history • ideas • THEORIES WHO’S WHO • how to think E YEWITNES S c om pa nio ns E YE WITN ESS compan io ns Philosophy other eyewitness companions architecture • Art • astronomy cats • Classical Music • dogs • fi lm French Cheeses • French Wines • Golf Guitar • herbal remedies • Hiking horse riding • Olive Oil • opera Photography • sailing • scuba diving Trees • Wines of the World Despite a checkered academic history, including expulsion from high school and a brief stint delivering mail, Stephen Law graduated with honors in philosophy from the City University, London. He continued his studies at Oxford University, where he was a junior research fellow for three years, and is currently a lecturer in philosophy at Heythrop College, in the University of London. Stephen is the author of several books on philosophy, some written for adults and some for children. He is also the editor of THINK, the Royal Institute of Philosophy’s popular new journal aimed at the general public; www.thinking-big.co.uk The big questions Understand the debate on such philosophical enquiries as “Where did the universe come from?” Philosophy Philosophy E YE WITNESS compa ni on s Philosophy $25.00 USA $30.00 Canada E YE WI TNE SS com pa nio ns history • ideas • THEOR I E S WHO’S WHO • how to t h i n k Philosophy East meets West Explore the history of Western thought as well as traditions of Eastern philosophy. Discover more at www.dk.com Stephen Law Exercise your mind Find out how to construct and communicate philosophical arguments. The defi nitive visual guide Evocative and imaginative images illustrate the philosophical arguments. stephen law The great thinkers Discover who’s who in philosophy, from Aristotle to Zeno, and their contributions to the way we think today. Printed in China Jacket images Front: Alamy Images: David Noton Photography (c); The Bridgeman Art Library: Private Collection (fbr); Vatican Museums and Galleries, Vatican City, Italy (bl); Corbis: Bettmann (bc); Gregor Schuster/zefa (t); Getty Images: Amana Images/Teisuke Shinoda (c). Back: akg-images: (crb); Erich Lessing (t); Corbis: HO/epa (bl); Owaki - Kulla (c); Archivo Iconografi co, S.A. (cr). Spine: Corbis: Jens Nieth/zefa All other images © Dorling Kindersley For further information see: www.dkimages.com Contents Introducing Philosophy the history of philosophy branches of philosophy Philosophy Toolkit who’s who in Philosophy Pages 12–21 Pages 22–43 Pages 44–189 Pages 190–225 Pages 226–345 KEY TO SYMBOLS USED IN THIS BOOK Birth and death dates Place of birth b n stephen law Philosophy STEPHEN LAW EYEWITNESS COMPANIONS “ MAN IS A ROPE STRETCHED BETWEEN THE ANIMAL AND THE SUPERMAN A ROPE OVER AN ABYSS. ” Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra [...]... theologians Given this overlap between philosophy and religion in terms of the Like many other cultures, the PHILOSOPHY Ancient Egyptians had creation questions they address, myths Philosophy also tackles AND RELIGION how do philosophy and questions about ultimate origins religion differ? One way Many of the questions tackled by philosophy are also addressed in which philosophy and religion can differ... all foreword 11 INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY 14 INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Philosophical questions include some of the most exciting, puzzling, and important questions ever asked They can challenge our most fundamental beliefs This chapter asks: what are philosophical questions, and how do philosophers attempt to answer them? We all hold philosophical beliefs Philosophy is sometimes dismissed... matters concerning which knowledge is impossible.… If the study of philosophy has any value at all… it must be only indirectly, through its effects upon the lives of those who study it It is in these effects, therefore… that the value of philosophy must be primarily sought.” Bertrand Russell , The Problems of Philosophy 20 INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY Holmes cannot yet figure out exactly precisely, and so on... Neither is it like the proof of a statement in any of the descriptive sciences Philosophical theories are not tested by observation.” A J Ayer, The Problem of Knowledge 18 INTRODUCING PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE Philosophy addresses questions that, in many cases, seem to reach beyond the point where science might provide us with answers For example: why is there anything at all? How can I know... be, correct (in much the same way that, even when Sherlock BERTRAND RUSSELL ON PHILOSOPHY “What is the value of philosophy and why ought it to be studied? It is the more necessary to consider this question, in view of the fact that many men, under the influence of science or of practical affairs, are inclined to doubt whether philosophy is anything better than innocent but useless trifling, hair-splitting... to begin ThiS book aims to give those new to philosophy a clear and non-technical guide This companion guide to of the trickier passages a philosophy is written for the second time or even a third interested layperson, though time And do regularly take it will also be of value to time out to reflect students beginning a degree It is worth stressing that in philosophy Within these this book is a “taster.”... skill in thinking for yourself The Philosophy Toolkit contains some key go out of date The ability to spot a thinking tools: how to apply, for example, logical howler, cut through waffle, be the techniques of argument and relevant, make a point clearly and WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? reasoning that philosophers deploy, and how to spot common logical errors Finally, in Who’s Who in Philosophy, you will find concise... any philosophical reflection is an unhealthy society A philosophy- free society in which there is little critical thought about fundamentals is a society perilously close to atrophy “WE MUST NOT MAKE A PRETENCE OF DOING PHILOSOPHY, BUT REALLY DO IT; FOR WHAT WE NEED IS NOT THE SEMBLANCE OF HEALTH BUT REAL HEALTH.” Epicurus, quoted in Hellenistic Philosophy (A A Long) When we start to think philosophically,... philosophically, we may start to walk against the crowd: we begin to question, and sometimes even reject, what most people ordinarily take for granted THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 24 THE ANCIENTS Aristotle said that philosophy begins in wonder; if so, its origins must lie as far back as humanity itself But as far as we know, before ca.600 BCE, reactions to the puzzles that characterize... Alexandria, a Greek scholar of astronomy and mathematics, proves that the world is round 300 CE 26 THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Ancient Eastern thought While Socrates and Plato were laying the foundations for Western philosophy, Confucius and Lao Tzu ushered in the classical era of Chinese philosophy, which lasted for 400 years and was enriched by such thinkers as Mozi, Mengzi (Mencius), and Han Feizi . information see: www.dkimages.com Contents Introducing Philosophy the history of philosophy branches of philosophy Philosophy Toolkit who’s who in Philosophy Pages 12–21 Pages 22–43 Pages 44–189 Pages. come from?” Philosophy Philosophy E YE WITNESS compa ni on s Philosophy $25.00 USA $30.00 Canada E YE WI TNE SS com pa nio ns history • ideas • THEOR I E S WHO’S WHO • how to t h i n k Philosophy East. PHILOSOPHY Introduction 46 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION 138 Does God exist? 140 The problem of evil 153 Faith and reason 157 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 160 The liberal ideal 162 The common good 172 PHILOSOPHY