198 Subject Index energy saving ratio (FESR), 170-177, modification, 133-135, 147-152 per annum costs, 189 price, 191 saving, 170-173 179-180 Full oxidation, 134-135, 158-160 Gas supplied for combustion, 150 Gas turbine jet propulsion, xiii Gas turbine, xiii Gaseous fuel, 23 Gasifier, 114 GEM9001H plant, 128 General electric LM 2500 [CBT] plant, 83 General Electric company, 114 Gibbs function, 22 Graphical method, 35-36, 123-125 Global warming, 13 1 Greenhouse gases, 13 1 Gross entropy generation, 64-65 see also carbon dioxide removal HAT cycle, 100, 106 HAT see humidified air turbines Heat balance in the HRSG, 1 I8 Heat balance, 90, 118-1 19, 183 electrical demand ratio, 170-173, 176-177 engines see closed cyclesfcircuits exchange (or recuperation), 10, 9 1-92, exchanger, 11, 32,96 exchanger effectiveness, 37, 93 loads, 170- 174 loss in the exhaust stack, 172 loss, 1 IO- I 12 rate, 7 recovery steam generator (HRSG), 85 combined cycle gas turbines, 1 12, combined heat and power plants, 180 steam injection turbine plants, 87-88 94-98, 133, 147-150 114-115, 118-121, 126-128 rejection, 8-9, 18 transfer, 5, 14-17, 183-185, 186 transfer coefficient, 185 to work ratio, 175, 176-177, 179, 180 SUPPIY, 8-9, 37 Heating device (or boiler) efficiency, 5, 1 1 1, I 17 Heating value, 143, 150, 152 Heavy duty CCGT plant, 191 Heat Recovery Steam Generator HRSG, 1 12, 114, I I6 Humidified air turbine, 100, IO I, 104 Hydrogen burning CBT, 133 Hydrogen burning CCGT, 133, 154 Hydrogen plants, 133, 153-154 ICAR (irreversible Carnot), 22 Ideal (Carnot) power plant, 7-8 Ideal combined cycle plants, 109- 1 IO Ideal heat exchangers, 91 IFB plant, 103 IFB see inlet fog boosting IGCC cycles with COz removal, 160 IGCC see integrated coal gasification cycles Integrated coal gasification combined cycle plant (IGCC), 114, I15 IJB scc irreversible Joule-Brayton Inlet fog boosting (IFB), 103 Integrated coal gasification cycles (IGCC), Intercooled cycle, 32, 96 Intercooling and reheating, 39, 93 Intercooled steam injection turbine plants Intercooling, IO- 1 1 Interest rates, 190-191 lnternal irreversibilities, 8-9, 16, 19, 24 Internal irreversibility, 16, 19, 24 Internal Stanton number, I86 Internal thermal efficiency, SO Internally reversible cycles, cooling, 49-55 Irreversible Carnot (ICAR) cycles, 22 Irreversible Joule-Brayton (IJB) cycle, 9, 21 Irreversible processes air standard cycles, 33-39, 5 1, 54-59 power generation, 8-9 steady flow, 14, 17-18 114-115, 136, 161-162, 164 (ISTIG), 97-98, 103, 105 Irreversibility, 14, 17 Irreversible Joule-Brayton (LIB) cycle, 9, 20 Irreversible simple cycle, 34 Isentropic efficiency, 33 Isentropic efficiency, 33-34 expansion, 53-54 temperature ratio, 35-39, 43, 66-67, 92-93 Subject Index 199 IS0 firing temperature, 47 Isothermal compression, 93 ISTIG plant, 98, 103, 105 see intercooled steam injection turbine plants Joint heating of gas turbine and steam turbine Joule-Brayton cycle, 1, 3, 20, 28 Joule-Brayton (JB) cycle plants, 112 air standard, 28-29, 46 efficiency, 9, IO exergy flux, 20-22 power generation 1-2, 3 Linearised analyses, 42 Liquefaction, 134 Liquid fuel, 23 Live steam pressure, 122 Liverpool University plant (CHP), 180- 181 Loss in efficiency, 58, 1 IO Lost work, 16, 17-18, 20-21 Lower heating value thermal efficiency, 124 Mach numbers, 62 Mainstream gas mass flow, 71 -72 Maintenance costs, 19 1 Massflow,42,71, 117-118 Mass flow ratio, 118 Matched CHP plant with WHB, 171 Matched CHP plant with WHR, 171 Matched plants, 171 Matiant cycle, 134-135, 158-160 Maximum combined cycle efficiency, 126 Maximum efficiency, 35, 38. 66, 82, 126 Maximum efficiency, 126 Maximum (reversible) work, 17 Maximum specific work, 35 Maximum work, 15, 22 Maximum work output. 22, 24-25 Maximum temperature, 47 Mean temperatures 8-9, 21 Methane, 141-143, 145, 192 Mixing of cooling air with mainstream flow, 61 Modifications fuels, 133-135, 148-153 oxidants, 134-135, 155-161 turbine cycles, 9- 1 1 Modified polytropic efficiency, 59 Multi-step cooling, 52-54, 59, 7.5, 78-81 Multiple PO combustion plant, 163 Natural gas reforming, 133-134 Natural gas-fired plants, 164 NDCW see non-dimensional compressor work NDHT see non-dimensional heat transferred NDNW see non-dimensional net work NDTW see non-dimensional turbine work Nitrogen, 133, 153 Non-carbon fuel plants, 133, 153-155 Non-dimensional heat supplied, 41 Non-dimensional net work output, 40 Nondimensional . compressor work (NDCW), 35, 124 heat transferred (NDHT), 3, 122 net work (NDNW), 35-37,40, I23 turbine work (NDTW), 35, 124 Notation, turbine cooling, 184 Novel gas turbine cycles, 131 - 164 Nozzle guide vane rows, 60,63, 65,73-75, 78 Open circuit gas turbine plant, 2, 6, 13, 24, 39, Open circuit gas turbindclosed steam cycle, 1 13 Open cooled blade row, 61,62 Open cooling, 59-65, 186 Operating conditiondranges, 180- 18 1 Operational costs, 19 1 - 192 Operation and maintenance, 192 Optimum pressure ratios, 44-45, 123- 126 Overall cooling effectiveness, 185 Overall efficiency and specific work, 66, 78, 8 I Overall efficiency of CCGT plant, 12 I, 124 Overall efficiency 43 closed circuit power plants, 6 cogeneration plants, 167- 169 combined cycles, I 12, 1 18. 128. 129, 130 electricity pricing, 189- 190 fired combined cycles, 1 16 open circuit plants, 43-46 open circuit power plants, 6-7 recuperation, 92, 149- 151 steam injection turbine plants, 85, 86 steam-thermo-chemical recuperation, 33, 141, 143, 147 three step cooling, 79-81 water injection evaporative turbines, 94-98 200 Subject Index wet gas turbine plants, 85, 87- 107 see also arbitrary Oxidant modification, 135, 163 Oxygen blown integrated coal gasification cycles, 161, 162 Parallel expansions, 5 1 Parametric calculations, 1 18- 12 1 Parametric studies, 97, 105, 107 Partial oxidation (PO), 134-135, 143, 155- 157 Partial oxidation cycles, 155 Partial oxidation reaction, 143 Performance criteria, 33, 168 Performance of unmatched CHP plants, 175 Physical absorption process, 136, I38 Physical absorption, 137, 139- 140 Pinch point temperature difference, 88, 118 Plant with a WHB, 174 Plant with supplementary firing, 11 6 Plants with combustion modification, 158 PO open CBT cycle, 135 PO plant with C02 removal, 157 PO, 141, 143, 154, 155 Plant efficiency calculations, 71 -83 electricity pricing, 189, 19 1 - 194 exergy, 82-83 turbine cooling, 68 PO see partial oxidation Polytropic efficiency, 34, 59, 64 Polytropic expansion, 53, 59 Power generation thermodynamics, I - 1 1 loads, 173- 174 plant performance criteria, 4 station applications, 13 1 Practical gas turbine cogeneration plants, 177 Pre-heating loops, 122- 123 Pressure change, 62 dual systems, 123 live steam, 122- 123 losses, 33, 39, 75, 78 ratios optimum, 44-45, 123- 126 turbine cooling, 66-68 water injection evaporative gas turbines, 96-98 stagnation, 60,61-65, 183 steam raising, 119-120, 121 two step cooling, 5 1-52 Process steam temperatures, 177, 178 Product of thermal efficiency and boiler efficiency, 6, 1 1 I Range of EUF and FESR, 177, 179 Range of operation, 174 Rankine type cycles, 133, 154- 155 Ratio of entropy change, 9 Rational efficiency, 6, 22, 24-26, 42, 51, 60 Rayleigh process, 62 Real gas effects, 39,43, 45, 46,48, 65, Recirculating exhaust gases, 140- 141 Recuperated water injection (RWI) plant, Recuperation (heat exchange), 10- 1 1,90-92, Recuperative CBTX plant, 147 Recuperative cycle, 29, 30, 34, 37, 38, 92 Recuperative STIG plant, 90 Recuperative STIG type cycles, 148 Recycled flue gases, 144 Reference systems, 170- 173 Reforming reactions, 143, 148, 157, 158-159 Regenerative feed heating, 1 16, 122, 128 Reheat and intercooling, IO, I 1 Reheating in the upper gas turbine, 126 Reheating, 31, 39, 44, 45, 46, 126-128 Rejection, heat 8-9, 18 REVAP cycle, wet gas turbine plants, 100-101, 104,108 Reversed Camot engine, 18 Reversibility and availability, 13-26 Reversible closed recuperative cycle, 30 Reversible processes air standard cycles, 28-33, 46,49 ambient temperature, 14- 15 availability, 13-26 heat transfer, 15-17 Reynolds number, 183, 186 Rolls-Royce, plc, xiii-xv, 83-84 Rotor inlet temperatures, 47-54, 56-57, 60, Running costs, 13 1 71,82 100-101, 104, 106-107 133, 147- 150 65-68 Subject Index 20 I Ruston TB gaq turbine, 177, 180 RWI cycle, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106 RWI see recuperated water injection Safety factor (cooling), 186 Scrubbing process, 147- 148 Semi-closure cycles, 134, 140- 141, 146- 148, Semi-closed CBT or CCGT, 134 Semi-closed CCGT plant with C02 removal, 163, 164 Semi-closed CICBTBTX cycle, 135 Semi-closure, 139, 140, 158 Sequestration, 132, 134, 145-148 Shift reactor, 161 -162 Simple CHT cycle, 34 Simple EGT, 93, 96, 107 Simple PO plant, 155 Single pressure system, 122- 123 Simple single pressure system with feed heating, Simple single pressure system without feed Single pressure steam cycle with LP evaporator Single pressure steam raising, 121 Single-step turbine cooling, 49-5 1, 55-57, Specific enthalpy, 24 Specific entropy, 24 Specific heat, 35,41-42, 43, 88 Specific work closed air standard cycles, 35 combined cycles, 123-124 open circuit plants, 45-46 steam-thermo-chemical recuperation, 150, wet gas turbine plants, 104-107 157, 159-162 122 heating, 118 in a pre-heating loop, 123 73-75,76-78 151 Stack temperature, 1 19 Stagnation pressurdtemperature, 60,61-65,183 Stanton numbers, 183, 184-185, 186 Stationary entry nozzle guide vane row, 60-65 Steady-flow, I, 13 availability function, 14, 15, 23, 24 energy equation, 13, 85, 87, 91, 172 air ratios, 87-89, 150 enthalpy, 119 Steam injection turbine plants (STIG), 85-86 intercooled, 97-98, 103, 105 recuperation, 91 -94, 133, 149- 150 thermodynamics, 103 reforming reactions, 143, 144, 148 thermo-chemical recuperation, 133, 143, turbines, 128 149, 150 Steam cooling of the gas turbine, 128 Steam injection and water injection plants, STIG and EGT, 85,97, 103 STIG cycle, 96, 97, 99, 103, 107 Stoichiometric limit, 47 STIG see steam injection turbine plants Sulphuric acid dewpoint, 122 Supplementary combustion, 172 Supplementary firing, 116, 173 Supplementary fired CHP plant, 172 Supplementary ‘heat supplied’, 120 Surface intercoolers, 105 Syngas, 114-115, 136, 143-144, 161-162 86 Taxes, 131, 162-164, 191, 192-194 Tax rates, 190 TBC (Thermal barrier coating), 185 TCR see thermo-chemical recuperation Temperature TCR, 133, 141-143, 147-152, 157 adiabatic wall, 185 ambient, 13-14, 24 changes, 39,42-43 combustion, 47-49,55-57,68,73-84 dewpoint, 114, 119, 122 difference ratio, 71-72, 185, 187 economiser water entry, 119 exit turbine, 59 isentropic ratio, 35-39, 43, 66-67, IS0 firing, 47 mean, 8, 21 pinch point, 1 18 power generation, 8-9 process steam, 177, 178 rotor inlet, 47-54, 56-57, 65-68 stack, 118 stagnation, 60, 61 -65, I83 turbine entry, 50, 58 92-93 Temperature-entropy diagrams air standard cycles, 28, 33 combined cycle efficiency, 117 evaporative gas turbines, 91, 92 fired combined cycles, 1 16 ideal (Carnot) power plants, 7 intercooling, 32-33 Joule-Brayton cycles, I, 3, 28 multi-step cooling, 52 single-step cooling, 49-50, 55 thermal efficiency, 6- 1 I two-step cooling, 5 1, 58 water injection evaporative gas turbines, 94 - 96 Temperature - entropy diagrams, xi v Texaco gasifier, 114 Thermal barrier coating (TBC), 185 Thermal efficiency air standard cycles, 30-31, 35-37 artificial, 168 closed circuit power plants, 3-6 combined heat and power plants, 1 10- 1 I I, cooling flow rates, 47-68 evaporative gas turbines, 85 fired combined cycles, 117- 126 ideal (Camot) power plants, 7 ideal combined cyclic plants, 109- I IO internal, 50 irreversible Joule-Brayton cycle, 20 modifying turbine cycles, 9- 1 1 open circuit power plants, 6 recuperative evaporative gas turbines, steam injection turbine plants, 89 three step cooling, 79, 81 turbine cooling, 47-68 I68 92-93 Thermal energy, 18, 24 Thermal or cycle efficiency, 5, 7 Thermal ratio, 33 Thermo-chemical recuperation (TCR), 133, 134, Thermodynamics 142-144, 148-153 open cooling, 59-65 power generation, 1 - 1 1 wet gas turbine plants, 103- 105 Three step cooling, 78-79, 80-81 Throttling, 52, 58 TOPHAT cvcle. 101-102. 104. 107 202 Subject Index Wet gas turbine plants, 85- 107 Total pressure loss, 63-65 Turbine cooling, 47-69, 184, 186- 187 entry temperature, 47, 50, 56, 58, 119 exit condition, 54-55 mass flow, 42 pressure, 157- I58 work, 88, 94, 96 Turbo jet engines, xiii Two pressure systems, 121, 123, 129 Two-step cooling, 5 I -52, 58 Ultimate reversible gas turbine cycle, 33 Uncooled and cooled efficiencies, 57 Unfired plant, 1 12- 1 14, 167, 170, Unit costs, 189 Unit price of electricity, 189, 19 1 - 192 Unitised production costs, I89 Unmatched gas turbines, 173- 174, 175 Unused heat, 1 IO, 176- 177 Upper gas turbine cycles, 126-128 Useful heavwork, 177, 178 174-177 Value-weighted energy utilisation factor, 169 Van Liere cycle, 92, 101-102, 107 Van’t Hoff box, 142, 143 Waste heat boilers (WHB), 167-177, 180 Waste heat recuperators (WHR), 167-77, Water 180- 181 entry temperature, 1 14, 1 19, 122 gas shift reactions, 142-144 injection, 85-107 evaporative gas turbines, 94-98 Water injection into aftercooler, 95 Water injection into aftercooller and cold side of heat exchanger, 95 Water injection into cold side of heat exchanger, 95 Westinghouse, 83 - 84 WestinghouseRolls-Royce WR2 I recuperated [CICBTX], plant, 83 Wet and dry cycles compared, 104, 105 Wet efficiencies, 94 Subject Index 203 WHB see waste heat boilers Whittle laboratory, xv WHR see waste heat recuperators Work irreversible flow, 15, 17 lost, 16, 17-18, 20-21 open circuit plants, 39-42 output, 22, 24-26 potential, 18, 19, 24 reversible flow, 14, 16 turbine, 88, 94, 96 see also specific work Primarily this book describes the thermodynamics of gas turbine cycles. The search for high gas turbine efficiency has produced many variations on the simple "open circuit" plant, involving the use of heat exchangers, reheating and intercooling, water and steam injection, cogeneration and combined cycle plants. These are described fully in the text. A review of recent proposals for a number of novel gas turbine cycles is also included. In the past few years work has been directed towards developing gas turbines which produce less carbon dioxide, or plants from which the C02 can be disposed of; the implications of a carbon tax on electricity pricing are considered. In presenting this wide survey of gas turbine cycles for power generation the author calls on both his academic experience (at Cambridge and Liverpool Universities, the Gas Turbine Laboratory at MI1 and Penn State University) and his industrial work (primarily with Rolls Royce, plc). The book will be essential reading for final year and masters students in mechanical engineering, and for practising engineers. About the author Sir John Horlock is an authority on turbomachinery and power plants and his books on axial compressors, axial turbines, actuator disk theory, combined heat and power and combined power plants are widely used and cited. He founded the Whittle Laboratory at Cambridge in 1973 and acted as its first Director. He was then Vice-Chancellor firstly of Salford University and subsequently of the Open University. Sir John has been an advisor to Government and industry for forty years and has been a non-executive director of several UK companies. He was recently Treasurer and Vice-president of the Royal Society and was knighted for services to science, engineering and education in 1996. . Practical gas turbine cogeneration plants, 177 Pre-heating loops, 122 - 123 Pressure change, 62 dual systems, 123 live steam, 122 - 123 losses, 33, 39, 75, 78 ratios optimum, 44-45, 123 - 126 turbine. compressor work (NDCW), 35, 124 heat transferred (NDHT), 3, 122 net work (NDNW), 35-37,40, I23 turbine work (NDTW), 35, 124 Notation, turbine cooling, 184 Novel gas turbine cycles, 131 - 164 Nozzle. oxidation, 134-135, 158-160 Gas supplied for combustion, 150 Gas turbine jet propulsion, xiii Gas turbine, xiii Gaseous fuel, 23 Gasifier, 114 GEM9001H plant, 128 General electric LM 2500