Inventory accounting a comprehensive guide phần 8 ppsx

Commentary: Section 473 (f) describes the periods within which tax credits or liabilities and related interest charges can be assessed as a result of adjustments to inventory layers. (f) Special rules for application of adjustments (1) Period of limitations If – (A) an adjustment is required under this section for any taxable year by reason of the replacement of liquidated goods during any replacement year, and (B) the assessment of a deficiency, or the allowance of a credit or refund of an overpayment of tax attributable to such adjustment, for any tax- able year, is otherwise prevented by the operation of any law or rule of law (other than section 7122, relating to compromises), then such deficiency may be assessed, or credit or refund allowed, within the period prescribed for assessing a deficiency or allowing a credit or refund for the replacement year if a notice for deficiency is mailed, or claim for refund is filed, within such period. (2) Interest Solely for purposes of determining interest on any overpayment or un- derpayment attributable to an adjustment made under this section, such overpayment or underpayment shall be treated as an overpayment or un- derpayment (as the case may be) for the replacement year. 13-5 Section 474—Simplified Dollar-Value LIFO Method for Certain Small Businesses Commentary: Section 474 (a) allows a simplified LIFO valuation for small businesses. (a) General rule An eligible small business may elect to use the simplified dollar-value method of pricing inventories for purposes of the LIFO method. Commentary: Section 474 (b) describes the simplified dollar-value method, including the use of inventory pools and cost adjustments based on the Pro- ducer Price Index or Consumer Price Index. (b) Simplified dollar-value method of pricing inventories For purposes of this section – (1) In general The simplified dollar-value method of pricing inventories is a dollar- value method of pricing inventories under which – (A) the taxpayer maintains a separate inventory pool for items in each major category in the applicable Government price index, and IRS Inventory Rules / 169 c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 169 (B) the adjustment for each such separate pool is based on the change from the preceding taxable year in the component of such index for the major category. (2) Applicable Government price index The term ‘’applicable Government price index’’ means – (A) except as provided in subparagraph (B), the Producer Price Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, or (B) in the case of a retailer using the retail method, the Consumer Price Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. (3) Major category The term ‘’major category’’ means – (A) in the case of the Producer Price Index, any of the 2-digit standard in- dustrial classifications in the Producer Prices Data Report, or (B) in the case of the Consumer Price Index, any of the general expen- diture categories in the Consumer Price Index Detailed Report. Commentary: Section 474 (c) defines what types of businesses are eligible to use the simplified dollar-value LIFO method. The reference to section 448(c)(3) covers the following points: • If the business has not yet been in operation for three years, then the reg- ulation shall be applied for the period of its existence. • If any of the three preceding taxable years include a short year, that year shall be annualized. • Gross receipts shall be reduced by any returns and allowances. (c) Eligible small business For purposes of this section, a taxpayer is an eligible small business for any taxable year if the average annual gross receipts of the taxpayer for the 3 pre- ceding taxable years do not exceed $5,000,000. For purposes of the preced- ing sentence, rules similar to the rules of section 448(c)(3) shall apply. Commentary: Section 474 (d) covers several special rules related to LIFO, such as the applicability of controlled groups, the ability to use LIFO, and how to transition to its use. (d) Special rules For purposes of this section – (1) Controlled groups (A) In general In the case of a taxpayer which is a member of a controlled group, all persons which are component members of such group shall be treated as one taxpayer for purposes of determining the gross receipts of the taxpayer. 170 / Inventory Accounting c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 170 (B) Controlled group defined For purposes of subparagraph (A), persons shall be treated as being component members of a controlled group if such persons would be treated as a single employer under section 52. (2) Election (A) In general The election under this section may be made without the consent of the Secretary. (B) Period to which election applies The election under this section shall apply – (i) to the taxable year for which it is made, and (ii) to all subsequent taxable years for which the taxpayer is an eligi- ble small business, unless the taxpayer secures the consent of the Secretary to the revocation of such election. (3) LIFO method The term ‘’LIFO method’’ means the method provided by section 472(b). (4) Transitional rules (A) In general In the case of a year of change under this section – (i) the inventory pools shall – (I) in the case of the 1st taxable year to which such an election applies, be established in accordance with the major cate- gories in the applicable Government price index, or (II) in the case of the 1st taxable year after such election ceases to apply, be established in the manner provided by regula- tions under section 472; (ii) the aggregate dollar amount of the taxpayer’s inventory as of the beginning of the year of change shall be the same as the aggregate dollar value as of the close of the taxable year preceding the year of change, and (iii) the year of change shall be treated as a new base year in accor- dance with procedures provided by regulations under section 472. (B) Year of change For purposes of this paragraph, the year of change under this section is – (i) the 1st taxable year to which an election under this section ap- plies, or (ii) in the case of a cessation of such an election, the 1st taxable year after such election ceases to apply. IRS Inventory Rules / 171 c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 171 13-6 Section 1504 (a)—Affiliated Group Definition Commentary: This section contains the complete IRS text referring to an affil- iated group, as referenced earlier in Section 472 (g). For the purposes of Section 472 (g), replace all references to 80% in the voting and value tests noted in Sec- tion 1504 (a)(2) with 50%. (a) Affiliated group defined For purposes of this subtitle – (1) In general The term ‘’affiliated group’’ means – (A) 1 or more chains of includible corporations connected through stock ownership with a common parent corporation which is an includible corporation, but only if – (B) (i) the common parent owns directly stock meeting the requirements of paragraph (2) in at least one of the other includible corpora- tions, and (ii) stock meeting the requirements of paragraph (2) in each of the includible corporations (except the common parent) is owned directly by one or more of the other includible corporations. (2) 80-percent voting and value test The ownership of stock of any corporation meets the requirements of this paragraph if it – (A) possesses at least 80 percent of the total voting power of the stock of such corporation, and (B) has a value equal to at least 80 percent of the total value of the stock of such corporation. (3) 5 years must elapse before reconsolidation (A) In general If – (i) a corporation is included (or required to be included) in a con- solidated return filed by an affiliated group for a taxable year which includes any period after December 31, 1984, and (ii) such corporation ceases to be a member of such group in a tax- able year beginning after December 31, 1984, with respect to pe- riods after such cessation, such corporation (and any successor of such corporation) may not be included in any consolidated re- turn filed by the affiliated group (or by another affiliated group with the same common parent or a successor of such common parent) before the 61st month beginning after its first taxable year in which it ceased to be a member of such affiliated group. 172 / Inventory Accounting c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 172 (B) Secretary may waive application of subparagraph (A) The Secretary may waive the application of subparagraph (A) to any corporation for any period subject to such conditions as the Secre- tary may prescribe. (4) Stock not to include certain preferred stock For purposes of this subsection, the term ‘’stock’’ does not include any stock which – (A) is not entitled to vote, (B) is limited and preferred as to dividends and does not participate in corporate growth to any significant extent, (C) has redemption and liquidation rights which do not exceed the issue price of such stock (except for a reasonable redemption or liquida- tion premium), and (D) is not convertible into another class of stock. (5) Regulations The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations as may be necessary or ap- propriate to carry out the purposes of this subsection, including (but not limited to) regulations – (A) which treat warrants, obligations convertible into stock, and other similar interests as stock, and stock as not stock, (B) which treat options to acquire or sell stock as having been exercised, (C) which provide that the requirements of paragraph (2)(B) shall be treated as met if the affiliated group, in reliance on a good faith de- termination of value, treated such requirements as met, (D) which disregard an inadvertent ceasing to meet the requirements of paragraph (2)(B) by reason of changes in relative values of different classes of stock, (E) which provide that transfers of stock within the group shall not be taken into account in determining whether a corporation ceases to be a member of an affiliated group, and (F) which disregard changes in voting power to the extent such changes are disproportionate to related changes in value. IRS Inventory Rules / 173 c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 173 c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 174 175 14 Counting Inventory 14-1 Introduction An accountant can have the finest costing system in the world and still waste time recording inventory transactions if the record accuracy level of those transactions is poor. Because the accounting department is often held responsible if recorded inventory costs are wrong, one should have a clear idea of how to set up an inven- tory tracking system, conduct physical inventory counts, and cycle count inventory on an ongoing basis in order to have greater confidence in the inventory record ac- curacy. Although the accountant may not have control over these systems, it is help- ful to know how they should be run. It is also increasingly common for controllers to be given management-level control over the warehouse solely because they will then have central and undisputed responsibility for inventory record accuracy. This chapter notes several counting policies that management should approve and support, as well as procedures for setting up inventory tracking systems, con- ducting physical inventory counts, ensuring a proper inventory cutoff, reconciling inventory variances, running successful cycle counting programs, and reducing the need for inventory tracking. 14-2 Inventory Counting Policies Creating and running inventory tracking systems can require a considerable upfront investment of time and funds to which company management may be unwilling to commit. It also takes time away from other materials management chores, and so may not be followed with the consistency needed to ensure success. A good way to avoid these problems is to obtain senior management support through their ap- proval of the following policies: A complete physical inventory count shall be conducted at the end of each re- porting period. This policy ensures that an accurate record of the inventory is used as the basis for a cost of goods sold calculation. The materials manager is responsible for inventory accuracy. This policy cen- tralizes control over inventory accuracy, thereby increasing the odds of it being kept at a high level. c14_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:30 AM Page 175 Cycle counters shall continually review inventory accuracy and identify related problems. This policy is intended for perpetual inventory systems and results in a much higher level of inventory accuracy and attention to the underlying prob- lems that cause inventory errors. 14-3 Setting up an Inventory Tracking System 1 A physical inventory count can be eliminated if accurate perpetual inventory records are available. Many steps are required to implement such a system, requiring con- siderable effort. The accountant should evaluate a company’s resources before em- barking on this process to ensure that they are sufficient to set up and maintain this system. This section contains a sequential listing of the steps that must be completed before an accurate system is achieved. This is a difficult implementation to shortcut, because missing any of the following steps will affect the accuracy of the completed system. If a company skips a few steps, it will likely not achieve the requisite high levels of accuracy that it wants and end up having to backtrack and complete those steps at a later date. Consequently, a company should sequentially complete all of the following steps to implement a successful inventory tracking system: 1. Select and install inventory tracking software. The primary requirements for this software are as follows: Track transactions. The software should list the frequency of product usage, which allows the materials manager to determine what inventory quantities should be changed and which items are obsolete. Update records immediately. The inventory data must always be up-to- date, because production planners must know what is in stock, while cycle counters require access to accurate data. Batch updating of the system is not acceptable. Report inventory records by location. Cycle counters need inventory records that are sorted by location in order to more efficiently locate and count the inventory. 2. Test inventory tracking software. Create a set of typical records in the new software, and perform a series of transactions to ensure that the software func- tions properly. In addition, create a large number of records and perform the transactions again, to see if the response time of the system drops significantly. If the software appears to function properly, continue to the next step. Other- wise, fix the problems with the software supplier’s assistance or acquire a dif- ferent software package. 3. Revise the rack layout. It is much easier to move racks before installing a per- petual inventory system, because no inventory locations must be changed in the computer system. Create aisles that are wide enough for forklift operation 176 / Inventory Accounting 1 Adapted with permission from pp. 159–161 of Bragg, Accounting Reference Desktop, John Wiley & Sons, 2002. c14_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:30 AM Page 176 if this is needed for larger storage items, and cluster small parts racks together for easier parts picking. The services of a consultant are useful for arriving at the optimum warehouse configuration. 4. Create rack locations. A typical rack location is, for example, A-01-B-01. This means that this location code is found in Aisle A, Rack 1. Within Rack 1, it is located on Level B (numbered from the bottom to the top). Within Level B, it is located in Partition 1. Many companies skip the use of parti- tions, on the grounds that an aisle-rack-level numbering system will get a stock picker to within a few feet of an inventory item. As one progresses down an aisle, the rack numbers should progress in as- cending sequence, with the odd rack numbers on the left and the even num- bers on the right. Thus, the first rack on the left side of aisle D is D-01, the first rack on the right is D-02, the second rack on the left is D-03, and so on. This layout allows a stock picker to move down the center of the aisle, efficiently pulling items from stock based on sequential location codes. 5. Lock the warehouse. One of the main causes of record inaccuracy is removal of items from the warehouse by outside staff. To stop this removal, all entrances to the warehouse must be locked. Only warehouse personnel should be allowed access to it. All other personnel entering the warehouse should be accompanied by a member of the warehouse staff to prevent the removal of inventory. 6. Consolidate parts. To reduce the labor of counting the same item in multiple locations, group common parts into one place. This is not a one-shot process, because it is difficult to combine parts when there are thousands of them scat- tered throughout the warehouse. Expect to repeat this step at intervals, espe- cially when entering location codes in the computer, when it tells you that the part has already been entered for a different location! 7. Assign part numbers. Have several experienced personnel verify all part numbers. A mislabeled part is as useless as a missing part, because the com- puter database will not show that it exists. Mislabeled parts also affect the in- ventory cost; for example, a mislabeled engine is more expensive than the item represented by its incorrect part number, which may identify it as, for ex- ample, a spark plug. 8. Verify units of measure. Have several experienced people verify all units of measure. Unless the software allows multiple units of measure to be used, the entire organization must adhere to one unit of measure for each item. For ex- ample, the warehouse may desire tape to be counted in rolls, but the engi- neering department would rather create bills of material with tape measured in inches instead of fractions of rolls. If someone goes into the inventory data- base to change the unit of measure to suit his or her needs, this will also alter the extended cost of the inventory; for example, when 10 rolls of tape with an extended cost of $10 is altered so that it becomes 10 inches of tape, the cost will drop to a few pennies, even though there are still 10 rolls on the shelf. Consequently, not only must the units of measure be accurate, but the file that stores this information must also be kept off limits. Counting Inventory / 177 c14_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:30 AM Page 177 9. Pack the parts. Pack parts into containers, seal the containers, and label them with the part number, unit of measure, and total quantity stored inside. Leave a few parts free for ready use. Only open containers when additional stock is needed. This method allows cycle counters to rapidly verify inventory balances. 10. Count items. Count items when there is no significant activity in the ware- house, such as during a weekend. Elaborate cross-checking of the counts, as would be done during a year-end physical inventory count, is not necessary. It is more important to have the perpetual inventory system operational before the warehouse activity increases again; any errors in the data will be quickly detected during cycle counts and flushed out of the database. The initial counts must include a review of the part number, location, and quantity. 11. Train the warehouse staff. The warehouse staff should receive software train- ing immediately before using the system, so they do not forget how to oper- ate the software. Enter a set of test records into the software, and have the staff simulate all common inventory transactions, such as receipts, picks, and cycle count adjustments. 12. Enter data into the computer. Have an experienced data entry person input the location, part number, and quantity into the computer. Once the data has been input, another person should cross-check the entered data against the original data for errors. 13. Quick-check the data. Scan the data for errors. If all part numbers have the same number of digits, then look for items that are too long or short. Review location codes to see if inventory is stored in nonexistent racks. Look for units of measure that do not match the part being described. For example, is it log- ical to have a pint of steel in stock? Also, if item costs are available, print a list of extended costs. Excessive costs typically point to incorrect units of measure. For example, a cost of $1 per box of nails will become $500 in the inventory report if nails are incorrectly listed as individual units. All of these steps help warehouse personnel spot the most obvious inventory errors. 14. Initiate cycle counts. This topic is covered in considerable detail in the “Cycle Counting” section of this chapter. In brief, print out a portion of the inventory list, sorted by location. Using this report, have the warehouse staff count blocks of the inventory on a continuous basis. They should look for accurate part num- bers, units of measure, locations, and quantities. The counts should concentrate on high-value or high-use items, although the entire stock should be reviewed regularly. The most important part of this step is to examine why mistakes occur. If a cycle counter finds an error, its cause must be investigated and then corrected, so that the mistake will not occur again. It is also useful to assign specific aisles to cycle counters, which tends to make them more familiar with their assigned inventory and the problems causing specific transactional errors. 15. Initiate inventory audits. The inventory should be audited frequently, perhaps as much as once a week. This allows the accountant to track changes in the inven- tory accuracy level and initiate changes if the accuracy drops below acceptable levels. In addition, frequent audits are an indirect means of telling the staff that inventory accuracy is important and must be maintained. The minimum ac- 178 / Inventory Accounting c14_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:30 AM Page 178 [...]... procedures are intended for those companies using traditional paper-based transactions that are centrally recorded in the inventory database If a more advanced system is in place where the materials management staff enters transactions directly into the inventory database—either through local terminals in smaller batches or individually with radio-frequency scanners—then one can enter transactions until... items must be marked with a proper part number immediately 4 Clearly mark the quantity on all sealed packages Count all partial packages, seal them, and mark the quantity on the tape This is a major labor saver during the counting process, although it requires a great deal of preparation Exhibit 14-1 Inventory Tag Tag: 2024 Part No Unit _ Description Quantity 2024 Part No _... recorded as missing If the job cost records indicate an unusually high profit, it is likely that a part was not charged to it 7 Accept the variance When all else fails, one must conclude that there was either an earlier counting problem that created an initial inaccuracy in the inventory database or that a part is missing because of shrinkage At this point, it is necessary to record the variance However,... 14-4 Taking the Physical Inventory2 Most companies still use a physical inventory system that only reconciles inventory to actual counts at the end of the fiscal year The controllers of these companies need a reliable approach for organizing the inventory in preparation for a count, creating and managing counting teams, and properly using counting forms and inventory release teams to ensure that counts...Counting Inventory / 179 ceptable accuracy level is 95%, with an error being a mistaken part number, unit of measure, quantity, or location This accuracy level is needed to ensure accurate inventory costing, as well as to assist the materials department in planning future inventory purchases In addition, establish a tolerance level when calculating the inventory accuracy For example, if the computer... historical transactions and the identification of every person making an entry The trouble is that there are usually so many transactions occurring that the person who originally caused the problem may have no idea why he or she made an entry, especially if a few days have passed and many other transactions have arisen in the interim Consequently, only expect to locate the causes of a small percentage of errors,... Notify the warehouse manager that all shipping and receiving documentation from the day before the count must be forwarded to the accounting department that day, for immediate data entry Likewise, any pick information must be forwarded at the same time 6 Notify all outside storage locations to fax in their inventory counts  182 / Inventory Accounting Morning of the Count 1 Enter all transactions from... warehouse The counts will be far more accurate if an experienced person correctly identifies the parts being counted This is a common mistake that many companies make, by enrolling people from unrelated areas such as sales and accounting who have no idea of what a part looks like; these people make far more counting and part identification mistakes than experienced counters 2 Notify the warehouse manager... the data entry work on the teams that are finished earliest, so those teams can resolve any problems and go home This reduces a company’s hourly payroll cost devoted to the inventory counting task 8 The data entry person enters the information on the tags into a spreadsheet or computer database and then summarizes the quantities for each item and pencils the totals into the cycle count report that was... variances The team then goes back to recount any variance items Finally, a supervisor searches the count area for any items that may not have been counted, after which he signs off on the count area, and the counting team is released from duty One Day Before the Count 1 Remind all participants that they are expected to be counting the next day All counters should be thoroughly familiar with the parts . using traditional paper-based transactions that are centrally recorded in the inventory database. If a more advanced system is in place where the materials management staff enters transactions. proper part number immediately. 4. Clearly mark the quantity on all sealed packages. Count all partial packages, seal them, and mark the quantity on the tape. This is a major labor saver during. be a member of such affiliated group. 172 / Inventory Accounting c13_4353.qxd 11/29/04 9:29 AM Page 172 (B) Secretary may waive application of subparagraph (A) The Secretary may waive the application