Lightweight Electric Hybrid Vehicle Design Episode 11 pptx

Lightweight construction materials and techniques 173 7 Lightweight construction materials and techniques 7.1 Introduction The opening chapters of this book, on propulsion system design, demonstrate many of the possibilities for finding solutions for efficient electric traction. In this and the following chapter we consider some of the body structural, material specification and running-gear requirements which will prompt an interest in efficient platforms to receive such advanced traction systems. A fuller account, dealing with most vehicle types, can be obtained in a parallel work by the author*. The key to lightweight construction lies in a combination of structurally efficient design, covered in Chapter 8, plus the exploitation of advanced materials technology and construction techniques. Steel, the traditional building material for the structures of volume cars, has excellent property combinations if it can be exploited in structurally efficient designs, alloyed to produce high strength sheet, then formed and fabricated by such techniques as hydroforming and laser- welded tailored blanking. Light (high specific strength and rigidity) alloys of aluminium, magnesium and titanium also have a place and advanced polymer composite systems have already been proven in race car and similar applications to provide ultra-light solutions. However, the future may lay in the wider meaning of composite construction, in a combination of metals and polymer compounds fulfilling complementary roles. Monocoque shell structures in high strength sandwich-construction polymer composites are considered against space-frame structures in aluminium alloy. 7.2 The composite approach The use of metal platform base structures and reinforced plastic body shells is established technology for low to medium production cars, in several categories, and sometimes the weight reductions over all-steel integral sedans are not appreciated by the wider public. Indeed the wider public seems to have forgotten that ‘light-cars’ of early history were considerably lighter than similar sized cars of the present day, albeit now much better equipped ones. For example, the Austin Seven car when first introduced in the 1920s was a ‘composite’ of steel chassis and timber-framed aluminium body which scaled well below the half-tonne benchmark. Today’s conventional small cars do well to scale under 1 tonne; the exceptions are the products of small companies such as Reliant whose steel chassised and GRP-bodied cars (even the four-wheelers) are still below half-tonne tare weight. Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM173 174 Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design Another concept of composite construction is to use reinforced plastics in more intimate combinations with metals in such a way that permits the most efficient usage of thin-walled sheet metal structures together with plastic systems that stabilize them against buckling. Plastic-foam cored steel-skinned sandwich panels have already been exploited in this context and is discussed in Chapter 8. Now interest is being shown in truss-like plastic reinforcements for stabilizing box beams and a variety of hollow, open and closed, structural members. Hybrid metal/plastic (stabilized core) systems, Fig. 7.1, offer considerable potential to the constructor who is prepared to depart from conventional manufacturing technology and embrace production systems geared to the technique. Promoted by Bayer 1 , the principle involves bonding metal and plastic in an injection moulding process, to produce a complex, load-bearing component. The company argues that plastic plus injection moulding means economical manufacture and good integration whereas steel plus deep drawing means mass production and stiffness. The combination of the two materials and processes results in the high volume production of a complex component: place a deep-drawn and perforated piece of steel in an injection-moulding die and inject the plastic around this part. Thermal contraction stresses also occur in a plastic/metal composite when the plastic is interlocked with the metal by both force and shape, as the melt cools in the die. For this reason, it is preferable to use semi-crystalline plastics, such as PA or PBT, which can reduce the stresses by relaxation. Glass-fibre reinforced plastics are best, since the reduced contraction (moulding shrinkage) also leads to lower thermal stresses. The relaxation of these stresses is related to time and temperature. At low temperatures (−30°C) the stresses will increase in accordance with the thermal linear expansion or contraction. With a coefficient of linear expansion of 40 x 10 6 and temperature difference of 50°C, the increase in expansion will be around 0.2%. Different torsional stiffnesses of the three test pieces at (a) are seen at (b). By ribbing the plastic/ metal composite profile, the torsional stiffness of an open metal profile can be increased by a factor of 12 (geometrically). Further improvement can be obtained by using different ribbing designs and plastics. However, the torsional stiffness of the closed steel profile cannot be achieved economically by the composite. The load-bearing capacity of such composite profiles, with regard to compression in a longitudinal direction, is shown at (c). By ribbing the metal profile, premature buckling could be prevented and the load-bearing capacity increased by about 80%. The bending strength of such composite profiles could also be significantly increased. Even thin-wall closed metal profiles fail, through buckling, before bending failure of the composite profile. In the latest version of the technique, the processes of inserting, where metal parts such as bushes are included in a polymer moulding, and/or outserting, where various functions in plastic are moulded onto a metal baseplate, are taken a stage further. Cross-sectional distortion of thin- walled metal beams can be prevented by relatively small forces applied in the new process by the presence of moulded plastic supports in the form of x-pattern ribbing. Interconnecting points between plastic and metal are preformed in the metal part before it enters the plastics mould. Either corrosion-protected steel or aluminium alloy is the normal choice of metal with glass-fibre reinforced, impact modified, polyamide-6 (Bayer’s Durethan BKV) being the plastic choice. The company say it is not always desirable to have the metal ‘preform’ in one piece, separate sections being joined by moulding resin around the prefabricated interlocking points or by means of clinching integrated into the mould. It is said that for recycling purposes, it takes only a few seconds to break a metal/plastic composite, using a hammer mill, and that the resin element has properties akin to the virgin material, on reuse. A research project has also been carried out on car side doors having sufficient structural integrity to transmit impact forces from A- to B-post in the closed position. At (d) is a sample door, requiring no further framework to support wing mirror, lock or other door ‘furniture’. Seat frames with Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM174 Lightweight construction materials and techniques 175 Kn 25 20 15 10 5 020406080 ms 100 compressive force F time t Fig. 7.1 Hybrid metal–plastic beam: (a) test sections; (b) torsional stiffness comparison for three sections; (c) compression test results; (d) metal/plastic hybrid door structure; (e) interlocking connection panels for a door with impact pendulum test results on the assembly. (a) (c) (b) (d) (e) Sheet steel, unribbed closed Sheet steel, plastic ribbed Sheet steel, unribbed open 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Nm 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 Torsional moment torsion 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1020304050 Hybrid thermoplastic strengthened Sheet steel unribbed open Sheet steel unribbed closed Hybrid thermoplastic strengthened Sheet steel unribbed open 3.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 compressive force F Distance of deformations 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 35 Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM175 176 Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design integral belt anchorages have also been made for the Mercedes-Benz Viano minibus in the process. The first volume car to incorporate the technology is the Audi A6. The front-end design was developed in association with the French ECIA company. The part is injection moulded in one piece and incorporates engine mountings, together with support for radiator and headlights. In one of the door projects, bonding areas can be seen at (e, top) which shows the die head connection on the closed side of the metal profile. The plastic melt enters the countersunk openings in the metal, forming a die head between the wall of the recess in the injection-moulding die and the metal part. Effectively the die head connection takes place directly in the injection-moulding die; no additional operation is required. The view at (b, bottom) shows the force/time curve from the pendulum test on the part (pendulum weight: 780 kg, pendulum speed: 8 km/hr). The door exhibits a high degree of resilience, since a relatively constant force is exerted over a long period, followed by a sharp drop in force in a very short time. In the Stabilized Core Composite (SCC) system devised by Gordon Wardill 2 , one of the key features is that the encapsulated pieces are joined mainly by the bonding action of polyurethane, which is injected under pressure during the RIM process. Apart from making stiffer joints, this means that it is possible to manufacture relatively large body subassemblies in a ‘one shot’ injection process without the use of metal welding techniques and fixtures but with the use of very low cost tooling. For box-section thin-walled beams, one way of delaying the onset of buckling is to stiffen the material by increasing the thickness. This would, of course, increase the weight of the beam. However, if one halves the thickness of the metal and supports it on either side by means of rigid cellular self-skinning urethane, giving a total wall thickness of 10 x sheet thickness, then the weight of the section remains unchanged. In this case, the modulus of elasticity of the urethane is likely to be 1/250th of that of steel. Since the buckling load of the free edge of the flange varies approximately as the thickness cubed, then, ignoring secondary effects the SCC/steel buckling load ratio = 4. The net effect, in the case of a beam, is to trade off a fraction of the tensile strength for a fourfold increase in bending strength. It should be noted that for maximum efficiency, the core must be supported on both sides. Advantages can be realized in closed section beams and vehicle joints in general, with derived effects which result in improvements to the torsional stiffness of beams: important for those which have a large influence on body torsional stiffness – such as the sills of a punt structure. Bending stiffness of longitudinal beam flanges affects body torsional stiffness. SCC flanges are stiffer in this respect than steel and therefore an improvement in beam torsional stiffness is possible. Also many conventional joints display a reduction in stiffness, due to quite large changes in overall shape. These changes can be prevented by means of internal diaphragms placed across sections of the joint. It has always been difficult if not impossible to achieve this economically in the conventional steel structures, due to welding and alignment problems during assembly. With SCC, however, it is no more difficult to include internal ribs than it is not to. Additionally, some of the flexibility of steel joints is due to the effect of inter-spot-weld buckling. This is totally prevented with SCC because, during the RIM injection process, perfect bonded joints are produced between the simple armatures that are used – and virtually no welding need be employed in the construction, say, of a car body. 7.2.1 FOAM-CORED STEEL COMPOSITE BOX BEAMS The concept of foam-filled box beams, as an extension of sandwich construction, can be seen as an alternative to plastic–steel stabilized core structures with latticed cores. According to Foamseal Urethane Technology, ITW and EASI Engineering 3 , the results of four-point bending tests replicated by FE analysis, on foam-filled box beams, are showing that optimization based on filled areas and Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM176 Lightweight construction materials and techniques 177 foam densities can achieve given weight, cost, strength and stiffness improvement targets, Fig. 7.2. In designing for improved roof crush resistance, it is shown that foam-filling can reduce pillar sections, reduce metal thickness and sometimes remove reinforcements that can compensate for the increased weight of the foam. The research also demonstrates that the FMVSS 201 Head Impact Protection upgrade can be met with a proposed design concept involving foam-filling. The view at (a) shows stress/strain curves for various densities of PUR foam between 2 and 30 lb/ft 3 . In tests on B-pillar to sill joints, carried out by Ford researchers in conjunction with steel-industry engineers, 5 lb/ft 3 foam increased torsional stiffness by 250% and a 30 lb/ft 3 foam increased it by 500% over the unfilled figure. Furthermore, cyclic testing has shown the use of 25 lb/ft 3 foam in this joint was able to delay the onset of fatigue cracks from 10 to 110% of the life cycle in a typical design. The filling technique has been in use, particularly for NVH applications on volume production vehicles, since 1982 and excellent adhesion properties are claimed for both electro- coated and painted surfaces, with no foam degradation over the life of the vehicles. Now the use of foams for structural purposes is under active consideration; recent production vehicles have used foam filling of the A- and B-pillars to preserve roof strength but the relatively high density foams involved have required optimization to ensure weight limits are met. In a four-point bending test set-up with central loads 84 mm apart reacted over a 254 mm span, 75 mm wide times 50 mm deep section steel tubes were tested with three foam densities against the base line of an unfilled tube, results confirming the effectiveness of the foam in stabilizing the Fig. 7.2 Foam-filled tube behaviour: (a) Stress/strain curves for different density foams; (b) distorted shape for unfilled, left, and filled, right, structure; (c) deflection curves for unfilled and filled tubes. (a) (b) (c) Force (N) Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM177 178 Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design thin-walled tube sections against buckling of the skins. Entrapment of the foam by the closed section is seen as an important criterion and doubt is expressed as to whether the foam would be effective in the case of open section beams. End section deformed shapes of the filled and unfilled tubes, obtained in the simulation, are shown at (b) while the force/deflection curves for the test and simulation results are shown at (c). Increase in bending strength and bending stiffness was found to increase almost linearly with increase in foam density. 7.3 Plastic mouldings for open canopy shells The RIM process used in Bayer’s metal/plastic composite construction, described above, also has important potential for production of structural panels for car bodies on a relatively high volume basis. In a punt-type vehicle structure, made from metal box sections stabilized by plastic cores and incorporating rollover hoopframes at the A- and C-posts, open shell sections in RIM polyurethane could be used to form the roof panel, and front/rear ends of the body superstructure enclosing windshield and backlight screen respectively. The punt-type structure also allows the possibility for a ‘pillarless’ sedan configuration with side doors hung from A- and C-posts, without the need for a B-post. Use of metal/plastic composite doors in conjunction with a structurally efficient sliding bolt system that would preserve the integrity of the door side-impact beams would allow unrivalled occupant access to the sedan interior. Open shells in RIM polyurethane could also be used for vehicle front and rear-end structures which would be ‘canopies’ suspended over purpose-designed shock-absorber systems cantilevered from the main punt structure to absorb front, rear and ‘three-quarter’ impacts. 7.3.1 REACTION INJECTION MOULDING (RIM) DEVELOPMENTS Involving polymerization in the mould, the RIM technique is quite different from other plastic moulding methods and can be used for producing quite complex parts and panels without undue high tooling investment – since mould pressure is low. Two or more components flow into the mixing chamber, at relatively high pressure (100–200 bar) and are then expanded into the mould at much lower pressure. The streams impinge at high speed to obtain thorough mixing and initiate polymerization as they flow into the mould cavity at a pressure of about 100 bar. Low viscosity during mould filling is one of the key attractions of the process as a relatively small metering machine can make large parts. The low viscosity also simplifies reinforcement with, for example, the possibility of using continuous-fibre mat placed in the mould. Some 90% of RIM production is in polyurethanes and urea-urethanes, the latter being uniquely suited to the process as they do not melt flow like normal thermoplastics and therefore conventional injection moulding is not possible. ICI have developed a family of polyureas for body panel applications with unusually good processability and physical properties, Fig. 7.3. Gel times of 2 seconds are possible and mould temperatures are less than 93.5°C. Overall cycle time is about 1.5 minutes and further development promises ‘less than 1 minute’, with equipment shown at (a). Filler packages are also becoming available which allow part surface finish comparable with steel; moisture stability is high compared with competing thermoplastics and the materials can tolerate temperatures of 190.5°C. The table at (b) shows typical properties for a formulation that would suit body panels but others are available which raise the elastic modulus as high as 200 000 psi. As well as increasing strength and rigidity of panels, the addition of glass fibre or other reinforcements considerably improves the compatibility of thermal expansion coefficient with such materials as steel and aluminium. Since polymers typically have coefficients some 10 times greater than steel, a metre-long part hung onto a steel body could change in length by 1 cm between Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM178 Lightweight construction materials and techniques 179 summer and winter temperatures. S-RIM is the process, shown at (c), in which long-fibre mat is placed in the mould and reactive monomers injected onto it, the process being akin to resin- transfer moulding but with high pressure impingement mixing to accelerate the reaction. A comparison is made at (d) while typical properties of S-RIM composites are shown at (e). 7.3.2 RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING (RTM) TO INCORPORATE FOAM CORES For covers such as bonnet and boot lid, self-supporting horizontal panels can be made with either glass-fibre laminate or foam cores, effectively automating the sandwich panel making process but allowing complex shapes and variable thickness cores in one panel. Essentially low viscosity resin is injected into a mould containing the required preformed insert. For relatively short model runs (10–20 000), RTM, Fig. 7.4, is a lower capital cost process than SMC compression moulding. The stages of the process are shown schematically at (a). First the glass reinforcement or preform is placed in the mould. Once the mould is closed the resin is injected with no or little movement of the glass. After mould filling the part is left curing in the mould until it is dimensionally stable so that it can be demoulded without losing its shape. The fact that the reinforcement is pre-placed in Fig. 7.3 RIM process and properties: (a) RIM machine; (b) body-panel RIM formulation; (c) steps in the S-RIM process; (d) S-RIM and RTM compared; (e) S-RIM-composite properties. (e) (b) (a) (c) Typical properties Specific gravity 1.10 Flexural modulus, psi at 73°F 144000 at −20°F 220000 at 158°F 95000 Modulus ratio 20°F/158°F 2.31 Tensile strength, psi 5100 Elongation at break, % 95 Gardner impact, ft-lb at 20°F 10.1 Mould temperature, °F 160 Component temperature, °F 110 RTM S-RIM Equipment cost $30000 $500000 Flow rate (Kg/min) 2.3 55 Mixing static mixers impingement Mould pressure (MPa) 0.3 2.4 Void content (vol%) 0.10.5 0.52.0 Mould materials epoxy steel Mould temperature (b) (°C) 2540 95 Component viscosities (MPa . s) 100550 <200 Cycle time (min) 1060 26 Isocyanurate Urethane Acrylamate Epoxy Random glass mat (wt%) 38 44.8 40 40 (3 mm thick part) Specific gravity 1.54 1.53 1.46  Void (vol%) 1.5 1.5   E f (MPa at 25°C) 8,100 9,600 8,700 9,200 Tensile strength (MPa) 150 150 125 160 Elongation (%) 7.3 2.0 2.1 1.2 Izod impact (J/m) 510 660 790 800 Heat distortion (°C) 184 189 240 >200 Thermal expansion (m/m°C) 20 27 18 x 10 6 (d) Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM179 180 Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design the mould gives the process the potential for making parts with better surface and mechanical properties than SMC where the fibre orientation is usually less controlled and favourable because of its flow. During the filling stage, the resin being injected usually contains filler and can exhibit a viscosity with some shear thinning behaviour. However, for typical RTM compositions this effect is small and as a first approximation can be neglected. According to the Seger & Hoffmann subsidiary of Dow Chemical, to increase the efficiency of the moulding stage it is best to perform as many operations as convenient outside the RTM mould; the optimal placement of fibre into the RTM mould can be time consuming particularly if the shape is relatively complex. Methods available for preforming complex shapes include spraying fibres and binders onto a perforated mould or the use of mats and/or fabrics pretreated with thermoplastic binder which can be shaped by pressure when heated. A shell of a sports seat is one example successfully produced by the company. The part is complex with a deep draw, multi-curvature shape and multi-plane shut-off. The method of preforming chosen used continuous filament random glass-fibre mats. The preforming of fibre (b) (c) (a) Fig. 7.4 RTM process and properties: (a) stages in RTM process; (b) designed failure line in bonnet panel; (c) properties of resin systems. Epoxy resin 100 PBW Hardener system 20 PBW Mixed viscosity at 25°C 7.010.0 Tensile strength MPa 87.1 Tensile modulus GPa 2.92 Elongation at break % 6.9 Flexural strength MPa 140.8 Flexural modulus GPa 2.97 Compression strength (yield) MPa 121.7 Heat distortion temperature 153°C Tg 164°C Prepare glass mat or preform Place preform in mould Close mould Inject resin Mixing pump Cure, open mould Part remove Prepare mould for next shot Post cure Glass fabric Designed failure line Glass fabric Core, PU-foam Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM180 Lightweight construction materials and techniques 181 (a) reinforcement for flat mouldings such as a bonnet may not be absolutely necessary. The handling of the fibre mats, however, can be difficult as they are rarely self-supporting. A bonnet can be designed as a slim sandwich structure instead of inner and outer mouldings. The rigid foam core thus provides a convenient method of supporting the fibre reinforcement during transportation of the fibre to the RTM mould, (b). Epoxy resin systems, with their low volume shrinkage of between 1–3% together with their good mechanical properties, are ideally suited to class ‘A’ surface body panel applications. Painting at temperatures up to 150°C can also be met with specifically formulated epoxy resin systems. The table at (c) gives the most important mechanical properties of a typical resin system developed for RTM. Faster curing systems based on vinyl ester resins can be used for RTM structural moulding where surface finish is less critical. Vinyl ester resin-based systems are capable of giving mould closed times of under 3.5 min. High speed mixing and dispensing technologies developed for the polyurethane industry are also being adapted for the RTM process. Metal inserts to spread loads at high stress areas, such as hinge attachment points, can be incorporated into the RTM moulding. The shape of the polyurethane core moulding can provide a method of locating and transporting these inserts during the preform process. A particular design feature of the bonnet is the designed failure line. During high speed impacts the bonnet fails along this line. RTM was successfully exploited by PSA in their Tulip concept battery-electric car, Fig. 7.5. The car maker worked with Sotira Composites Group to develop the body structure which comprises (b) Polyurethane foam core Glass-fibre preforms Assembly of preforms to core Resin injection Fig. 7.5 Tulip concept car: (a) structure; (b) sandwich configuration. Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM181 182 Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design just five basic elements bonded together. These five parts constitute both the exterior and interior of the vehicle bodywork, (a). In effect, the seats, dashboard, centre console and so on form an integral part of the structure which has significant benefits in terms of the rigidity of the vehicle. Each of the five parts comprises a rigid polyurethane foam core of 110 kg/m 3 density. Glass- fibre mat is preformed and wrapped around the foam core before being placed into the low pressure injection tool. To ensure accurate location, the glass mat is retained in the part line of the tool. Polyester resin is then injected into the tool which impregnates the glass fibre and completes the sandwich construction, (b). With a 40% by weight ratio of glass reinforcement to resin, the resultant assembly weighs approximately 30% less than an equivalent steel structure. The material used is also claimed to contribute to the safety of the vehicle, both for its occupants and to pedestrians, with energy absorbing characteristics of the panels shown to be 87% higher than for standard steel parts. To complement the precise resin injection system, the tools have a compression chamber in place of the traditional vents. The tools are also designed to maintain close temperature control across the entire surface. Typically +/-2°C is achievable to ensure consistent polymerization of the resin and the use of chromed steel or highly polished nickel shell tools allows for parts with class ‘A’ surface finish to be moulded. Resin supplier DSM had a key role in the project to optimize the resin system to suit the RTM process. Mould flow analysis tests have therefore been performed with the aim of reaching body panel production rates of 200 per day. 7.4 Materials for specialist EV structures Polyester and epoxy resins have a proven record for the lower volume specialist vehicle categories. The future electric vehicle market might tend on the one hand towards localized body manufacture with considerable manual labour glass-reinforced polyester (GRP) content in developing countries and in the richer countries to the construction of ultra-lightweight bodies using techniques thus far only affordable to race-car construction, Fig. 7.6. Hand lay-up is an important factor for both of these sectors. There is also a medium volume sector in specialist vehicles which has warmed towards resin pre-impregnated sheet moulding compounds which might well be adopted for electrical commercial and passenger service vehicles as the market progresses. 7.4.1 GRP AND SMC For particularly lightweight GRP construction, reservoir moulding is a method of producing GRP sandwich panels. Here a reservoir of flexible open-cell foam is impregnated with a resin and sandwiched between two layers of dry fibre reinforcement. The three layer sandwich is placed between dies under a pressure of just 12 kg/cm 2 . The foam acts as a sponge which, during moulding, squeezes the resin into the fibre. Sandwich stiffness can be altered by varying compression pressure and the tooling can be simplified by using one rigid and one flexible die face such as a liquid-filled bag. The VARI (vacuum assisted resin injection) process was pioneered by Lotus for car body shells but is now available for a variety of licensed manufacture applications. Here the part is made between matched mould surfaces after laying up of the reinforcement by hand. Vacuum is then applied to the space between the mould faces and resin automatically drawn into the cavity. Preformed foam cores can also be placed in the mould to achieve localized box sections within the main part. It is also now possible to preform the glass reinforcement to speed the lay-up process. Another development is a technique for making metal-faced moulds which can be heated to further shorten the cure cycle. The view at (a) shows the bottom half of a Lotus car structure, made by VARI, with numbered panels indicating the weight of glass (in lb/ft 2 ) used in each area of the moulding. Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM182 [...]... material cost, per Fig 7 .11 GM Ultralite concept Cha7-a.pm6 191 21-04-01, 1:48 PM 192 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design lb, being greatly higher than steel without consideration of the enormous tooling/process cost of steel fabrication or the fact that much less weight of material was used per car The use of advanced materials for interior equipment – thin Duofix seats – allowed designers to create... of GRP showing exponential and linear regions; (c) creep of rigid PUR foam under constant shear; (d) time/temperature dependency of GRP; (e) composite GRP floor design Cha7-a.pm6 185 21-04-01, 1:48 PM 186 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design length side panels forming the outer skin and joined by a Nomex honeycomb core to a Kevlar reinforced inner Bulkheads down the body are machined from aluminium... Load pad dimensions Typ (mm.) Duration, ms 3 Centre of area of tank bay 80.00 00 25 20 66.63 Seat-belt fastening positions F1 tech reg limit 39.50 Idealized crash pulse ECE 17.03 188 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design Stress removed at t = tO 300 Strain (E) 2 Strength/wt (lb/in /lb x 100 ) Specific buckling strength 2 200 Specific tensile strength EC(tO ) EC(t) 100 strain 2.0% Time (t) 0.30... (e) shows the properties available with the available forms of aramid fibre Tensile modulus of a composite laminate is: E k = E f V f B + E m Vm Cha7-a.pm6 189 21-04-01, 1:48 PM 190 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design Fibre/material Specific gravity density (g/cm3) Tensile strength Young’s modulus s 4000 (MPa) (x10 lbf/in ) (GPa) 69 3 2 d R- 2.54 2410 349 10 S-glass 2.49 2620 380 87 Carbon type... 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 Cha7-a.pm6 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 183 (a) Fig 7.6 Reinforced plastics: (a) weight of glass in moulding; (b) high strength composite properties 21-04-01, 1:47 PM 184 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design door surround-frames; these, which showed 20% weight reduction against steel, could be obtained without loss of rigidity, Fig 7.7 Normal test forces subjected to a steel frame... squeezed out during the compression process In the Tyrrell 011 Formula One car, for example, the main body has two full Cha7-a.pm6 184 21-04-01, 1:47 PM Lightweight construction materials and techniques 185 Seat belt anchorage N Hinge mount N 10 20 0 900 Test appliance 10 11 1 N Striker pin, driver’s door Mount point for belt retractor 10 11 1 N (a) 320 Test appliance 1d N 1 w 1 month 40 3.0 Creep... would make the hand-building of such vehicles a reality The study suggests that despite some notable lightweighting initiatives, there is little sign yet of affordable super-light production cars While vehicle makers continue to spend fortunes on refinement of vehicles that will need revolutionary redesign if they are to meet supercar standards, it is suggested that the move is akin to refining the... 3.696.157 h= E L = 254 mm Back Support 2 x 106 (d) ‘‘Rynite’’ 545 b mm area mm2 Flexural modulus, psi E MPa x103 3.2 4.8 64 8.0 9.5 11 1 17.9 13.8 10.3 8.1 59 4.5 112 1 431 244 159 130 107 3587 2068 1559 1269 1235 118 6 188 1 x 106 5000 5 x 105 ‘‘Rynite’’ SST 35 3 x 105 (h = (d) Fig 7.9 Designing in polymer composites: (a) the challenge of metals and structural timber; (b) creep resistance of GM 40 PP; (c) creep... Steel Aluminium L65 Titanium DTD 5173 4.2 7.0 5.6 4.2 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 4.2 5.6 50mm 5.6 5.6 7.0 1.59 1.90 1.65 1.79 1.0 1.29 1.0 0.47 0.96 113 128 190 55 82 83 210 76 110 1.06 1.27 1.03 0.90 0.50 1.00 0.13 0.17 0.21 1.5 1.5 1.6 7.0 2.0 1.39 7.8 2.8 4.5 75 85 119 27 21 60 27 26 25 (b) 7.0 25mm 5.6 Specific Specific strength modulus 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 Tensile modulus Specific (GPa) gravity 4.2 5.6 4.2... at (g) 7.5 Ultra -lightweight construction case study The General Motors Ultralite concept car is an encapsulation of advanced carbon-fibre reinforced epoxy resin structure, combined with aerodynamic optimization, that would suit a high-performance electric car An EC energy saving study6 put forward the forecast of local manufacturing units that would make the hand-building of such vehicles a reality . 21-04-01, 1:47 PM181 182 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design just five basic elements bonded together. These five parts constitute both the exterior and interior of the vehicle bodywork, (a) 27 Aluminium L65 0.47 76 2.8 0.17 26 Titanium DTD 5173 0.96 110 4.5 0.21 25 Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:47 PM183 184 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design door surround-frames; these, which showed 20%. time/temperature dependency of GRP; (e) composite GRP floor design. (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) Cha7-a.pm6 21-04-01, 1:48 PM185 186 Lightweight Electric/ Hybrid Vehicle Design length side panels forming the outer skin