of a depressing type of music in society is the expression of one’s sorrow; the prevalence of an elegant type is the expression of people’s satisfaction and happiness; the prevalence of a forceful, bold type is the expression of people’s strength and courage; the prevalence of an expressive and majestic type is the expression of man self-respect and dignity; the prevalence of a natural, gentle, and quiet type is the expression of man’s affection and love; the prevalence of an ill- 12 “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū,” slips 42-43, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 180. 13 Take, for instance, “ 樂之動心也”, discussed in Chapter 4. Many transcribers have interpreted it as “the way joy moves the heart,” though it can be understood as “the way music moves the heart.” A reference to its previous clause, which is about how crying moves the heart ( 哭之動心也), may have been the main reason for the “joy” reading but strictly speaking, we cannot totally eliminate the possibility of a “music” reading, for we cannot say that there is a asymmetry between “crying” and “music” as much as we cannot say that there is actually a symmetrical relation between “crying” and “joy.” 186 regulated and over-exciting type is the expression of man’s disorder and immorality.14 There seems to exist two levels of joy in reference to the joy brought about by music. There is the joy conveyed by happy and festive music, and there is the joy attained by the playing and appreciation of music in general. A number of articles have been written in the past on the relationship between music and moral cultivation, seeing music as a means to the cultivation of Confucian virtues, and as far as understanding this interesting relation is concerned, there seems to be two major interpretations, both equally tenable and complementary to each other. The first is the “content” interpretation by Siu-chi Chang. Chang has placed his emphasis on the mood expressed by music. Without denying a formalistic interpretation (joy evoked by the tonal arrangement in a musical piece), Chang has drawn our attention to the harmonic aesthetic mood of music and its ability to bring about moral cultivation.15 This is similar to Erica Brindley’s position where she identifies the structure of music with the macrocosm and the human psyche, the three of which form a “triangular relationship,” which culminated in the birth of correlative cosmology in Warring States China. 16 In this interpretation, harmony is the key feature of music—the sense of 14 Siu-chi Chang, “Musical Art in Early Confucian Philosophy,” in Philosophy East and West vol.13 no.1, (April 1963), 53. 15 Siu-chi Chang, “Musical Art in Early Confucian Philosophy,” 57-58. 16 Erica Brindley, “Music, Cosmos, and the Development of Psychology in Early China,” in T’oung Pao vol. 92 no.1, (2006), 1-49. As pointed out by Brindley, scholars investigating this tri-partite relationship includes Kenneth DeWoskin (1982) and to an extent, Scott Cook (1995). 187 harmony brought forth by music corresponds to the harmony within one’s body as well as that of the cosmic forces in the macrocosmic level.17 The second position is the “process” interpretation by Karyn Lai, who sees the training in both playing and appreciating music as moral cultivation itself. When engaged in musical activities over a period of time, the player or listener acquires, progressively, virtues such as discipline and humility, with different emphases in different phases of the cultivation process.18 It may be useful to draw a parallel here with Lai’s later article in which she sees moral cultivation in the practice of rites, lǐ, as one with a phased nature too. In fact, she recommends a 3-stage development model for the practice of lǐ, from “rote-learning” to “active learning” and finally to “matured application,” where the “the stages are continuous, one stage to the next is fluid and may not be clearly marked or distinguishable.”19 17 This emphasis placed on the arrangement of musical notes is echoed by the “Kǒng Zǐ Shī Lùn 孔子詩論” which sees qíng as being predominantly found in music—“Confucius said: ‘The demise of poetry is the loss of intent; the demise of music is the loss of qíng; the demise of words is the loss of sayings.’ 孔子曰: ‘ 詩亡吝志, 樂亡吝情, 文亡吝言.’” (“Kǒng Zǐ Shī Lùn” slip 1, in Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū vol.1, 123.) If we understood qíng to be what is genuine or essential, then the role music plays in a musical piece, as compared with poetry requirements and lyrics, is perhaps of utmost importance. 18 Karyn Lai, “Confucian Moral Cultivation: Some Parallels with Musical Training,” in Kim-chong Chong, Sor-hoon Tan, C. L. Ten, The Moral Circle and the Self: Chinese and Western Approaches (Chicago and LaSalle, Illinois: Open Court, 2003), 107-139. 19 Karyn Lai. “Li in the Analects: Training in Moral Competence and the Question of Flexibility,” in Philosophy East and West, vol.56 no.1, (Jan. 2006), 69-83. 188 Comparing these two interpretations, Siu-chi Chang is perhaps correct in highlighting the significance of the mood of music, but perhaps more importantly, he is also correct in claiming that this appeal through aesthetic mood is not universal, and only a superior man is able to appreciate good music.20 This is where Lai’s emphasis on the cultivation of the player and listener comes into the picture—although a person may not be a superior man from the start, he can cultivate himself progressively to become one.21 The “content” and “process” interpretations are, in fact, complementary to each other, and it is through a combination of both that we understand why good music is important in Confucian cultivation or, to put it within context, how good music can bring about Confucian joy. This is perhaps where the nature of good Confucian music can give us some insights into what is required for one to obtain Confucian lè. Although it is true that there is an intimate connection between the rites and music, the newly-received texts seem to consider an ability to appreciate yuè* as more difficult to cultivate compared to an ability to understand lǐ. The “Zūn Dé Yì,” for example, places emphasis on the former: 20 Siu-chi Chang, “Musical Art in Early Confucian Philosophy,” 58-59. 21 The “Yǔcóng Yī” seems to suggest that some people are more inclined towards music ( 樂, 或生或教者 也) (in “Yǔcóng Yī” slip 43, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 195.) Along this line, the “Wǔ Xíng” can be interpreted as carrying the same spirit of optimism when it says that there are certain people who are predisposed to virtues and who will experience lè when the Dào is preached ( 聞道而樂者, 好德者也) (in “Wǔ Xíng” slip 50, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 151.) 189 absence of ān leads to an absence of lè, and an absence of lè, a demise of virtue, dé*32 德 (不安則不樂, 不樂則亡德).33 Lè is obviously seen here as the emotion motivating and sustaining one in the cultivation of virtues, or a virtuous life is where a person feels ān, and thus, lè, and would want to continue to be in that state. 34As discussed earlier, this state of ān is probably close to the sense of peace one gets when things are in order and going smoothly, where one feels at ease and comfortable with what one has or with what one is going through. Having said that, ān can also be read negatively to mean a psychological state where one takes things in life for granted or when one indulges in the material comforts in life. Confucius, in Analects 1.14 for example, reminds us that a gentleman does not strive to seek ān in his living condition (居無求安.) Yet, in early Confucianism, it is more often the case that ān is taken positively to mean a state of peace. Analects 7.38, to give a good counter-example, portrayed Confucius as a man who is respectful and ān (恭 32 To differentiate between 得 and 德, I shall transcribe the former as dé and the latter as dé*, when they exist independently as a character. 33 不安不樂, 不樂亡德” in slips and 21, See “Wǔ Xíng” slip 6, in Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 149; and “ ibid., 149 and 150. Also see “ 34 不和不安, 不安不樂 in “Zūn Dé Yì” slip 27, ibid., 174. This is stated explicitly by Confucius in Analects 4.2 where he claimed that a person who is not cannot be in a state of lè for long ( 不仁者…不可以長處樂) and that a person will feel ān being (仁 者安仁), which implies that a gentleman will want to stay for it is in that he feels ān and enjoys long-lasting lè. 195 而安). In fact, ān is often seen as the key attribute in people of a harmonious society.35 This seeming contradiction can easily be reconciled by highlighting the different conditions of ān one is in. One should not feel ān in self-centered comforts but should work hard so that one can feel ān in doing virtuous acts, and when the early Confucians speak about the lè brought about by ān, it is more often the latter sense, which is more difficult to realize. Indeed, joy is often associated with the engagement in activities we feel at ease in. But not all activities that fetch pleasure are desirable. On that note, observing what a man feels at home is a window to knowing his true character. 36 This is especially important because it could be the case that a man is at ease doing unlawful things. The Confucian joy lies not only in doing things which makes one feel at ease, but also in doing the right things which makes one a gentleman. One may even argue that a smallminded man can never experience genuine lè. The “Cóng Zhèng,” for example, claims that when a gentleman is lè, the government will be in order (君子樂則治正); but when a small man is lè, he (and his government) will be filled with feelings of suspicion (小人樂 則疑). 37 This is often the case—a small man enjoying pleasure may be worried that another person may deprive him of it, and could be said to be in a constant state of wariness which leads to a lack of peace of mind. 35 See for example, Analects 16.1, where Confucius identifies the state of instability ( 不安) as a worse social ill even compared to poverty. 36 Analects 2.10. 37 “Cóng Zhèng” part A slip 16; part B slip3, in Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū vol.2, 229; 235. 196 To delve deeper into the nature of ān, the “Wǔ Xíng” claims that one cannot be ān without yuè in one’s heart (亡中心[之悅則不]安). It also claims that one cannot be ān if one does not think ([思不長]不形, 不形不安), and that if one is not (不仁), one cannot be ān.38 The “Zūn Dé Yì,” on the other hand, places the crux of the matter on harmony (不和不安). 39 All these accounts serve to substantiate the view that lè is actually a much more sophisticated emotion compared to xǐ and yuè. Consider the different accounts individually and see if all of them come together to give a coherent understanding. Although it is true that when one’s xīn is yuè, one enters a state of ān, but it is arguable whether any simple yuè of the xīn is sufficient to lead to ān. It is perhaps probable that only when one feels yuè in several aspects of life, or when one continues to feel yuè over a particular matter, can one experience peace in life, and that it is only when he feels this ān brought about by a deeper and richer yuè that he can truly understand lè. The claim “if one does not think enough, one cannot reach a state of ān” seems to support this interpretation as well. It is only when one experiences yuè and reflects upon it that one is able to reach a state of ān, and from there, experience lè. To give an example, one can savor food and feel yuè, but this yuè may not be enough to lead to ān in the Confucian sense,40 for that requires deeper reflection, be it consideration of one’s fortune, or appreciation of the pleasure brought about by food and perhaps health, for one to be able to enjoy palatal pleasure that may bring about a state of ān. And it is from here that one can say one finds lè in food. The same goes for the 38 “Wǔ Xíng” slips and 8, in Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 149; and slip 21 in ibid., 150. 39 In “Zūn Dé Yì” slip 27, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 174. 40 Even if it does lead directly to ān, this ān is more in the negative sense as highlighted earlier. 197 appreciation of books and music: one might feel yuè over a story or a piece of music, but it is only upon deeper thoughts that one is able to derive states of ān and lè from them. On this note, imposing as a pre-requisite of ān makes lè an even more difficult emotion to realize. If, as discussed earlier, were a concept that includes compassion for others, then it is not only through thinking and reflection, but through consideration for others that one is able to enter a state of ān and from thereon, experience lè. On that note, perhaps Mencius was correct in saying that is an abode of ān for a person (仁, 人之安宅也).41 Given the strong connection between and lè in, especially, others-centered altruistic acts, 和 is another important notion of which we should take note. It may even be possible to say that hé, or a state of harmony, is the result of one’s being rén. In the consideration for others, one generates inter-personal harmony that can help bring about peace, and naturally from there, ān and lè. In fact, whether be it fleshed out as harmony within oneself, or harmony amongst people, striving for plays an important role in Chinese thought, especially given the strong connection between harmony and peace, even in the contemporary context.42 41 Mencius 4A10. 42 To make the notion of even more interesting, it can be said that texts such as “Wǔ Xíng” have added a mystical element to virtues. It sees as the harmonious complement of the five different virtues of rén, yì 智 (wisdom) and shèng 聖 (sagacity). “If the five virtues are in harmony, it is called virtuousness; whereas if [the first] four are so, it is called goodness (德之行五, 和謂之德; 四行和謂 之善).” It even goes further to classify goodness as the human Way and virtuousness as the Heaven’s Way (善, 人道也; 德, 天道也). See “Wǔ Xíng” slip 19, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 149. (rightness), lǐ (propriety), zhì 198 Given this state of ān, which is not easy to obtain, the distance between lè and its semantic sisters, xǐ and yuè, seems to be pulled further apart. The Confucian sense of lè is a much more sophisticated emotion which requires not just simple yuè. It can only be brought about upon further reflection by the agent and may even need prior attainment of virtues like rén, as well as a state of within oneself. Having explored some of the means for achieving ān, perhaps we must remember that there exist two senses of ān. As mentioned in Chapter 2, there are two preconditions to achieving a state of ān: be free from whatever things that make one feel ill-at-ease; and enjoy things which makes one feel at ease. Filial piety is a good example of how these two go hand in hand. Perhaps that explains why Mencius believed that an important source of lè was the knowledge that one’s parents and siblings were being taken well care of. 43 In addition, ān is often associated with a state of self-contentment (zì dé 自得), which links to the discussion in Chapter 4, “One who gains is lè; one who loses is āi.” However, it would be wrong to see dé here as the sudden or unexpected obtaining of good things in life. Dé in this context is more of a state of realizing that one is in possession of something valuable, with virtues being one of these precious assets. On that note, it is perhaps not coincidental that dé 得 (gains) is pronounced similarly as dé* 德 43 Mencius 7A20. The other two lè come from a clear conscience and the privilege of being able to train disciples of good calibre. It is interesting because Mencius 4A27 identifies serving one’s parents as the core of and abiding by one’s brother as the core of yì; and that the essence of music is to express the joy of doing these two things. 199 (virtues.) A look at Mencius 4B14 should be sufficient to illustrate the relationship between dé and ān, and from there, its association with lè: Mencius said, “A gentleman steeps himself in the Way because he wishes to find it in himself. When he finds it in himself, he will be at ease in it; when he is at ease in it, he can draw deeply upon it; when he can draw deeply upon it, he finds its source wherever he turns. That is why a gentleman wishes to find the Way in himself.” 孟子曰: “君子深造之以道, 欲其自得之也. 自得之, 則居之安; 居之安, 則資之深; 資之深, 則取之左右逢其原, 故君子欲其自得之也.” This important passage aptly describes the psychological state of a gentleman. When he embarks on this journey of self-cultivation, he experiences a state of ān, which generates certain emotions in him that further motivates him to strive to cultivate more. Though not explicitly stated, this emotion is similar to lè. And it is the case that this lè continues to increase, or perhaps gets richer, as he goes deeper in his cultivation until he finds it in every aspect of his life, causing him to seek more lè. It is in this light that we should see the close relation between dé* (virtues) and dé (gains) and how either can lead 200 to lè.44 To add another dimension to our discussion, in Chinese thought, the state of ān is also often interestingly connected to the knowing of one’s mìng. This association is developed further in later works like that of Xúnzǐ, and the Daoist work, Zhuāngzǐ. I have covered the notion of mìng at length in Chapter 3, but I hope to assert here that the notion of following one’s mìng or pre-allotted place in society and from there, experiencing the ān and lè of finding one’s rightful place in life, has much earlier roots. The “Táng Yú Zhī Dào 唐虞之道 (The Way of Táng Yú),” for example, sees being ān in one’s mìng as the key to longevity,45 and the “Zūn Dé Yì” considers a person who knows one’s mìng as one who knows himself.46 In a system of thought as communitarian as Confucianism, it is 44 The Shuō Wén Jiě Zì sees dé* as “giving to others on the outside, and gaining within oneself on the 外得於人, 內得於己,” which demonstrates a close relationship between “virtues” and “gains.” PostHàn philological dictionaries like the Guǎng Yǎ 廣雅 defines dé* as dé directly (德, 得也). In fact, this direct definition can also be found in texts like the “Xīn Shù Shàng 心術上” chapter of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 and the “Yuè*jì 樂記” chapter of the Lǐjì. Zhèng Kāi 鄭开, in his investigation on the philological roots of inside dé*, has shown that although there is no evidence of dé* being used interchangeably with dé in the Zhōu bronze writings, a close semantic association between them can be seen in early Warring States texts. See Zhèng Kāi, Dé Lǐ Zhī Jiān—Qián Zhūzǐ Shíqī dè Sīxiǎngshǐ 德禮之間—前諸子時期的思想史 (Běijīng: Sānlián Shūdiàn, 2009), 57-60. 45 “Ān in one’s mìng and one will not die prematurely; nourish one’s life and one will not be injured ( 安命 而弗夭; 養生而弗傷)” in “Táng Yú Zhī Dào,” slip 11, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 157. 46 “There is one who knows oneself without knowing mìng, but there is none who knows one’s mìng without knowing oneself ( 有知己而不知命者, 亡知命而不知己者),” in “Zūn Dé Yì,” slip 10, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 173. 201 perhaps natural that knowing one’s role in a society leads to peace of mind and from there, a state of pleasure and joy. Given this, it is not surprising that Gōngsūn Chǒu 公孫 丑’s question to Mencius whether he aspired to have one aspect of a Sage or become a replica of a Sage in miniature is phrased, literally translated, as “may I ask in which role you feel ān in (敢問所安).”47 5.2.2. Lè as a constant discovery Combing through the passages that involved the Confucian lè, it is obvious that every one of them, be it directly or indirectly, has to with moral cultivation: Confucius said, “He stands to benefit who finds joy in three things, he stands to lose who find joy in three others. To find joy in the regulation of the rites and music, in praising other’s goodness and in having many virtuous men as friends is to benefit. To find joy in boasting and extravagance, in idleness and sauntering, and in food and drink is to lose.” (孔子曰: “益者三樂, 損者三樂; 樂節禮樂, 樂 道人之善, 樂多賢友, 益矣. 樂驕樂, 樂佚遊, 樂宴樂, 損矣.”) (Analects 16.5)48 47 Mencius 2A3. 48 Translation mine, with reference to D.C. Lau’s and James Legge’s. I prefer translating 樂 here “find(ing) joy in” rather than D.C. Lau’s “taking pleasure,” the latter of which may be easily confused with the emotion of yuè. On that note, James Legge’s translation of “find(ing) enjoyment in” is also a good one, though that means “enjoying” and thus, reading 樂 here as yào rather than lè. I also like his more literal and 道人之善” as “speaking of the good of others,” rather than “singing praises of other’s goodness”; and “佚遊” as “idleness and sauntering,” rather than “a dissolute life.” Cf. D.C. Lau accurate translation of “ trans., Confucius the Analects, 165; and James Legge trans., The Four Books, 245. 202 As mentioned previously, the Confucian pleasure is definitely not one of superficial and bodily pleasure; rather, it is the pleasure of cultivating oneself through adherence to rites, appreciation of music, and concern for other’s goodness as well as that of one’s cultivation. Confucius, for example, did not make friends casually,49 for what made him joyful in Analects 1.1, was the gathering with like-minded friends from afar that helped reaffirm one another in the path of cultivation.50 In fact, he experienced such lè in learning that he once regarded himself as a man “who forgets to eat when he works himself into a frenzy over some problem, who is full of joy that he forgets his worries and who does not notice the onset of old age (發憤忘食, 樂以忘憂, 不知老之將至云爾).”51 Learning and thinking go hand in hand.52 It is through the discipline of constant learning and reflection that the early Confucians sought to align to the Way, and eventually achieved a state where he was able to everything naturally to the 49 Analects 15.40. 50 Zhū Xī sees the “like-minded friends from afar” in Analects 1.1 as people who traveled a great distance to learn from him. Good master-disciple relation is yet another joy for Confucius. Let us also remember Confucius’ joy when he sees the individual strengths of his individual disciples in Analects 11.13. 51 Analects 7.19. 52 See Analects 2.15. Perhaps it is worth mentioning that Hall and Ames have seen the relationship between “learning” and “reflection” as one of “conceptual polarity”—“A relationship of two events each of which requires the other as a necessary condition for being what it is.” (David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, Thinking through Confucius, 18.) 203 appropriate extent.53 I shall not dwell on lè brought about in the aspects above as many studies have been devoted to their importance in Confucian cultivation. Instead, I shall look at lè derived from other activities brought to light by the newly discovered texts and see how they fit into the landscape of Confucian lè. Aside from the constant lè derived through conscientious and disciplined accumulation, the Confucian path of cultivation is filled with other interesting discoveries. The “Mín Zhī Fù Mǔ,” for example, speaks of a kind of yuè* which is without sound (無聲之樂), and holds it together with “a being which is without being” and “a mourning which is without mourning clothes” as the three esteemed state of “Nonbeing” (sān wú 三無) for a gentleman.54 There seems to be a “Daoist” flavor here with the addition of a notion commonly-known to be associated with philosophical Daoism: 53 “Following one’s heart’s desire without overstepping the line ( 從心所欲不踰矩)” (Analects 2.4) by the age of seventy. The Confucian ideal is not one of not-doing, but is rather, observing the Mean when doing. As Kupperman has reminded us, one is only able to the “natural” thing after “training, culture, intelligent discrimination and refinement or what is commonly known as li.” (See Joel Kupperman, “Confucius and the Problem of Naturalness,” in Philosophy East and West vol. 18 no.3, (July 1968), 175185. 54 “Mín Zhī Fù Mǔ” slip 5, in Shànghǎi Bówùguǎn Cáng Zhànguó Chǔ Zhú Shū vol.2, 161. 204 the concept of “Non-being (wú 無).” 55 However, more importantly, it tells us that as much as we can derive lè from rituals and music, these are just means to one’s cultivation. The essence of the rituals and music lie in the spirit within, rather than the religious formality without, and perhaps it is true that a Confucian who has understood this is able to transcend ritual and music and appreciate the true spirit of humanity. This is perhaps what the “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” means when it says “the person who begins (his cultivation) is near to rightness, and the person who ends is near to what is genuinely essential (始者近義, 終者近情).” The path in Confucian cultivation is no different from that of any learning. Often, it starts with learning by rote through imitation and habituation and it is only after continuous training that one is able to understand the principle or spirit behind one’s training. Through the lè one gets from adherence to rituals and appreciation of music, one is able to experience emotions that he might not feel when he first began. For one, a hedonistic person would certainly not hope to experience sorrow-like emotions such as āi and bēi from lè, but it is a paradoxical emotional process that follows from the attainment of a Confucian lè, as illustrated in Chapter 4, which allows him to elevate his maintenance of the otherwise self-directed state of lè to one aimed at the lè of others. This, in fact, is the link that connects the lè of an individual to 55 Indeed, one of the greatest discoveries from recent archaeological finds is the contest between Confucianism and what is considered “Daoism” was not as fierce as previously thought. The Guōdiàn version of the Lǎozǐ, for example, contains textual variations that tone down what was previously thought to be an attack on the Confucians. This should not be surprising if we consider the fact that the two streams of thought share a similar vocabulary, including the notion of Dào itself, though they might have different emphases. 205 that of the larger society. In other words, when a Confucian is able to feel the lè for the lè of others, he can also feel within himself, the yōu of yōu, as well as the bēi for the bēi of others. His emotions now connect holistically with those of others—a state which he might not have expected himself to be in when he took his first step in imitating the ritual dance, but is yet almost inevitable if he truly followed the Way. With that, we can now investigate what is the ultimate goal of a Confucian. 5.2.3. Lè as a social ideal As discussed above, it will be seriously misleading to say that the ultimate concern of a Confucian is that of his own lè. For the compassionate heart of a truly person is bound to extend this desire of lè for the self to the hope for lè in others, and perhaps it is also true conversely—it is only when the society is one where everybody is living in peace and harmony, and when fellow beings are also at a state of lè, that a gentleman can be in a state of ultimate lè. I admit that this is a heavily moralistic reading of the Confucian lè, and seems to take the aesthetic dimension out of early Confucianism. However, my point is this: although I agree that a Confucian can experience lè of a smaller scale or even in selfindulgence, but given their social concerns, they can only rest in lè when they see that others are also at a state of lè. Putting this discussion in the light of the “extension” model which we have discussed at length in Chapter 4, it is not difficult for us to see how we come to this conclusion. An early Confucian may find lè in, for examples, learning or music, and the lè he derives from the gaining of knowledge or the appreciation of music may be purely aesthetically-based, that is, he may pursue knowledge for the sake of knowledge and arts for the sake of arts, but perhaps to phrase it as a question in the 206 manner Confucius did to Zǎiwǒ in Analects 17.21, can one really feel ān, and from there, lè, when one knows that there are people who are still suffering? From as early as the Shījīng, people have earnestly hoped for a peaceful and stable society, be it deliverance from tyranny or help with daily struggles. It is the common desire of humans to live in a land of lè (lè tǔ 樂 土 .) 56 By the time the Confucians came about as an intellectual class, the ability to empathize with others had been esteemed as a noble virtue, so much so that the “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” states that one should be forthright in taking up troublesome and difficult tasks when it comes to serving the people, at the expense of one’s own comfort (凡憂患之事欲任, 樂事欲後).57 This thread of altruistic thought is expounded in greater detail in the Mencius, where we see many occurrences of lè related to the ruler sharing his lè with his people.58 In fact, it is perhaps not exaggerating to say, if there is one main message Mencius wanted to tell people of his time, it would be that of extending one’s rén, and thus one’s lè, to others.59 碩鼠,” The She King, 172. 56 In “Shuò Shǔ 57 “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” slip 62, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 181. 58 One just has to look at Mencius 1A2 to see this point. Within this short passage which contains lè, the importance of the sharing of joy with the common people was expounded. Further on in Mencius 1B1, the interplay of lè and yuè* was also fully utilized, emphasizing the joy of sharing music with the common 樂” appearing as many as 25 times. people, with the character “ 59 It is interesting because we often hear people stating that Mencius’ theory of human nature is his most prominent doctrine. But reading Mencius, the assertion that people have the germs of goodness in them occurs only in one idiosyncratic passage, whereas the notion of benevolent governing (rén zhèng 仁政) can be found throughout the Mencius, although his political ideals of a compassionate government was built on the basis of people—in particular, rulers—realizing their potential to be good. 207 What is the ultimate goal of moral cultivation and learning the Way? Though a substantial part of extant Confucian texts is directed towards the cultivation of personal virtues for virtues’ sake, we need to keep in mind that the cultivation of these virtues is, ideally, to prepare one to set right the chaotic times and bringing peace to the common people, should the opportunity arise. The Confucian utopia is a state where the old have peace, where people trust one another, and the young are cherished (老者安之, 朋友信之 , 少者懷之) 60; understandably, in this universe, the roots of lè lies in seeing one’s loved ones happy and being taken care of. 5.2.4. Conclusion I started this section with an exploration of what brings about the emotional state of lè and investigated, in detail, the psychological state of ān. It should be clear that lè is a much more sophisticated emotion compared to seemingly similar emotions like xǐ and yuè, mainly because the Confucian sense of lè requires one to be more than happy with one’s material circumstances. Instead, the Confucian lè is derived from a state of peace that comes about when one realizes that others’ interests are well taken care of. As such, to the Confucians, lè involves a considerable self-reflection and altruistic spirit. It is only when inter-personal relations are harmonious that one can have peace within oneself. The Confucian path of cultivation is one of continuing discoveries, and this is not only attained through the habituation process of disciplined learning and thinking through the adherence to rituals, exposure to good music and interaction with like-minded friends. The newly-discovered texts have once again reminded us of the spirit behind all these 60 Analects 5.26 208 exercises. In addition, perhaps what is more precious is the fact that in this road of discovery, one often gets rewards one did not set out to obtain when one first began and these include appreciating what is really behind all these daily rituals and perhaps, more importantly, the ability in feeling for others, and by that we mean not only their joys, but also their sorrows. To bring the discussion to a close, I would like to take a different tact. It is true that one can seek an understanding of what lè for Confucius is by identifying passages that contain the relevant Chinese characters, collating them and coming out with a coherent view. However, it is also interesting that there are passages that not contain these characters and yet can provide us with valuable insights. Perhaps we can end with an excerpt from Analects 11.26, where we catch a glimpse of Confucius’ utopia, seen from the favor he extended to his disciple, Zēng Diǎn 曾點: . [The Master said,] “Tien [Diǎn], how about you?” After strumming a few dying notes and the final chord, he stood up from his lute. “I differ from the other three in my choice.” The Master said, “What harm is there in that? After all each man is stating what he has set his heart upon.” “In late spring, after the spring clothes have been newly made, I should like, together with five or six adults and six or seven boys, to go bathing in the River Yi and enjoy the breeze on the Rain Altar, and then to go home chanting poetry.” The Master sighed and said, “I am all in favor of Tien [Dian]”… 209 … “點! 爾何如?” 鼓瑟希, 鏗爾, 舍瑟而作, 對曰: “異乎三子者之撰.” 子曰: “何 傷乎? 亦各言其志也.” 曰: “莫春者, 春服既成, 冠者五六人, 童子六七人, 浴乎 沂, 風乎舞雩, 詠而歸.”夫子喟然嘆曰: “吾與點也!”… Though there is no mention of lè in this excerpt, it certainly paints a happy picture—the miniature representation of a country in peace and a picture where everyone is at peace with oneself, and perhaps more importantly, at peace with one another. 210 [...]... find joy in three others To find joy in the regulation of the rites and music, in praising other’s goodness and in having many virtuous men as friends is to benefit To find joy in boasting and extravagance, in idleness and sauntering, and in food and drink is to lose.” (孔子曰: “益者三樂, 損者三樂; 樂節禮樂, 樂 道人之善, 樂多賢友, 益矣 樂驕樂, 樂佚遊, 樂宴樂, 損矣.”) (Analects 16 .5) 48 Mencius 2A3 48 Translation mine, with reference to D.C... point Within this short passage which contains 8 lè, the ,” The She King, 172 鼠碩 importance of the sharing of joy with the common people was expounded Further on in Mencius 1B1, the interplay of lè and yuè* was also fully utilized, emphasizing the joy of sharing music with the common people, with the character “ 樂 59 ” appearing as many as 25 times It is interesting because we often hear people stating... state of mind) and hé 和 (harmony) 5. 1.3 Lè and yào Perhaps it is interesting to also note that there is yet another less common way of using and even reading 樂—as a transitive verb meaning an emotional state of “enjoying” or “finding joy in when it is read as yào: The Master said, “The wise find joy in water; the benevolent find joy in mountains.” 子曰: “知者樂水,仁者樂山.” (Analects 6.23a) This emotional state... the onset of old age (發憤忘食, 樂以忘憂, 不知老之將至云爾). 51 Learning and thinking go hand in hand .52 It is through the discipline of constant learning and reflection that the early Confucians sought to align to the Way, and eventually achieved a state where he was able to do everything naturally to the 49 Analects 15. 40 50 Zhū Xī sees the “like-minded friends from afar” in Analects 1.1 as people who traveled a great... with philosophical Daoism: “Following one’s heart’s desire without overstepping the line ( 矩踰不 欲所心從 53 )” (Analects 2.4) by the age of seventy The Confucian ideal is not one of not-doing, but is rather, observing the Mean when doing As Kupperman has reminded us, one is only able to do the “natural” thing after “training, culture, intelligent discrimination and refinement or what is commonly known as... siblings were being taken well care of 43 In addition, ān is often associated with a state of self-contentment (zì dé 自得), which links to the discussion in Chapter 4, “One who gains is lè; one who loses is āi.” However, it would be wrong to see dé here as the sudden or unexpected obtaining of good things in life Dé in this context is more of a state of realizing that one is in possession of something... expounded in greater detail in the Mencius, where we see many occurrences of lè related to the ruler sharing his lè with his people .58 In fact, it is perhaps not exaggerating to say, if there is one main message Mencius wanted to tell people of his time, it would be that of extending one’s rén, and thus one’s lè, to others .59 56 In “Shuò Shǔ 57 “Xìng Zì Mìng Chū” slip 62, Guōdiàn Chǔmù Zhújiǎn, 181 58 One... for it is in rén that he feels ān and enjoys 仁安者 long-lasting lè 1 95 而安) In fact, ān is often seen as the key attribute in people of a harmonious society. 35 This seeming contradiction can easily be reconciled by highlighting the different conditions of ān one is in One should not feel ān in self-centered comforts but should work hard so that one can feel ān in doing virtuous acts, and when the early Confucians... discoveries, and this is not only attained through the habituation process of disciplined learning and thinking through the adherence to rituals, exposure to good music and interaction with like-minded friends The newly-discovered texts have once again reminded us of the spirit behind all these 60 Analects 5. 26 208 exercises In addition, perhaps what is more precious is the fact that in this road of discovery,... person who begins (his cultivation) is near to rightness, and the person who ends is near to what is genuinely essential (始者近義, 終者近情).” The path in Confucian cultivation is no different from that of any learning Often, it starts with learning by rote through imitation and habituation and it is only after continuous training that one is able to understand the principle or spirit behind one’s training Through . of Psychology in Early China,” in T’oung Pao vol. 92 no.1, (2006), 1-49. As pointed out by Brindley, scholars investigating this tri-partite relationship includes Kenneth DeWoskin (1982) and. culminated in the birth of correlative cosmology in Warring States China. 16 In this interpretation, harmony is the key feature of music—the sense of 14 Siu-chi Chang, “Musical Art in Early. meaning an emotional state of “enjoying” or “finding joy in when it is read as yào: The Master said, “The wise find joy in water; the benevolent find joy in mountains.” 子曰: “知者樂水,仁者樂山.” (Analects