© National Instruments Corporation 8-1 Fundamentals of Digital Electronics Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I The analog-to-digital converter, known as the A/D converter (read as A-to-D converter) or the ADC, is the second key component to bridging the analog and digital worlds. The ADC is the basis of digital voltmeters, digital multimeters, multichannel analyzers, oscilloscopes, and many other instruments. There are many different ADC designs, of which the ramp, tracking, and successive approximation converters are common. This lab looks at the ramp and tracking A/D converters. Purpose of the Analog-to-Digital Converter The purpose of an ADC converter is to produce a digital binary number that is proportional to an analog input signal. The fundamental conversion process is shown in the following diagram. Figure 8-1. Symbolic Design for an 8-Bit Analog-to-Digital Converter A counter creates a test binary sequence, and its digital output is converted into an analog voltage using a digital-to-analog converter. The DAC is a basic element of many ADC circuits and was discussed in Lab 7. (This is a good time to review its operation if you are not familiar with the DAC.) The test voltage is then compared with the input signal. If the input signal is larger than the test signal, the counter is increased to bring the test signal closer to the input level. If the input signal is smaller than the test signal, the counter is decreased to bring the test signal closer to the input level. The Input Voltage Test Voltage + – C b7 b0 Reset Counter DAC Fundamentals of Digital Electronics 8-2 © National Instruments Corporation Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I process continues until the comparator changes sign, at which time the test level will be within one count of the input level. Increasing the number of bits of the counter and DAC increases the conversion resolution. The Ramp ADC The ramp ADC uses a binary counter and digital-to-analog converter to generate a ramp test waveform. In this demonstration, an 8-bit binary up counter, Binary Counter.vi, together with the 8-bit DAC, DAC.vi (introduced in the last lab), generate the test waveform. The test level will rise from 0 to 255 and repeat if left in the free running mode. However, when the test level becomes greater than—or in this case, equal to—the input level, the comparator will change sign and stop. Figure 8-2. LabVIEW VI to Simulate an 8-Bit Ramp ADC The last value on the binary bits (b7-b0) is the digitized value of the input voltage level. In the LabVIEW simulation, a wait time of 60 ms is chosen so that the eye can follow the action. The comparator function is simulated with the LabVIEW Equal function. Load and run the simulation VI Ramp.vi and follow the action on the front panel. Try other values of the input level and note that the conversion time depends on the input voltage level. Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I © National Instruments Corporation 8-3 Fundamentals of Digital Electronics Figure 8-3. LabVIEW Front Panel of 8-Bit ADC Converter. The Comparator LED Indicator Changes State When the Test Waveform Numeric Value Exceeds the Voltage Input In the next simulation, Ramp4.vi, the binary counter is allowed to free run. Whenever the test signal is greater than the input level, the comparator changes sign. This intersection of the ramp waveform with the input level can be seen on a chart display. The binary value of the counter at the intersection point is the digitized signal. The transition of the comparator indicates this event. If the changing state of the comparator resets the binary counter, a true ramp ADC is simulated. In this case, the binary counter is replaced with the binary counter with reset, featured in Lab 6. Load the VI Ramp2.vi and observe the action. Note that as soon as the test level reaches the input level, the binary counter resets, and the ramp cycle starts all over again. In the display below, the input level was changed three times. Figure 8-4. Chart Display of the Ramp ADC in Operation An interesting feature, unique to the ramp ADC, is that the conversion time depends on the magnitude of the input signal. Small input levels are digitized faster than large input levels. The conversion time is thus dependent on the input signal magnitude and the clock circuitry speed. For an 8-bit DAC, variable conversion times may not be a problem when the clock is running at megahertz frequencies, but for 12-bit DACs, this property is a disadvantage. Fundamentals of Digital Electronics 8-4 © National Instruments Corporation Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I The ramp ADC works equally well with a down counter that runs from 255-0. The change of state of the comparator again signals the binary count that generates a test level equal to the input level. LabVIEW Challenge Design a ramp ADC that uses a down counter to generate the test waveform. Could you use an up/down counter to track the input level? Yes, such a conversion technique is called a tracking ADC, and it has the fastest conversion time. Tracking ADC The first task for the tracking ADC is to use some technique such as a ramp waveform to catch up to the input level. At that point, shown by the intersection of the ramp waveform with the input level, the tracking algorithm takes over. Figure 8-5. Tracking ADC Ramps Up to the Input Level Before Tracking Begins The tracking algorithm is simply, if test level is greater than the signal level, decrease the count by one else if test level is less than the signal level, increase the count by one and repeat forever. In the following example, a positive ramp ADC technique is used to initially catch up to the input level of 150.2. Once the input level is reached, the tracking algorithm takes over. Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I © National Instruments Corporation 8-5 Fundamentals of Digital Electronics By expanding the vertical scale, you can see the tracking algorithm in action. Figure 8-6. Tracking ADC Output when Input is Constant However, if the input level changes, the ADC must revert to a ramp waveform to catch up to the input level. Provided the clock is fast enough, the tracking can keep pace. But if the signal changes too quickly, the digitized signal is lost until the test level catches up again. In practice, it is the slewing speed of the DAC that limits the maximum input frequency that the tracking ADC can follow. Figure 8-7. A Sudden Change in the Input Level Causes the Test Level to Ramp Up to the New Level Because the tracking ADC uses an up/down counter, the algorithm has the same problem when the input signal suddenly falls below the test level. The tracking ADC reverts to a down ramp (Figure 8-8) until the test level reaches the input signal level. Fundamentals of Digital Electronics 8-6 © National Instruments Corporation Lab 8 Analog-to-Digital Converters, Part I Figure 8-8. A Negative Change in the Input Level Causes the Test Level to Ramp Down to the New Level The VI called Tracking ADC.vi is used to demonstrate this technique and to generate all the above charts. The algorithm shown on the block diagram is quite simple. A LabVIEW Select function and the shift register on the While Loop implements the algorithm. Figure 8-9. LabVIEW VI for the Tracking ADC The Wait function is set to 0.10 second so that the user can observe the action on the front panel. You can also use the Operating tool to redefine the vertical axis scale to zoom in on the action as the simulation is in progress. To observe the tracker catching up to a varying input, reduce the input constant for the Wait function in Figure 8-9 to 1 ms. Lab 8 Library VIs (Listed in the Order Presented) • Ramp.vi (8-bit ramp ADC, conversion slowed for easy viewing) • Ramp4.vi (ramp ADC with no feedback from comparator) • Ramp2.vi (8-bit ramp ADC with chart output) • Tracking ADC1.vi • Binary Counter.vi (subVI 8-bit binary counter) • BIN_RST.vi (subVI 8-bit binary counter with external reset) • DAC.vi (subVI 8-bit DAC) • FlipFlop.vi (subVI) . input voltage level. Lab 8 Analog-to -Digital Converters, Part I © National Instruments Corporation 8- 3 Fundamentals of Digital Electronics Figure 8- 3 . LabVIEW Front Panel of 8- Bit ADC Converter (Figure 8- 8 ) until the test level reaches the input signal level. Fundamentals of Digital Electronics 8- 6 © National Instruments Corporation Lab 8 Analog-to -Digital Converters, Part I Figure 8- 8 Instruments Corporation 8- 1 Fundamentals of Digital Electronics Lab 8 Analog-to -Digital Converters, Part I The analog-to -digital converter, known as the A/D converter (read as A-to-D converter) or