An application of the CLT approach in teaching english speaking skill to children at level 1 at asemvietnam language institute

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING J VINH UNIVERSITY Ï FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES - & Ew -

NGUYEN THI BICH HANG

AN APPLICATION OF THE CLT APPROACH IN TEACHING ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILL TO CHILDREN AT LEVEL 1 AT ASEMVIETNAM

LANGUAGE INSTITUTE

(Ap dụng phương pháp giảng dạy ngơn ngíF giao tiếp trong việc dạy nĩi cho các lớp tiêng “Anh trẻ em cấp độ I ở Trung tâm Anh ngit

Quéc té Asemvietnam)

i FIELD: THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF i

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CODE: 60.14.10

MASTER THESIS IN EDUCATION SUPERVISOR: PHAN THI HUONG (M.A.)

i VINH - 2013 l

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

For the completion of the study, I have received valuable contributions from many people

First of all, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Ms Phan Thi Huong (M.A.), whose useful instructions and advice, as well as detailed critical comments and encouragements help me a great deal from the beginning to the end of the thesis writing process Without her help, the study would have never finished

I also would like to thank all the teachers who have taught me during the course and have given me useful advice and favourable conditions for the completion of the thesis

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

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ABSTRACT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS .\0.9)(9À4008.620 00600 21 1 STATEMENT OE AUTHORSHIP -+-©2+++22+++2EE+E+EExttEEEtrrkkrrrrkrrrrrrerrrre ii Bì) li iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv I9) 0.12)39A40.v00i9)5SSS4 vii I0» 1901205101155 viii I0E⁄0939i6001105727.7 1X CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TẺẠ24 44 1 ID vi 1 1119 á0)) 5850009 a1 2 II :39)92119009)09.40/9)) 115 2 1.4 SCOPE OF THE S TUDY: .2 ©22£252£S2S£2EESE22Ex2EEEEEEEEEEkrrrtkrrrrri 3 I993(6)09)021980.000a 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW -2 525cc 5 2.1 THE NATURE OF SPEAKING . -55c-55s2ccrttterrrrrrrkrerrrerrirrrrrrke 5 2.1.1 Definitions of speaking? na 5

2.1.2 Characteristics of good speaking aCfIVIẨ1€S: tre 6 2.2 COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING: (CLT) -. 7 "ˆ Noo na ƠỎ 7 2.2.2 Definitions of CLT: 2.2.3 Features of CLT: 2.2.4 Principles of CLT: „13 2.2.5 Communicative competence:

2.2.6 Classroom activities 19 CLT? oo eesessesseesseeseeseeseesnesneeensreesnsaneesesreeaneaneees 18 2.3 TEACHING SPEAKING TO YOUNG LEARNERS: .-.-:- 22

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2.3.4 Problems in teaching speaking to young Ïearn€rS: ¿s5 s2 26 2.3.5 Speaking activifles for young [€aTTI€TS: 5: tt St vExtrtrkrkerrrsree 27

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3.4 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS -552 25c cccecreereerriee 30 3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE . 2- 525-5552 552+25+s2scszzxsrrerr 31 3.6 DATA ANALYSIS S~ 32 3.7 RESEARCH PROCEDURES .0 ccccccccescesss sess essseeeseeeseesseesseesseseseeseeeseusecsneeeseeseess 32 ER:40507.1-)0006.))9A4/.90i060A 1 .M 32 E00 9e m 32 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 33 n2) 05554 33 000900 c544 Ơ 33 4.2.1 Students’ Awareness towards English learning and Speaking SKIlls: 33

4.2.2 Factors related to students’ interest in speaking lessons: .- 36

4.2.3 Factors increasing students’ motivation in speaking English 38

4.2.4 Teachers’ Opinion About Speaking Skills bJ)2.\0200/6401030(0.v9(9).115 51

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5.2.3 Being enthusiastic, tolerant, helpful, creative and acfIVe -.: -‹: 52

5.2.4 Aware of and satisfy students’ inferest and desires - + 55c sc>+ 53 (ai co sa 53 5.2.6 Emphasis on pair and øTOUD WOFÍK: +: +52 SE kEkEEkEEkrkkrrkrkrrkrrke 54 5.2.7 Combining the textbook and relevanf mater1aÏs -. ¿s2 5z+zszs+z+zs+ 55 IUU 56 5.2.9 Suggested Teaching J0 56 b8) 100v 1 57 5.4 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH - ¿5255552 ss+‡xss+ 57 REFERENCES 58 L\33010))(092 nh 60

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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS ECI : English for Children level 1

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LISTS OF TABLES

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 4.1: Students” auttitudes towards English learning -. : 5+ 555+2 33 Figure 4.2: Students° Attitude towards Speaking Skill -. . ¿- 55552 sxs>52 34 Figure 4.3 Students” Attitude towards Speaking SKIÏÍ - -:-5:-c+scss+sxszev 34 Figure 4.4: Students’ Attitude towards Speaking Lessons at Asemvietnam Language

In An 35

Figure 4.5: Students' frequency of speaking English in class time 36

Figure 4.6: Students° Difficulties in Speaking Lessons -. - 5555-52 37 Figure 4.7: Factors encouraging students to speak English Figure 4.8: Teachers’ Opinion About the Speaking Skill 42

Figure 4.9: Teachers’ Opinion about Teaching Speaking SKIlls - 42

Figure 4.10 Teachers’ opinion about the use of CLT in teaching speaking .43

Figure 4.11: The frequency of teachers’ using CLT in teaching speaking 44

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 RATIONALE:

Today, English teaching plays an important role in the period of modernization and industrialization For the educational innovation, many considerable changes in teaching and learning English have been made In order to develop students’ communicative competence, the emphasis of the English teaching has been placed on the mastery of oral communication skills Besides reading and writing, the two skills which have always been the focus of language teaching, speaking and listening are now being paid more attention than ever before

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of language centers in Vinh city Many parents send their children to these centers at very young ages Many researches show that in their formative years, learners are much more receptive to participate in communication activities which include speaking and role play The younger learner is usually less self-conscious and thus enjoys practicing a second language orally and finds it highly motivating Teaching experience also shows that it is much easier to develop these skills at an early stage in the learner’s development than it is to initiate speaking tasks with adolescent pupils Apart from being more motivated, younger learners also have an innate ability to imitate sounds and rhythm This means that the sooner children start learning to pronounce words in a second language the more likely they are to develop accurate speaking skills Through reproducing real situations in classroom learners can better appreciate the usefulness of speaking a second language

At Asemvietnam Language Institute, the students have the chance to learn English in an active environment in small-sized classes Speaking skill is focused from very early learning stages through a variety of communication activities inside and outside classrooms

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teachers and students face various problems and difficulties in teaching and learning this skill Students do not learn English in an English speaking environment, they do not have the chance to use English to interact outside classrooms These difficulties prevent students from improving speaking skill

Within this background, the author would like to conduct a study dealing with the issues of teaching speaking to English for children classes level 1 at Asemvietnam Language Institute in order to work out current and _ potential problems, examine teachers’ solutions to these difficulties, then propose appropriate teaching methods and strategies that can facilitate the English speaking teaching

Hopefully, the study will benefit teachers who want to be successful in the English speaking teaching

1.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY:

The aims of the study are as follows:

- To investigate the situation of teaching and learning speaking of EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute

- To investigate the effectiveness of CLT approach in teaching speaking EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute

- To provide some suggestions and implications for the improvement of teaching speaking to EC1 students at Asemvietnam Language Institute by applying CLT approach

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

For the above purposes, the four following research questions are posed: 1 What is the reality of teaching speaking to EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute?

2 What difficulties do teachers at Asemvietnam Language Institute encounter in teaching speaking to EC1 classes?

3 What are the possible solutions to the difficulties teachers encounter in teaching speaking to EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute?

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1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:

This research is conducted with EC] students and teachers at Asemvietnam Language Institute The study mainly has a look at existing problems in teaching English speaking to these students and suggests possible solutions to these problems

Besides, the research gives some suggestions and implications so as to partly improve the quality of teaching English speaking skill at Asemvietnam Language Institute

1.5 DESIGN OF THE STUDY:

The research consists of the following chapters:

- Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with rationale, aims, significance, research questions, methods, scope and the design of the study

- Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides an in-depth review of the relevance literature related to the issue under investigation Particularly, a review of some main points relating to the topic: definition of speaking skill and its importance, CLT with teachers’ roles, the main principles of teaching speaking, the main types of speaking activities, stages of teaching speaking and procedures for teaching it in class In addition, the challenge of teaching speaking skill is mentioned

- Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents methodology adopted to collect data for the research, which consists of descriptions of setting, procedures and participants involved in the study This chapter will also deal with primary results to describe the whole picture about real situation of teachers’ applications of CLT approach in teaching speaking to EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute

- Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

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author provides some suggested speaking lessons for EC1 classes applying CLT approach

- Chapter 5: CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 THE NATURE OF SPEAKING:

2.1.1 Definitions of speaking:

Communication can be conducted through many ways such as gestures or body language However, speaking is considered to be the most effective way to communicate with others There has been numerous definitions of speaking through years Lado (1961) defines speaking as the ability to use pronunciation, stress, intonation, grammatical structure and vocabulary of the foreign language in normal communication situations

According to Kartimi (in Awi, 2003), speaking ability is the ability to express ideas, intentions, thoughts and feelings to other people by using spoken language so that the hearer understands what the speaker says While Parcher (1998) suggests that speaking is an interactive process in which an individual takes roles of speaker or listener, and which includes both verbal and nonverbal components

Florez (1999) defined speaking as ‘an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information’ (cited in Balley, 2005:2) It is ‘often spontaneous, open-ended and evolving’, but is not completely unpredictable In other words, ‘speaking consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meanings’ (Balley, 2005:2) Florez (1999) says that form and meaning of speaking are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking

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and intonation, but also the choice of words and inflections in the right order to convey the right meaning” (cited in Bygate, 1997:5)

Byrne (1987) suggests that speaking is defined as an activity involving two or more participants as speakers and hearers who react to what they hear and make their contributions It means that in practicing speaking ability, students cannot do it individually, it needs a partner who can speak the same language So, the teaching speaking is aimed at improving students’ communicative skills, because in that way students can express themselves and learn how to conform the social and cultural rules

In short, speaking can be seen as the way people interact and share information By mastering speaking skills, students can improve the communicative competence which helps them a lot in the process of language acquisition

2.1.2 Characteristics of good speaking activities:

Classroom activities that develop learners’ ability to express themselves through speech would therefore seem an important component of a language course Yet it is difficult to design and administer such activities; more so, in many ways, then to do so for listening, reading or writing Ur (1996: 120) explains some characteristics of successful speaking activities which include learners talk a lot, participant is even, motivation is high, and language is of an acceptable level Each characteristic is explained as follows:

> Learners talk a lot: As much as possible of the period allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learner talk This may seem obvious, but often most of the time is taken up with teacher talk or pauses

> Participation is even: classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talkative participants; all get a chance to speak and contributions are fairly event distributed

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> Language is of an acceptable level: Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy

In practice, however, few classroom activities succeed in satisfying all of these criteria

2.2 COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING: (CLT)

2.2.1 History of CLT:

There have been many changes in ideas about methodology over the last 50 years or so CLT as a promising approach has encouraged a re-evaluation of methodology Richards (2006) classifies trends in language teaching in the last 50 years into three phases:

> Phase 1: traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s)

> Phase 2: classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s)

> Phase 3: current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present)

According to the traditional approaches, grammatical competence was the foundation of language proficiency Thus, grammar was given a central place in language teaching methodology A deductive approach to teaching grammar was adopted by language teachers Students were provided with detailed grammar rules and then given opportunities for practice Language learning was essentially understood as constructing a strong knowledge of grammatical patterns and sentence structures The four skills of language, i.e speaking, listening, reading, and writing were introduced after a basic grasp of language was constructed through controlled practice and oral drills Accuracy was given emphasis at the expense of fluency From the earliest stages of language teaching, teachers highlighted the magnitude of accurate knowledge of grammar, as well as an accurate pronunciation Learners were discouraged to make errors since it was thought that errors could become a permanent part of student’s speech

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based on these assumptions Syllabuses during this period mainly consisted of word lists and grammar lists that were graded across levels

Richards and Rodgers (2001) portrays a typical audio-lingual lesson as involving the following procedures:

> Students first hear a model dialog (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing key structures that are the focus of the lesson They repeat each line of the dialog, individually and in chorus The teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation, and fluency Correction of mistakes of pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate The dialog is memorized gradually, line by line A line may be broken down into several phrases if necessary The dialog is read aloud in chorus, one half saying one speaker’s part and the other half responding The students do not consult their book throughout this phase

> The dialog is adapted to the students’ interest or situation, through changing certain key words or phrases This is acted out by the students

> Certain key structures from the dialog are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds These are first practiced in chorus and then individually Some grammatical explanation may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum

> The students may refer to their textbook, and follow - up reading, writing, or vocabulary activities based on the dialog may be introduced

> Follow - up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further dialog and drill work is carried out (pp 64 -65)

Situational language teaching proposes that a typical language lesson involve a

three -phase sequence, known as the P- P- P model: Presentation, Practice, and

Production

“+ Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or short text The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’ comprehension of it

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s* Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts, often using their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern (Richards, 2006 , p 8)

This lesson structure (PPP) proposed by situational language teaching has been extensively used in language teaching materials and still continues to be used in customized forms However, the view of language learning that underlies this approach to language teaching has been criticized on a number of grounds As Rutherford (1987) notes, PPP views language as a series of products that can be acquired sequentially as accumulated entities Yet, second language acquisition (SLA) research has shown that L2 acquisition is a process that is incompatible with teaching seen as the presentation and practice of a series of products In the same vein, Skehan (1996) questions the theoretical assumptions of situational language teaching: The underlying theory for a P - P- P approach has now been discredited The belief that a precise focus on a particular form leads to learning and automatization (that learners will learn what is taught in the order in which it is taught) no longer carries much credibility in linguistics or psychology (p 18)

As far as the linguistic theory is concerned, the eminent American linguist Noam Chomsky criticized the narrow behaviorist stimulus- response view of language and language learning espoused by Skinner (Savignon, 1987) Chomsky argued that structural linguistic theory was insufficient in explaining the principal characteristic of languages — the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences His view of language and language learning moved the focus of American linguistic studies from surface structural features toward a concern with deep semantic structures Thus, this paradigm shift led the way for the development of more communicative approaches to second language learning (Savignon, 1987) Yet, Chomsky’s focus was on the interpretation of sentences He characterized the linguistic competence as the sentence - level grammatical competence of ideal native speaker Hymes (1971) reacted to this view by proposing the term communicative competence

which referred to the use of language in social context Communication, therefore,

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reader Meanwhile, British applied linguists highlighted the importance of another fundamental aspect of language — the functional and communicative potential of language that was inadequately addressed in the language teaching theories at that time Drawing on the work of functional linguists (e.g John Firth, M AK Halliday) and American sociolinguists (e.g Dell Hymes, John Gumperz, and William Labov), and philosopers (e.g John Austin and John Searle), British applied linguists claimed that language teaching needs to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures (Li, 1997)

In Europe, during the 1970s, with the mounting interdependence of European countries, there was an increasing number of immigrants and guest workers This situation led the Council of Europe to build up a syllabus for learners based on functional - notional concepts of language use In this syllabus, a threshold level of language ability was defined for each of the European languages in terms of what learners should be able to do with the language (van Ek, 1975) Language functions were rooted in assessment of learner needs Subsequently, the term communicative was used to describe programs that adopted a functional- notional syllabus

Since its emergence as essentially a British innovation, CLT has expanded in scope and now is widely utilized as one of the most prominent language teaching methodologies around the world Despite its apparent popularity, many teachers remain somewhat confused about what exactly CLT is Accordingly, it is relevant at this point to define and lay out some important characteristics of CLT in light of the existing literature

2.2.2 Definitions of CLT:

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appropriately based on the situation, the participants, and their roles and intentions Traditional grammatical and vocabulary syllabuses and teaching methods did not include information of this kind It was assumed that this kind of knowledge would be picked up informally In fact, CLT is not a monolithic and uniform approach to language teaching (Ellis, 2003)

In accordance with a classification proposed by Howatt (1984), CLT consists of a ‘weak’ and a ‘strong’ version The weak version of CLT is based on the assumption that the components of communicative competence can be identified, and thus systematically taught (Ellis, 2003) From this perspective, CLT can be thought to be an interventionist and analytic approach to language teaching, which means that CLT does not display a fundamental difference from the earlier traditional approaches This weak version of CLT highlights the significance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching (Howatt, 1984) Such a version of CLT proposes that instead of teaching the structural properties of language, teachers pay attention to particular notions such as ‘possibility’, ‘possession’, as well as language functions such as ‘making requests’ and ‘giving advice.’ Howatt (1984) describes the weak version of CLT as “learning to use English” (p 279) It is possible to claim that this version is manifested in the proposals for notional/functional syllabuses put forward by Wilkins (1976) and Van Ek (1976)

On the contrary, a strong version of CLT is based on the claim that “language is acquired through communication” (Howatt, 1984, p 279) In other words, learners do not go through a learning experience in which they acquire the structural properties of a language and then learn to use this structural system in communication As a matter of fact, they discover the system itself as they learn how to communicate in a language This version proposes that teachers provide learners with ample opportunities to familiarize themselves with how language is used in actual communication As Howatt (1984) puts it, the strong version of CLT entails “using English to learn it” (p.279)

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2.2.3 Features of CLT:

Other authors in the field have defined and characterized CLT in various ways

(Brown, 2001; Larsen - Freeman, 1986; Littlewood, 1981, Richards, 2006;

Savignon, 1991) According to Larsen — Freeman (1986), the most obvious attribute of CLT is that ‘‘almost everything that is done is done with a communicative intent’’ (p 132) In CLT, meaning is given prime importance, which is achieved through interaction between reader and writer, and through negotiation between speaker and listener There are a variety of communicative activities (e.g games, role plays, simulations, and problem - solving tasks), which offer learners an opportunity to practice their communication skills meaningfully in different contexts and by taking on different role In the process of utilizing these kinds of performance activities, learners avoid using their native language and teachers

occasionally, if ever, correct students’ mistakes

Another typical feature of communicative language teaching is that “it gives planned emphasis on functional as well as structural features of language, combining these into a more completely communicative view” (Littlewood, 1981, p 1) Teachers who espouse CLT move beyond teaching structural rules of the target language, and create opportunities for learners to use the target language in a meaningful way In doing so, they help their learners build up communicative

competence

> Small group work can also be regarded as an important tenet of CLT Larsen - Freeman (1986) puts forward that activities in a communicative class are commonly carried out by students in small groups Negotiation of meaning can be accomplished by involving learners in group work in which they can freely interact with each other Through small group activities, the students are engaged in meaningful and authentic language use rather than in the simply mechanical practice of language patterns

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helpful for language teachers to expose their students to the target language the way it is used by native speakers Richards (2006) lists the following arguments in favor of the use of authentic sources as the basis of communicative classroom learning:

> They provide cultural information about the target language > They provide exposure to real language

> They relate more closely to learners’ needs

> They support a more creative approach to teaching (p 20)

Another feature of CLT is "its learner- centered and experience - based view of second language teaching" (Richards & Rodgers, 1986, p 69) As cited in Li (1998), individual learners have their unique interests, learning styles, needs, and goals that should be reflected in the design of instructional methods (Savignon, 1991) Li (1998) further states that it is crucial for teachers to develop materials

based on the established needs of a particular class Besides, in a CLT classroom, students must be made to feel secure, unthreatened, and non-defensive, so teachers

adopting CLT should avoid taking on a teacher-centered, authoritarian attitude (Taylor, 1983)

2.2.4 Principles of CLT:

Brown (2001), in describing the key principles of CLT, offers the following six characteristics:

> Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicative competence Goals therefore must intertwine the organizational aspects of language with the pragmatic

> Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of language that enable learner to accomplish those purposes

> Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use

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> Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills necessary for communication in those contexts

> Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning

> The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all - knowing bestower of knowledge Students are therefore encouraged to construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others (p 43)

Furthermore, Richards (2006) notes that with the introduction of CLT, language teachers and teaching institutions all around the world soon began to reorganize their teaching, syllabuses, and classroom materials In planning language courses within a communicative approach, grammar was no longer the starting point It was claimed that meaningful communication provides the learner with a better opportunity for learning than through a grammar - based approach He then summarizes the overarching principles of CLT as follows:

> Make real communication the focus of language learning

> Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know > Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learners are building up their communicative competence

> Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency > Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since they usually occur so in the real world

> Let students induce or discover grammar rules (Richards, 2006 , p 13 ) 2.2.5 Communicative competence:

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is “what is communicative competence”? The following section will review some common concepts dealing with the issue of communicative competence

In his linguistic theories, Chomsky makes a distinction between two aspects of language, namely ‘competence’ vs ‘performance’ He argues that competence is consisted of the underlying knowledge of the grammatical system By competence, Chomsky means the shared knowledge of the ideal speaker-listener set in a completely homogeneous speech community Chomsky affirms that such underlying knowledge enables a user of a language to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences out of a finite set of rules By performance, he refers to the use of this underlying knowledge to communicate However, this linguistic model proposed by Chomsky has been harshly criticized for being too simplistic (Halliday, 1979; Hymes, 1972) They pointed out that this model fails to account for the social aspects of language Agreeing with Chomsky on competence- performance

distinction, most scholars feel that competence should involve, in addition to grammatical sectors, psycholinguistic, sociocultural, as well as de facto sectors, in

Hymes’ terms Hymes believes that Chomsky’s view of competence is too idealized to describe actual language behavior, and therefore his view of performance is an incomplete reflection of competence He also points out that the theory does not account for sociocultural factors or differential competence in a heterogeneous speech community Claiming that a linguistic theory must be able to deal with a heterogeneous speech community, differential competence and the role of sociocultural features, Hymes (1972) offers a broader concept of competence, namely ‘communicative competence’ He puts forward that native speakers, in addition to linguistic competence, attend to another rule system while speaking, which is labeled as the rules of language use As cited in Li (1997), Hymes claims that a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with regard to:

> whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;

> whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;

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> whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;

> whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails (Hymes, 1972, p 281)

> Compared to Chomsky’s view of competence — that of abstract knowledge of grammar, Hymes ’ theory of what knowing a language involves presents a much more inclusive view

Savignon (1997) promotes a classroom model of communicative competence that involves Canale and Swain's four components of competence She defines communicative competence as “functional language proficiency, the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning involving interaction between two or more persons belonging to the same (or different) speech community” (Savignon, 1997, p 272) In her book Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice (1997), Savignon portrays communicative competence as having the following elements :

> Communicative competence is a dynamic rather than a static concept It depends on the negotiation of meaning between two or more people who share to some degree the same symbolic system

> Communicative competence applies to both written and spoken language, as well as to many other symbolic systems

> Communicative competence is context specific Communication takes place in an infinite variety of situations, and success in a particular role depends on one’s understanding of the context and on prior experience of a similar kind

> There is a theoretical difference between competence and performance Competence is defined as a presumed underlying ability and performance as the overt manifestation of that ability Competence is what one knows Performance is what one does

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While Savignon has explored and written extensively on communicative competence, it was Canale and Swain (1980) who created a more detailed theoretical framework for communicative that was highly recognized in the field Canale and Swain (1980) believe that the sociolinguistic work of Hymes is significant to the development of a communicative approach to language learning and teaching Nonetheless, just as Hymes states that there are principles of grammar that would be useless without rules of language use, t hey uphold that there are tules of language use that would be useless without rules of grammar Canale and Swain (1980) thus further developed the notion of communicative competence They described communicative competence as consisting of four basic components, the total of which is assumed to enable a learner to acquire the target language to the extent that he/she can be an indistinguishable speaker of the target language:

> Grammatical or Linguistic Competence: In a broader sense, the term refers to the grammatically appropriate usage of the linguistic structures of the language For speakers of a language, it is a prerequisite that their speech be in line with the grammatical rules and within the boundaries drawn by the linguistic impositions of the language in question Until recently, grammatical competence has mistakenly been put in the heart of the ultimate aim of language teaching, which has resulted in learners of a language, say English, who produce grammatically correct utterances but who are not able to communicate effectively in the language

> Sociolinguistic Competence: This term corresponds to the learner's ability to use the language properly in different social contexts Sociolinguistic competence thus displays the learners' knowledge of going beyond the literal meaning of utterances, as well as recognizing intention beyond those utterances in particular social situations

> Discourse Competence: This competence deals mainly with the ability to organize the ideas in a coherent and smoothly flowing way to ensure unity in meaning Discourse competence brings to our attention that learners must also be mindful of the discourse patterns of the language that they are learning

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> Strategic Competence: Strategic Competence refers to the learners’ ability to acquire verbal and non - verbal communication strategies The strategies are the means by which learners deal with potential breakdowns in communication which arise from either “limiting conditions in actual communication or insufficient competence in one or more of the other areas of communicative competence, and to enhance the effectiveness of communication" (Canale & Swain, 1980, p 10)

J.C.Richards (2006) stated that communicative competence include the following aspects of language knowledge:

> Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions

> Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication)

> Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g.,

narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)

> Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)

Dérnyei and Thurrel (1992) give a comprehensive account of the strategies communicators deal with in order to avoid potential breakdowns in communication They cite the components of openings, turn-taking, interrupting, adjacency pairs, conversational routines, topic shift and closings as elements of conversational rules and structures, message adjustment and avoidance, paraphrasing, using approximations, mime, and appeal for help as consisting conversational strategies; along with a brief summary of what actually a speech consists of

2.2.6 Classroom activities in CLT:

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classifications of activities that are typically found in a communicative language classroom Paulston and Bruder (1976), for example, in their book Teaching English as a Second Language: Techniques and Procedures classified the activity types that they thought were of maximum benefit in enabling students to attain communicative competence into the four categories below:

> Social Formulas and Dialogs: These cover such speech encounters as greetings, partings, introductions, excuses, compliments, complaints, hiding feelings, etc It is actually very difficult to lie, to complain and to turn someone down for a date in another language, and the learners of a foreign language need to be taught how to get along with those situations in an appropriate manner (Paulston & Bruder, 1976)

> Community Oriented Tasks: Those are sets of exercises which compel the student to interact with native speakers outside the classroom

> Problem- Solving Activities: The students are presented with a problem and some alternative solutions, from among which they have to choose one or create their own

> Role Plays: In role plays, students are assigned a fictitious role The students may even act out the role of themselves The simplicity of role plays and the improvisation is a matter of student proficiency Paulston and Bruder (1976) maintain that the teacher should attach importance to the format of the role play which consists of three basic components, whether or not it is a complex one In the situation the teacher clearly explains the scene and the plot of the role play, which is followed by the description of the task and the action to be accomplished Then, the teacher assigns the roles, the list of characters, ma king sure that the roles are not too elaborate for the students to carry out Useful expressions part contains the linguistic information, primarily expressions and phrases that will facilitate the acting out of the roles

Celce- Murcia (1991) also examined the classroom activities that help learners develop their communication skills and grouped them under four basic headings for the ease of discussion:

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> Linguistically Structured Activities: These activities generally revolve around the presentation or the practice of certain linguistic structures What she suggests is that although these activities are not inhibitive, they may pretty well turn out to be so unless they are contextualized and made meaningful The structured

interview, where the students question each other for factual information, thus

exchanging real information; and language game can best exemplify useful linguistically structured activities

> Performance Activities: These are activities in which students prepare something beforehand and deliver their message to the class, which is or can be followed by a classroom discussion Peer evaluation is an invaluable technique to ensure that the audience is more than passive listeners (knowing that they will evaluate the presenters based on the given criteria draws their attention to the presenter) Role plays and dramas are among the ones that can be cited as examples of performance activities in the sense referred to by Celce - Murcia (1 991)

> Participation Activities: In participation activities, students take part in

some communicative activities in natural settings Guided discussions, interviews,

and oral dialogs best exemplify these types of activities Here, the factor of authenticity arouses interest and motivation on the part of the learners, calling for a natural need to carry out what is expected by the activity

> Observation Activities: In observation activities, learners are expected to

observe and/or record verbal and nonverbal interactions between two or more native speakers of the target language, which is of extreme benefit in that the students appreciate and become aware of the target language as it is actually used in real life

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negotiate meaning, use communication strategies to avoid potential breakdowns in communication

Richards (2006) highlights that activities focusing on fluency have the following features:

> They reflect natural use of language , > They focus on achieving communication , > They require meaningful use of language ,

> They require the use of communication strategies, > They produce language that may not be predictable , > They seek to link language use to context (p.14)

Finally, other activity types that are typically implemented in a CLT classroom can be listed as follow:

“+ Information -gap activities: The concept of information gap is an important aspect of communication in a CLT classroom This essentially is based on the fact that in their everyday lives people generally communicate in order to get information they do not possess This is referred to as an information gap If students can be involved in information gap activities in order to exchange unknown information in language classrooms, more authentic communication is likely to occur in the classroom By doing so, they will draw available vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies to complete a task

“ Jigsaw activities: These activities are also based on the information - gap principle The class is divided into groups and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity The class is supposed to fit the pieces together to complete the whole In that way, they need to use their language resources to communicate meaningfully and so take part in meaningful communication practice

“* Communication games: These games primarily involve information- gap activities which are intended to provoke communication in the classroom The games are generally in the form of puzzles, drawing pictures and putting things given in the correct order The students have a piece of information which is part of

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the total, what they need to do is to walk around to get the necessary information in order to reach the entire information, through which an artificial need on the part of the learners is created to get them to speak Students feel it as a challenge to participate; thus an unconscious learning and practicing of knowledge occurs which erase out the fears learners have for speaking in the class (Johnson & Morrow,

1981)

“ Discussion and debates: Discussion and debates are of widely utilized activity types due to their low effort demanding nature of the teacher Every now

and then, an intimate atmosphere of discussion occurs in the classroom, however,

when appropriately exploited, these discussions will undoubtedly end up in speaking opportunities of extreme worth, both in terms of language presentation and practice Either encouraging competition or cooperation, which one to choose is a matter o f familiarity with the students; the teacher may foster discussion over debate

s* Prepared talks and oral presentations: These are the talks which are prepared by students about a specific topic and given in the class with the aim of persuading, informing students about a topic or just to entertain them

2.3 TEACHING SPEAKING TO YOUNG LEARNERS:

2.3.1 The characteristics of young learners:

There are some important factors that should be taken into account in teaching and learning process Cameron (2001) indicates some factors to be considered including age, content of language learning, methods of teaching, lesson aims and learning theories Age becomes one of the priority aspects to be considered It is because each learner has his own characteristics Age reflects to learners’ characteristics Knowing the characteristics of young learners is important for teachers so they can apply appropriate method which is suitable for the teaching and learning process

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development of children into four stages as he believes that children construct their knowledge by actively engaging in the teaching learning process The four stages of children development according to Piaget are sensory-motor ( from birth to two years of age), pre-operational stage (from two to seven years of age), concrete operational stage ( from seven to eleven years of age) and formal operational stage (from eleven onwards)

Unlike biological perspective, social perspective of young language learners’ characteristics views that children need any help from knowledgeable people to expand their knowledge (Pinter, 2006) It means knowledgeable partners whether teachers or parents can help children in getting wider knowledge or information started from what students have already known Vygotsky (in Pinter, 2006) emphasizes the social side to children’s development by introducing the concept of ZPD (Zone Proximal Development) This concept describes the difference or the “zone” between the current knowledge achievable with some help from a more knowledgeable peer or adult

Besides knowing the children in two perspectives, recognizing students as learner is also important Slattery and Willis (2001) describe young children as young learners in a variety of ways, for example by watching, by listening, by imitating or by doing things because they have a quite short attention span

Furthermore, different from adults, as learners children are easy to get bored It is in

line with Brown (2001) who states that children have limit in intellectual development, attention span and sensory input Thus, to make children as language young learners interested in classroom, Harmer (2001) proposes well setting for children classroom Young learners can generally imitate the sound they hear quite accurately and copy the way adults speak As well, Sadler (1974) mentions that children learn from concrete to abstract Moreover, they are naturally curious and developing quickly as individuals

After considering the characteristics of young learners above, teachers can possibly look for the appropriate method which is more suitable for helping their

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students in engaging in the learning process and achieving optimal teaching materials

2.3.2 Teaching a foreign language to young learners:

Age is not the only factor in deciding how a child can be initiated in the teaching learning process, context of classroom must also be considered In this

case, teacher is mindful of children’s interests Therefore, teacher has to consider

not only what in general worthwhile but also what the potentialities and capacities are of the particular young learners for whom he/ she is responsible Related to context of classroom, Saddler (1974) has four perceptions in the classroom including collecting, displaying, defining and conceptualizing From those perceptions, teacher should know that learners learn firstly from concrete to abstract

Addressing age, there are some other contextual considerations in teaching language to young learners Brown (2001) believes that context of classroom instruction may introduce some difficulties to children learning second language and children’s widespread success in acquiring second language belies a tremendous subconscious effort devoted to the task According to Piaget’s intellectual development of children, in concrete operation stage, children’s thinking look logical like adults’ thinking but the ability is restricted to immediate context Therefore, any grammatical explanations and rules stated in abstract term should be avoided by teachers

Brown(2001) states that the salient difference between young learners and adults is attention span Young learners are easy to get bored thus teachers have to make them interesting, lively in the teaching learning process and fun by capturing their immediate interest and providing them various activities with infectious

energy of the teachers, and also sense of humor of the teachers Furthermore, five

senses simulated activities with sensory aids, physical activities, and also nonverbal language are also very important in young learners’ classroom

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in many ways much more fragile than adults that is why teachers need to be very patient and supportive to built self-esteem or patiently elicit quieter ones to give them plenty of opportunities for trying the new things out In communicating with young language learners, teachers need to be firmly context embedded language and reject stilted language

Regarding to those considerations above, it takes a very special person to be able to teach language to young learners (Brown, 2001)

2.3.3 Principles in teaching speaking to young learners:

Speaking is the most priority of productive skill There are three works of productive skills as Harmer (2001) reveals; those are introducing new language, practice and communicative activities The goal of today’s teaching speaking should improve students’ communicative skills because only in that way students can express themselves and learn how to conform to the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstances

In speaking class for young learners, teachers should give students chances to practice their spoken language Cameron (2001) suggests teachers to make the students participate in classroom discourse It is in line with Allwright (1997) who states that the classroom activities may be dominant by the students while the

teacher tasks are as mediator, facilitator and observer, then provides valuable input

if required To complement the intended teaching style, the teachers are required to explore the better way of learning experience which is conducted through strategy chosen to ensure that the objective of the lesson can be achieved smoothly

When teachers want to teach a new language to students, the teachers will work to control the techniques used, asking students to repeat and perform it in drill At the same time, the teacher will insist on the accuracy correcting when the students make mistakes This stage is very important to help the students to assimilate the fact about new language and enable them to produce the new language for the first time Hence the students will feel confident in applying their ability in communicating with others in classroom Thus, whatever activities are provided, students will automatically feel involved because they really want to

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prove their language acquired during learning They will not be afraid of getting false, and other considerations that always haunt them

It can be concluded that the main principle in teaching speaking, whether to adults or to young learners, is to improve learners’ communicative skill Accordingly, Brown (2001) promotes six categories applied to the kinds of oral production that students are expected to carry out in the classroom They are

imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional, interpersonal and extensive

(monologue) Thus, in teaching speaking to young learners, teachers not only have the responsibility to make the students speak up, but also to teach them how to be understood in the way they speak

2.3.4 Problems in teaching speaking to young learners:

One of the problems in learning English as a second language is that the learners often think that speaking is a difficult subject They are afraid of taking the first step speaking, they are afraid of making mistakes and being underestimated by their classmates In Asian context, Paul (2003) mentions that children may be tempted to speak in their native language This condition has directed them that they have low motivation to speak English in their class, also proposes that there is a vicious circle of speaking, and thus they never get the practice which would enable them to correct their mistakes

Besides the aspects of speaking itself, most of the times puzzle the learners, especially those who are younger Brown (2001) identifies some cases that make speaking is not easy such as clustering, redundancy, reduced forms, stress, intonation, rhythm and so forth It is not easy to involve all the aspects as children have limitation Different from adults, Pinter (2001) states that children have less developed schematic knowledge about many topics

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2.3.5 Speaking activities for young learners:

Considering six categories of oral production that students are expected to carry out in the classroom, there are various activities that can be done in speaking class The legitimate parts of imitative in communicative language classroom are human tape recorder speech and drilling

Self-initiated or pair work activity can be parts of intensive speaking, where learners are going over certain language forms Responsive can be defined as short replies to teacher or students with the purpose of initiated questions or comment The purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information carries out transactional language Meanwhile the purpose of maintaining social relationship than for the transmission of facts and information carries out interpersonal language (dialogue) The final is extensive Extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or short speeches with more formal and deliberative register are offered to the students at intermediate to advance level

However, speaking activities for young learners are not always the same as those speaking activities for adults because both have certain different characteristics As children use their imagination in learning, teachers should have the ability to provide the demands from the students Hence, Harmer (2001) states that speaking activities for young learners are acting from script, communication games, simulation and role play It is good to be applied because it can attract students to participate in the activities

In designing speaking activities for young learners, teachers cannot neglect the characteristics of young learners As young learners are easy to get bored, teachers should design interactive activities to involve students in the activity Pinter (2006) promotes mini dialogue, drilling fun, and guessing games as speaking activities that can be very attractive for young learners Moreover, poems, chants, storytelling and drama can be interactive activities for young learners in learning spoken language

In addition, to give context and meaningful activities, teachers can use a lot of

media to help them to teach speaking Paul (2003) suggests puppets and animals to be used in practicing spoken language in purpose of giving context to the students

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 OVERVIEW

This chapter describes the methods of conducting the research including the research approach, subjects of the study, data collection instruments and data collection procedure as well as data analysis Besides, it presents the characteristics of the participants and the instruments for gathering data

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are applied to deal with the data in this research The questionnaires are used in order to get information from the participants The qualitative method is used to support the research That is because qualitative research is considered as generally examining people’s words, actions in narrative or descriptive ways more closely representing the situation as experienced by the participants (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994) The purpose of qualitative research is to discover the participants’ perspectives through their feelings, thoughts, beliefs, ideas and actions in natural situations The qualitative research in which interviews and class observations are employed allows the author to report the data results in words rather than numbers

3.3 SUBJECTS OF THE STUDY

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Group 1: Table 3.1: Teachers’ Background Information Background N=10 % 35 1 10 32 2 20 Age 30 2 20 29 1 10 27 3 30 25 1 10 Male 0 0 Gender Female 10 100 BA degree 9 90 Qualification MA degree 1 10

Less than 2 years 2 20

Teaching Experience About 2 to 5 years 6 40

More than 5 years 2 40

Participation in Workshops on | Yes 10 100

Teaching Speaking No 0 0

As seen from the table above, the first group involves 10 female teachers who have been teaching EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute They are from 25 to 35 years old Most of the teachers have BA degree, a few have MA one The majority of the teachers (60%) have been teaching for 2 to 5 years 20% of the teachers have been teaching for over 5 years and 2 teachers (20%) have been teaching for less than 2 years

All of them have opportunities to approach the new teaching methods in English Language Teacher Training Project methodology course All of them were questioned and interviewed for the aim of the study Some of their classes were

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observed to provide the author with the real situation of teaching and learning English speaking at Asemvietnam Language Institute Group 2: Table 3.2: Students’ Background Information Background N=50 % Age 6 12 24 7 32 64 8 6 12 Gender Male 21 42 Female 29 58

3.4 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Questionnaires and class observations would help the researcher collect the

main data for the study Besides, informal interviews with the teachers were

conducted so as to obtain more information

- Questionnaire: The two survey questionnaires were administrated to the subjects Some of the questions in the questionnaires are open-ended so that the respondents had opportunities to give their own ideas about items raised

Questionnaire A (see Appendix 1) consisting of 10 questions was delivered to 10 teachers at Asemvietnam Language Institute It aimed to get teachers’ perspectives of teaching speaking, their existing problems in teaching speaking skill to EC1 classes at Asemvietnam Language Institute and how they solve these problems All questions were written in English