Tài liệu hạn chế xem trước, để xem đầy đủ mời bạn chọn Tải xuống
1
/ 296 trang
THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Thông tin cơ bản
Định dạng
Số trang
296
Dung lượng
16,39 MB
Nội dung
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIAN JIALIANG VICTOR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIAN JIALIANG VICTOR B.Eng. (Hons.), NUS A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 Declaration I hereby declare that,this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. Nian Jialiang Victor January 2014 Acknowledgement I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank my thesis supervisor, Professor Chou Siaw Kiang for his guidance, understanding, and patience during my graduate studies at the National University of Singapore. His mentorship was paramount in providing a well‐rounded experience consistent my long‐term career goals. He encouraged me to not only grow as an engineer and an academic researcher, but also as an instructor and an independent thinker. I am grateful for his confidence in my development of my individuality and self‐ sufficiency by being allowed to work with such independence. For everything you’ve done for me, Professor Chou, I thank you. I would also like to thank the Department of Mechanical Engineering, especially all members in my thesis committee for their advice in shaping the focus of my research. I would also like to thank Dr. John Bauly for his guidance in getting my graduate career started on the right foot and providing me generously with his expert knowledge valuable to my research. I am grateful for his generous sharing of his vast experiences in nuclear engineering. Despite his busy schedule and the long distance between Singapore and Zurich, his valuable comments and advice had always been reaching me in a timely manner. Working with him granted me with the unique opportunity to gain a wider breadth of research experiences. I would like to thank the Energy Studies Institute for giving me the opportunity to participate in important research projects. I was honoured to be awarded with a research scholarship top‐up from the institute for the project on an energy economy model of the Singapore’s electricity sector. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my family, especially my parents, for their support, encouragement, quiet patience and unfailing love. I am grateful for their faith in me and allowing me to be as ambitious as I i wanted. It was under their watchful eye that I gained so much drive and an ability to tackle challenges head on. ii Table of Contents Summary . iv List of Figures vi List of Tables . viii List of Abbreviations . ix List of Symbols xi 1 Introduction . 1 2 Literature Review . 13 3 Development of the Methodology 27 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 Case Study on a Reference Light Water Reactor . 107 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5 The state of fission power reactor development 169 Reactor technology roadmap towards Generation IV 181 The prospects of the SMRs 190 Evolution towards “Smarter Energy” future 207 Discussions . 217 6.1 6.2 6.3 7 Reference global uranium supply chain . 107 Uranium fuel cycle calculation . 109 Process Chain Analysis for the LWR . 116 Life cycle energy and carbon emission analysis 134 Further analysis . 147 Case Study on Future Small Medium Reactors 169 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6 Generic power generation system definition . 27 Levelled system structure and associated boundaries . 40 Kaya Identity and decomposition 53 Technical Benefits . 217 Policy Benefits . 221 Limitations 223 Concluding Remarks . 226 References . 231 iii Summary Given the urgency to mitigate the warming climate caused by excess anthropogenic carbon emissions, decarbonizing the global energy system ranked as one of the top priorities. In evaluating the alternative low carbon technologies, life cycle analysis (LCA) emerged strongly as a modelling tool for supporting the decision making process. An LCA focusing on energy consumption and carbon emissions can provide insights on climate change policy. Over the decades, two dominant approaches were established in the LCA literature, namely the Input‐Output Analysis (IOA), and the Process Chain Analysis (PCA) approaches. The IOA is an economic driven top‐down approach that considers aggregated flows between economic sectors. The PCA is a bottom‐up approach that uses engineering and process‐specific data. PCA generally yields more accurate results, but it is a time consuming exercise. Thus, a PCA exercise is usually simplified by applying “cut‐off” criteria to exclude less relevant processes, leading towards potential under‐estimation of the impact. On the other hand, the results from IOA are more complete and less case dependent, but they are also less precise. There are also transparency issues due to the lack of granularity at the process level. From a quick scan, we detected a large dispersion on the life cycle carbon emission factors of electricity generation system, nuclear power in particular. iv Based on our literature review, there was a lack of standardized methodology in the PCA approach for benchmarking. In response, we proposed a methodology to streamline the formulation of the life cycle energy system. The methodology, developed based on the first principle, can give clear depiction on the elementary mechanisms of the input‐output interactions across the system boundaries. The resulting system boundaries can facilitate the use of Kaya Identity and the decomposition concept to objectively establish the “cut‐ off” criteria for an LCA‐PCA exercise. Two case studies were developed with one on a reference large size reactor system and the other on a Small and Medium Reactor (SMR) system. From the case study results, the methodology was capable of estimating with good confidence the life cycle carbon emission factor of existing electricity generation systems. It was also capable of projecting the life cycle energy input and carbon emissions of future electricity generation technologies, such as an advanced SMR system. Moreover, the methodology was also capable of analysing the influence of key design parameters on the life cycle carbon emissions of the system. These capabilities can provide insights directly relevant for energy system planning and climate change policymaking. v List of Figures Figure 1‐1 The “450 Scenario” developed by the IEA 3 Figure 1‐2 General framework of an LCA on fission power generation 6 Figure 1‐3 Life cycle carbon emissions of fission power generation reported in the literature (logarithm plot) . 7 Figure 2‐1 Criteria on the evaluation of LCA methodologies 14 Figure 3‐1 Schematic of a heat engine 28 Figure 3‐2 Schematic of steam electricity generation . 29 Figure 3‐3 Schematic of the generic electricity generation system 30 Figure 3‐4 Generic electricity generation system with representations on environmental impact 31 Figure 3‐5 Power generation and upstream systems 32 Figure 3‐6 Schematic of a broader fuel fabrication system . 34 Figure 3‐7 Extended energy input definition for power generation system . 35 Figure 3‐8 Formation of life cycle electricity generation system via system merging 36 Figure 3‐9 Complete representation of the life cycle electricity generation system 37 Figure 3‐10 Generic life cycle electricity generation system . 37 Figure 3‐11 Generic “LCA Main System” definition for electricity generation in the PCA approach 38 Figure 3‐12 Boundaries between the technological system and its surroundings 45 Figure 3‐13 Boundaries between the “LCA Main System” and the “LCA Sub‐ systems” . 45 Figure 3‐14 Expanded view of levelled system structure 49 Figure 3‐15 Defining the carbon emission streams with CInt and CExt 55 Figure 3‐16 Simplified multi‐process system representation 58 Figure 3‐17 Schematic for decomposing at Level 1 ‐ “Energy Input” side . 63 Figure 3‐18 Schematic for decomposing at Level 2 ‐ “Energy Input” side . 71 Figure 3‐19 Schematic for decomposing at Level 1 ‐ “Non‐Energy Input” side 82 Figure 3‐20 Schematic for decomposing at Level 2 ‐ “Non‐Energy Input” side 85 Figure 4‐1 Global uranium supply chain for the case study 109 Figure 4‐2 Summary of uranium fuel cycle calculation results 116 Figure 4‐3 Schematic of the uranium mining and milling “Process” . 118 Figure 4‐4 Schematic of uranium conversion “Process” 120 Figure 4‐5 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 1) 122 Figure 4‐6 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 2) 123 Figure 4‐7 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 3) 123 Figure 4‐8 Schematic of fuel fabrication “Process” . 126 Figure 4‐9 Schematic of power generation “Process” . 129 Figure 4‐10 Schematic of SF interim storage “Process” 131 Figure 4‐11 Schematic of spent fuel disposal “Process” 133 vi Figure 4‐12 Benchmarking the case study results against the median of published LCA results . 142 Figure 4‐13 Benchmarking the case study results for Level 0 against the median of published LCA results . 143 Figure 4‐14 Benchmarking the case study results against the average of published values 144 Figure 4‐15 Benchmarking the case study results for Level 0 against the average of published values 145 Figure 4‐16 Distribution of “Process Energy Input” . 149 Figure 4‐17 Share of “Process Energy Input” . 150 Figure 4‐18 Distribution of upstream “Process Energy Input” 151 Figure 4‐19 Distribution of “Process” carbon emissions . 153 Figure 4‐20 Share of “Process” carbon emissions . 154 Figure 4‐21 Distribution of upstream “Process” carbon emissions . 155 Figure 4‐22 Influence of uranium ore grade to the life cycle carbon emission factor of the reference LWR system 158 Figure 4‐23 Typical initial loading map for a reactor core . 160 Figure 4‐24 Impact of enrichment concentration to the life cycle emission factor 162 Figure 4‐25 Scenario dependent trajectories of emission factors 163 Figure 4‐26 Influence of 235U Concentration in Scenario 1 164 Figure 4‐27 Influence of 235U Concentration in Scenario 2 166 Figure 4‐28 Influence of 235U Concentration in Scenario 3 168 Figure 5‐1 Graphite “pebble” for Pebble Bed Reactor 171 Figure 5‐2 Olkiluoto nuclear power station Unit 3 (EPR unit) . 174 Figure 5‐3 Loviisa nuclear power station with two units of VVER‐440 . 174 Figure 5‐4 Qinshan CANDU nuclear power station . 175 Figure 5‐5 Shika nuclear power station (BWR and ABWR) 176 Figure 5‐6 Leningrad nuclear power plant (RMBK and VVER reactors) 177 Figure 5‐7 Monju nuclear power station (sodium cooled LMFBR) 179 Figure 5‐8 Torness AGR power station, Scotland 180 Figure 5‐9 Roadmap for fission power reactors 183 Figure 5‐10 The prospect of future reactor licensing 184 Figure 5‐11 Benchmarking life cycle carbon emission factors 192 Figure 5‐12 Benchmarking the life cycle carbon emission factor of the SMR in the technology conservative scenario . 195 Figure 5‐13 Benchmarking the life cycle carbon emission factor of the SMR in the technology optimistic scenario 197 Figure 5‐14 Influence of uranium ore grade to the life cycle carbon emission factor of the conceptualized SMR . 199 Figure 5‐15 LCOEs of alternative power generation technologies 201 Figure 5‐16 Capital costs of alternative power generation technologies . 202 Figure 5‐17 Capital costs of alternative power generation technologies including SMR 203 Figure 5‐18 LCOEs of alternative power generation technologies including SMR 204 vii of U3O8. The wet route is more versatile, where tributylphosphate extraction gives nearly pure ([...]... : carbon emissions from fuel fabrication : intrinsic emission of “Process” input : carbon emissions from the “Fuel” : life cycle carbon emissions from the “LCA Main System” : carbon emissions from the mining : carbon emissions due to “Non‐Energy Input” : carbon emissions from the power generation : carbon emissions of a system : the carbon cost at year “ ” : the decommissioning cost at year “... gases (GHGs). White recognized that the source of emissions was from the use of fossil fuels. Apart from thermal electricity generation, fossil fuels were also consumed in the process of manufacturing the materials used for power plant and other facilities constructions. However, there was a lack of detailed discussion on the definitions of the life cycle systems for fission power generation and system boundaries. Without ... insufficient granularity in LCI dataset. The methodology enables transparent and balanced carbon emission analysis due to the use of energy with accurate inclusion of carbon emission streams. Thus, it is able to estimate with good confidence the life cycle energy input and carbon emissions of current electricity generation systems. The methodology is explicit in representing the relevant design parameters ... Table 4‐15 Carbon emission factors of electricity . 34 1 Table 4‐16 Carbon emission factors of fuels . 35 1 Table 4‐17 Carbon emission factors of power plant maintenance activities 135 Table 4‐18 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 1 35 1 Table 4‐19 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 2 36 1 Table 4‐20 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 3 ... Figure 1‐2 General framework of an LCA on fission power generation Based on our assessment on the credibility and reputation, we have carefully selected a list of more than 50 LCA studies in the PCA approach. These studies constitute more than 90 sample points for the LCA results. Based on our observation, the reported values of the life cycle carbon emission factors of fission power varied ... conducted a comprehensive assessment on the life cycle carbon emissions of different power generation technologies, including fission, coal, natural gas, hydro, geothermal, wind, and solar PV. The assessment report contained a rich set of verifiable primary and secondary data sources of high granularity. Leveraging on the rich data set, Hondo [36] conducted a life cycle ... annual growth rate of 3.5% [18]. In 2010, power generation was accountable for 41% of carbon emissions with 67.8% of the world electricity production from fossil fired power plants [19]. Thus, it is important to identify suitable 2 power generation systems to reduce the carbon emissions by means of LCA studies. Given the strategic importance of fission power in addressing energy security and reducing carbon emissions as discussed in [20, 21], it became one ... approach, several LCA methodologies on fission power, such as [36‐47] were developed with corresponding life cycle carbon emission factors reported. However, there is a lack of a standardized methodology in the PCA approach for benchmarking the current LCA results on fission power. Without a standardized methodology, it is also difficult to benchmark the life cycle carbon emissions of alternative power generation systems. 5 ... timeframe for the analysis with poor analytical granularity. An earlier work involved a study of fission power life cycle emissions in China by Dones and others [44] adopted similar framework but the reported a large range of carbon emission factors. Tokimatsu and others [46] evaluated the life cycle carbon emission of fission power under different nuclear scenarios. With reference to [22, 36, 38, 42], ... a detailed discussion on the inclusion of embodied emissions for materials. This paper reported a large range of life cycle carbon emission factors of fission power (from 10 to 200 kg‐CO2/kWh) under the different nuclear scenarios in Japan. It was reasonable to assume that the carbon emission factor of fission power could reduce when more fission power plants were . LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIANJIALIANGVICTOR NATIONALUNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIANJIALIANGVICTOR B.Eng.(Hons.),NUS ATHESISSUBMITTED FORTHEDEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICALENGINEERING NATIONALUNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 Declaration. LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIANJIALIANGVICTOR NATIONALUNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY NIANJIALIANGVICTOR B.Eng.(Hons.),NUS ATHESISSUBMITTED FORTHEDEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICALENGINEERING NATIONALUNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 Declaration. 35 Figure3‐8Formation of life cycle electricity generation systemviasystem merging 36 Figure3‐9Completerepresentation of the life cycle electricity generation system 37 Figure3‐10Generic life cycle electricity generation system