21st Century Manufacturing Episode 5 pdf

114 Product Design, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and Solid Modeling Chap. 3 start-up company needing a modest CAD environment would also be wise to invest in these products, which include but are not limited to: • AutoCAD commercially available from <www.autodesk.com> • SolidWorks commercially available from <www.solidworks.com> • IronCAD commercially available from <www.ironcad.com> 3.12.3 Systems with "'High Overhead" The next group of products have been built to do high-end solid modeling with real- time rendering, and they maintain a parametric model of the emerging design. This means that objects are initially created generically without specific dimensions. When objects are specifically instantiated, dimensions are added and everything scales up or down to suit. The user is able to define constraints between different parts of an object and then scale them. For long-term company growth over several product variants this has enor- mous appeal. However, there is a major drawback. There is a huge learning time for such systems. Also, since they are updated every 18 months or so, further retraining on new "revs" is likely. These are powerful design tools for a large automobile company or a national laboratory. In these environments, many similar components in a family are being designed. Their use in a bearing-manufacturing company like TImken Inc. is perhaps the easiest to visualize. Bore sizes, races, cover plates, and the like, can be created once and then "scaled up or down." For future revisions of a component, any existing parametric designs that might reside in a software library can quickly be reinstanti- ated to create a new object in the same family. These larger systems also have direct links to supplementary packages that will do DFM/A and finite-element analysis. Most of them also include a CORBA- based open architecture that allows linking to other software applications (e.g., SDRC, 1996). • ProEngineer commercially available from <www.ptc.com> • IDEAS commercially available from <www.sdrc.com> • Unigraphics commercially available from <www.ugsolutions.com> • CATIA commercially available from <www.catia.com> Translations between these different commercial CAD systems were once done with initial graphics exchange system (IGES) and can now be done with product defini- tion exchange system (PDES/STEP). PDESISTEP is evolving into a useful world- wide standard (see ISU, lY/:iY,lYY3). Other products such as Spatial Technology's ACIS (ACIS, 1993) play an inter- mediate role compared with the aforementioned applications. They have specialized in the "market niche" of creating an open de facto standard for solid representations. This is finding adoptions in other systems, including AutoCAD. The openness of ACIS is popular with the research community. From a management of technology viewpoint this direction toward open CAD systems is important. 3.12 Management of Technology 115 3.12.4 Current Trends in CAD The CAD field is developing very quickly indeed. At the time of this writing,"stu- dent editions" of PTC's Pro-Engineer and SDRC's IDEAS are becoming available for only $100. Thus, even these more sophisticated systems are becoming more readily available to the average user and are able to run on modest computer sys- tems in the $1,500to $3,000price range for a well-configuredenvironment. This still does not mean an end user should "jump right in" and use them. The bigissues-dis- cussed above-are the "learning curve" and the "library creation for parametric sys- tems." These trade-offs are captured in Figure 3.32. On the other hand, used in a nonparametric way, these higher end packages can create excellent feature-based models.The governing factor seems to "boil down" to how much long-term interest a person or group has in using CAD tools. Here are three scenarios: •For a start-up company,where a CAD system might be used only once to gen- erate an idea and then an FDM prototype, the cheaper nonparametric approach is recommended. •Also in small,newer companies, today's evidence is that the turnover among young engineers is high. It might not be worth investing the training time needed for the full parametric systems when quite satisfactory designs can be done with the cheaper systems like AutoCAD, SolidWorks,and so on, which have a short learning curve. •But for large, stable companies, if several product revisions will be designed spanning several months or years, then the time invested in learning the parametric approach in ProEngineer, SDRC, and the like, will be worthwhile. 3.12.5 Future Trends in CAD: Multidisciplinary Concurrent Design/Engineering and Global Manufacturing For a variety of cultural reasons, today's industrial growth is more and more dependent on situations where large businesses are distributed. Often these large business organizations are split up but then orchestrated over several continents, perhaps to take advantage of excellent design teams in one country and low-cost, efficient manufacturing teams in another. These trends place even more emphasis on concurrent engineering (or simultaneous design) and design for manufacturability and assembly (DFMlA). The goals are to coordinate all members of a design and manufacturing team at each stage ofproduct development, manufacturing, sales,and service (see Urban et aI.,1999). To further complicate such trends, engineering products are more complex. Concurrent engineering is difficult enough when the product is nearly all mechan- ical (such as a gear box) or nearly all electronic (such as a television). But as auto- mobiles,aircraft, robots, and computers become a highlycomplex mix of integrated circuits, power supplies, controllers, and mechanical actuators, concurrent engi- neering becomes even more challenging. It clearly demands the orchestration of 'i[lliJ ~ ~ ~ o NP cr FE PF {IN] NP cr FE Fipn 3.32 'Irade-offe between nonparametric systems, parametric constraint-based, full feature-based, and part family CAD systems (courtesy of 1.1.Shah). Legend NP = Nonparametric Cj' e Consrraint based FE = Feature based PF= Part families PF 100 m ] s .~~ OJ o NPCfFE PF NP cr FE PF 3.13 Glossary 117 multidisciplinary design teams. These trends will create the need for environments that allow, for example: •The integration of electrical-CAD tools with mechanical·CAD tools. Chapter 6 describes a domain unified computer aided design environment (DUCADE) that facilitates multidisciplinary concurrent design for consumer electronic products. •The creation of intelligent agents for Internet-based design. An example might be an agent for plastic injection-mold design (Urabe and Wright, 1997). Internet-based design environments allow the original part designer to import information on specific "downstream" processes-in this case, how to fabri- cate negative mold halves. Information could also include data on shrinkage factors, recommended draft angles for the mold, and snap fit geometries (Brock, 2000). 3.13 GLOSSARY 3.13.1 Boundary Edge Representation Boundary representations, or b-reps, describe an object in terms of its surface bound- aries: vertices, edges, and faces. 3.13.2 Creative Design The formative, early phases of the design process, where market identification, con- cepts, and general form are studied. 3.13.3 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) The addition, subtraction, or intersection of simpler blocklike primitives to create more complex shapes. 3.13.4 Destructive Solid Geometry (DSG) A special case of CSG where the designer begins with "graphical stock" and changes its shape with only the subtraction 01 intersection commands, in order to suit later operations on a "downstream" machine tool. 3.13.5 Detail Design The later phases of design in which specific shapes, dimensions, and tolerances are specified on a CAD system. 3.13.6 Design for Assembly, Menufaeturability, end the Environment The collection of terms used to encourage designers to adjust their design activities for ease of assembly (OFA), manufacturing (DFM), or environmentally conscious (E) issues. Often DFX is used to summarize all these "design for" activities. 118 Product Design, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and Solid Modeling Chap. 3 3.13.7 Feature-Based Design The use of specific primitive shapes in design that suit a particular "downstream" manufacturing process. 3,13.8 Ink-Jet Printing in 3-D Rapid prototyping by rolling down a layer of powder and hardening it in selected regions with a binder phase that is printed onto the powder layer. 3.13.9 Injection Molding Viscous polymer is extruded into a hollow mold (or die) to create a product. 3.13.10 Investment Casting The word investment is used when time and money are invested in a ceramic shell that is subsequently broken apart and destroyed. The original positive master that is used to create the negative investment shell can be made by several processes.Lost wax and ceramic mold are the two most common. 3.13.11 Machining General manufacturing by cutting on a lathe or mill; chip formation from a solid block rather than forging, forming, or joining. 3.13.12 Parametric Design CAD techniques that represent general relationships (e.g.,height-to-width), not nec- essarily specific dimensions. 3.13.13 Prototyping (Prototypel "The original thing in relation to any copy,imitation, representation, later specimen or improved form" (taken from Webster's Dictionary). 3.13.14 Plastic Injection Molding As "injection molding," described above. Note:Zinc die casting also involves "injec- tion" into dies or molds. 3.13.15 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Current, fashionable term for several handheld computing devices possibly with e-mail link, cell phone, and modest display. 3.13.16 Rapid Prototyping IRPI A new genre of prototyping, usually associated with the SFF family of fabrication methods. Emphasis is on speed-to-first-model rather than fidelity to the CAD description. 3.14 References 119 3.13.17 Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF' A family of processes in which a CAD file of an object is tessellated, sliced, and sent to a machine that can quickly build up a prototype layer by layer. 3.13.18 Solid Modeling ("Solids'" CAD representations that correspond to real-world physical objects with edges, ver- tices, and faces. A CAD operation on a solid model will be consistent with a physical action or deformation that could be performed in the physical world. Wire frame CAD modeling does not guarantee this condition. 3.13.19 Tessellation Representing the outside surfaces of an object by many small triangles, like a mesh thrown over and drawn around the object. This leads to an ".STL" file of the vertices and the surface normals of the triangles. 3.13.20 Wire Frame Modeling CAD representations that correspond to abstract lines and points. An object can be drawn and even rendered, but the computer does not store an object that is "under- stood" in a physical sense. 3.14 REFERENCES ACIS Geometric Modeler. 1993. Version 1.5. Technical Overview. Boulder, Co. Spatial Tech- nology,Inc. Baumgart, B. G. 1972. Winged edge polyhedron representation. Technical Report STAN-CS- 320, Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Baumgart, B. G. 1975. A polyhedron representation for computer vision. NCC 75: 589-596. Berners-Lee, T.1989. Information management: A proposal. CERN internal proposal. Boothroyd, G., and P.Dewhurst. 1999. DFMA software. On CD from the company, or contact <www.dfmlll.com>. Braid, l. C. 1979. Notes on a geometric modeler. CAD Group Document, 101, Computer lab- oratory, University uf Cambridge. Brock, 1.M. 2000. Snap-fit geometries for injection molding. Master's thesis, University of Cal- iforrria.Berkeley, Compton, W. D. 1997. Engineering management, "Creating and managing world class opera- tions." Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Cutkosky, M. R., and J. M. Tenenbaum. 1990. A methodology and computational framework for concurrent product and process design. Mechanism and Machine Theory 25, no. 3: 365 381, Pinin, T., D. McKay, R. Fritzson, and R. McEntire. 1994. KOML: An information and knowl- edge exchange protocol. In Knowledge building and knowledge sharing. Edited by Kazuhiro Fuchi and Toshio Yokoi. Amsterdam, Washington D.C., and Tokyo: Ohmsha and IDS Press. 120 Product Design, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and Solid Modeling Chap. 3 Foley, 1. D.,A. van Dam, S. K. Feiner, and 1.F. Hughes. 1992. Computer graphics: Principles and practice, 2nd ed., Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Frost, R., and M. Cutkosky. 1996. An agent-based approach to making rapid prototyping processes manifest to designers. Paper presented at the ASME Symposium on Virtual Design and Manufacturing. Grayer,A. R.1976. A computer link between design and manufacture, Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge. Greenfeld,l,EB. Hansen, and P.K. Wright. 1989. Self-sustaining.open-system machine tools. In Proceedings of the 17th North American Manufacturing Research Institution 17: 281-292. Hauser, 1. R., and D. Clausing. 1988. The house of quality. Harvard Business Review (May-June); 63-73. Hazelrigg, G. 1996. Systems engineering: An approach to information-based design. Upper Saddle River, N.1.: Prentice-Hall. Hoffmann, C. M. 1989. Geometric and solid modeling. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. ISO. 1989. External representation of pro duet definition data (STEP). ISO DP 10303-0. ISO. 1993. Product data representation and exchange-Part I: Overview and fundamental principles. ISO DIS 10303-1, TC184JSC4IWG4 N193. Also see the following papers on PDES/STEP: Wilson, P. 1989. PDES STEP forward. IEEE Computer Graphics and Application 79-80. Eastman, C. 1994. Out of STEP? Computer-Aided Design 26, no. 5. Kamath, R. R., and 1.K. Liker.1994.A second look at Japanese product development. Harvard Business Review, reprint number 94605. KimL H., F. C. Wang, C. Sequin, and p.K. Wright. 1999. Design for machining over Internet. Design Engineering Technical Conference (DETC) on Computer Integrated Engineering, Paper Number DETC'99/CIE-9082, Las Vegas. Mead, C, and L. Conway. 1980. The CalTech intermediate form for LSI layout description In Introduction to VLSI Systems, 115-127. Addison Wesley. MOSIS. 2000. University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute-The MOSIS VLSI Fabrication Service, http://www.lsLedulmosW. Pratt, M. J., and P.R. Wtlson.1987. Conceptual design of a feature-oriented solid modeler. Draft Document 3B, General Electric Corporate R&D. Puttre, M. 1992. Sculpting parts from stored patterns. Mechanical Engineering, 66-70. Regli, W. C, S. K. Gupta, and D. S. Nau. 1995. Extracting alternative machining features: An algorithmic approach. Research in Engineering Design 7: 173-192. Requicha, A. A. G. 1977. Mathematical models of rigid solids. Technical memo 28. Production Automation Project. New York: University of Rochester. Requicha, A. A. G. 1980. Representations for rigid solids-Theory, methods, and systems. ACM Computing Surveys, 437-464. Requicha.A. A. G., and H. B. Voelckcr. 1977. Constructive solid geometry. Technical memo 25. Production Automation Project. New York: University of Rochester. Richards, B., and R. Brodersen. 1995. InfoPad: The design of a portable multimedia terminal. In Proceedings of the Mobile Multimedia Conference-2, Bristol, England. Riesenfeld, R. 1993. Modeling with NURBS curves and surfaces. In Fundamental Develop- ments of Computer-Aided Geometric Modeling, 77-97. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 3.15 Bibliography '21 Roberts, L. G.1963. Machine perception three-dimensional solids. Technical report no. 315. Lin- coln Laboratory, MIT. SORe. 1996. The Open-IDEAS Programming Course ManualiMS 5282-5. Milford,OH: Structural Dynamics Research Corporation. Sequin, c. S. 1997. Virtual prototyping of Scherk-Collins saddle rings. Leonardo 30, no. 2: 89-96. Shah. I 1., and M. Mantyla. 1995. Parametric and feature based CAD/CAM. Wiley. NY. (Also see Shah, 1.J M. Mantyla, and D. S. Nau. 1994. Advances in feature based manufacturing. New York: Elsevier.) Sidall, 1.N. 1970. Analytical decision-making in engineering design. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Smith, C; and P. K. Wright. 1996. CyberCut: A World Wide Web based design to fabrication tool. Journal of Manufacturing Systems 15, no. 6: 432 442. Stcri, 1.A, and P. K. Wrighl. 199". A knowledge based system for machining operation plan- ning in feature based, open architecture manufacturing. In Proceedings (on Compact Disc) of the 1996 Design for Manufacturing Conference, University of California, Irvine. Sub, N. P.1990. The principles of design. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sungertekin, LlA, and H. B. Voelcker. 1986. Graphic simulation and automatic verification of machining programs. In Proceedings Of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation. Sutherland, I. E. 1963. Sketchpad: A man-machine graphical communication system. In Pro- ceedings of Spring Joint Computer Conference, 23. Urabe, K., and P.K. Wright. 1997. Parting planes and parting directions in a CAD/CAM system for plastic injection molding. Paper presented at the ASME Design for Manufacturing Sym- posium, the Design Engineering Technical Conferences. Sacramento, CA. Urban. S. D., K.Ayyaswamy, L Fu, 1.1. Shah, and 1.Liang. 1999. Integrated product data envi- ronment: Data sharing across diverse engineering applications. International Journal of Com- puter Integrated Manufacturing 12, no. 6: 525-540. Woo, T. 1992. Rapid prototyping in CAD. Computer Aided Design 24: 403-404. Wright, P. K., and D. A. Bourne. 1988. Manufacturing intelligence. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Wright, P. K., and D. A. Dornfeld. 1996. Agent based manufacturing systems. In Transactions of the 24th North American Manufacturing and Research Institution, 241-246. 3,'5 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartels, R. H., 1.C. Beatty, and B. Barsky. 1987. An introduction to splines for use in computer graphics and geometric modeling. San Mateo, CA: M. Kaufmann Publishers. Hyman, B. 1998. Fundamentals of engineering design. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. 1993. Effective technologies for engi- neering success-Making CAD/CAM pay. No. 1993-12. Regli, W. C, and D. M. Gaines. 1997. A repository for design, process planning and assembly. Computer Aided Design 29, no. 12: 895-905. Sequin, C. H., and Y. Kalay. 1998. A suite of prototype CAD tools to support early phases of architectural design. Automation in Construction 7: 449 464. 122 Product Design, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and Solid Modeling Chap. 3 3.16 URLS OF INTEREST: COMMERCIAL CAD/CAM SYSTEMS AND DESIGN ADVISERS 1. Parametric Technology Corp, Pro/ENGINEER, http://www.ptc.com 2. Autodesk, AutoCAD, bttp://www.autodesk.com 3. SolidWorks, bttp://www.solidworks.com 4. Spatial Technologies, ACIS, http://www.spatial.com 5. 3D/EYE Inc, TriSpectives, http://www.eye-com 6. SDRC, I-DEAS, http://www.sdrc.com 7. EDS, Unigraphics, http://www.edsug.com 8. MSC,ARIES, http://www.macsch.com 9. DesignSuite by Inpart, Saratoga, California, http://www.inpart.com 10. Cambridge process selector, bttp:f/www.granta.co.uklproducts.btml 3.17 CASE STUDY The goal of this case study is to reinforce the four levels of design described in Sec- tion 3.2. Specific ideas for a novel snow shovel are shown indented below the main design level. SORC is the design tool being used in the example. Parametric design is highlighted. Reiterating a point made in the introduction, note that this chapter has attempted to move through a transition of design tools from simple wire frame to solid modeling, to solid modeling with rendering, and now to parametric design. Sec- tion 3.2 summarized four main phases of the design process. These are repeated below and used to guide the reader into the detailed steps using SDRC's IDEAS system. 1. Art related and high-level: "Design in any of its forms should be functional, based on a wedding of art and engineering" (W. A. Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus movement). The snow shovel will be designed in this case study as an attractive, colorful, lightweight, foldable device that mountaineers will buy at their local"outdoors shop." 2. Engineering related and high-level: "Design is the process of creating a product (hardware, software, or a system) that has not existed heretofore" (Suh, 1990). A collapsible snow shovel is designed inthe next few pages with the purpose of improving the weight, cost, and usefulness over existing shovels. Emphasis is placed on the shovel head as the component with the most potential for improve- ment. The shovels that were found in the marketplace were separated into two pri- mary design classifications. The first was the plastic shovel, which was lightweight and cheap but was not hard or stiff enough to be useful in ice or dense snow con- ditions. The second was the aluminum shovel, which was useful in all conditions but was significantly heavier and more expensive than a plastic shovel. 3. Engineering related and at the analytical level: "Design is a decision making process" (Hazelrigg, 1')96). The new shovel incorporates the best of both shovel designs by combining a cheap, lightweight shovel scoop made out of polycarbonate with a hard, tough molded-in cutting blade made from aluminum 6061. Emphasis is placed on stiff- ening the shovel head through geometric features to allow a reduction in the 3.17 Case Study 123 shovel wall thickness (and thus a weight and cost reduction). This is accomplished by simulating load conditions using the ANSYS finite element analysis software and iterating the design to improve it. 4. Detailed design: "Design is to make original plans, sketches, patterns, etc." (Web- ster's Dictionary). The first step in the design of the shovel isthe creation ofa wire frame drawing to be extruded into the initialsolidof the model.The most complex viewofthe part isgen- erally selected for this wire frame, and in thiscase,the side view ofthe shovelisselected for the wireframe drawing.The finalshovel design wireframe isshown inFigure 3.33. Notice the dimensions on the wire frame in Figures 3.33 and 3.34. Unlike conventional drafting packages where the dimensions are added to document a specific line length, parametric design controls the size of the part with these dimensions. They are therefore called constraints rather than dimensions in para- metric design. Figure 3.34 shows the side view of the wire frame sketch of the shovel head after the angle constraint has been modified from 32 degrees to 45 degrees. Notice how this simple change dramatically alters the shape of the shovel. A standard drafting package would require the shovel head to be redrawn and then redimensioned to make this change. The ability to rapidly change such design parameters is one of the key strengths of parametric design. Also notice that in addi- tion to the standard constraints of length, there are constraints for angular, radial, perpendicular, tangent, and coincident objects in Figures 3.33 and 3.34. Figure 3.35 shows the solid object from an isometric front view that is created when the wire frame shown in Figure 3.33 is extruded a distance of 225 millime- ters (9 inches) and draft angles are added for strength and manutacturabillty. Figure 3.36 shows the same view after fillets have been added to the shovel head. The next step in the shovel design is to add cutouts to the bottom of the shovel head, which will become the stiffening ribs when the part is turned into a shell. Figure 3.37 shows a view perpendicular to the back edge of the shovel head Flgure3.33 Wire frame model of snow shovel (Thanks are due to Dan Odcllforhiscontributions). flgure3.34 [...]... presented after Figure 4 .5 Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) and Rapid Prototyping 138 Chap 4 '\ I 1/ Figure 4 .5 Establishing the border, then hatching and filling (filling is shown on just one square) Note: These steps are for an SLA -50 0 machine at the time a/writing the SLA- 250 are slightly different, and, in addition, new refinements The details for are constantly taking place 4.2 .5. 1 Step I Preparation... process, it still takes up to 45 seconds for the full effect of polymerization to occur and to harden the layer enough to build subsequent layers on top of it After the 45- second wait, the first layer is hardened enough for the Zephyr blade to sweep over the surface and pre~ cisely set the 100 micron (0.004 inch) layer of liquid for the second polymerization 4.2 .5. 5 Step 5 Sweeping Using the Zephyr Blade... chip (see MOSIS, 20(0) Inspired by this success, beginning in the 197 05, several companies tried to create layered manufacturing for mechanical parts Also by the mid-1980s, several U.S government studies analyzed the possibilities of a "mechanical MOSI$" (Manufacturing Studies Board, 1990; Bouldin, 1994; NSF Workshop I, 1994, and II, 19 95) The prospects for a mechanical MOSIS were thus frequently linked... the average build layer However, it may range from 50 to 200 microns (0.002 to 0.008 inch) depending on the desired accuracy Also the Zephyr blade sweeping times, and the" z-wait" times, need to be programmed in These are described later 4.2 .5. 2 Step 2 Leveling and Laser Calibration SLA resins undergo 5% to 7% total volume shrinkage, and of this amount, 50 % to 70%, occurs in the vat during polymerization... vertices and the normal vector to the triangle Table 4.2 shows the layout The size of the ".STL" file is (50 x number of triangles) + 84 Thus a 1O,OOO-triangle bject needs 50 0,084 bytes o TABLE4.2 The N 5Tl N File Format Entity The header The number of triangles For each tessellation triangle (50 bytes Normal vector I Normalvector J Normal vector K First vertex X First vertex Y Fint vertex Z Second... (2)") ( -wI Roexp - half width (Figure (1992) and like 4.1), the (4.2) 4.6) = Wo, H It can also be shown = Hoe-2 = O.135Ro that (4.3) = If the scan speed a given area is 30 .56 watts is 200 mm per second, i, = 2~o the scanning = 1. 25 milliseconds (4.4) per cm2 laser's exposure time on (4 .5) Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFFJand Rapid Prototyping 142 Chap 4 The laser exposure's average energy density is then... layer is formed, the stage needs to be pulled down about 12 mm (0 .5 inch) for the SLA·5oo(Jacobs, 1992) This "deep dip" allows the viscous, honeylike fluid to more easily flow over the surface of the first layer of the supports The elevator then rises up to be positioned 100 microns (0.004 inch) below the surface It is usual to wait about 5 seconds and then do the laser curing again This creates the second... 1991;Kruth, 1991; Woo, 1992, 1993;Au and Wright, 1993; Kochan, 1993; Kai,I994; UCLA, 1994;Weiss Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) and Rapid Prototyping 132 and Prinz, 19 95; Cohen et al., 19 95; Dutta, Kumar et al., 1998; Sachs et al., 2000) 19 95; Jacobs, 1992, 1996; Beaman Chap 4 et al., 1997; The introduction of the first commercial SFF technology-stereolithographywas accompanied by the advent of the STereoLithography... takes about 5 seconds (Jacobs, 1992) unless a hollowlike part is being made where the viscous fluid inside the hollow takes longer to follow the blade The sweep gives a uniform thin layer, but given the viscosity of the fluid, there is a tendency for resin to adhere to the blade, followed by separation and a "bulge" just downstream from the part's leading edge 4.2 .5. 6 Step 6 "Z-Wait" of about 15 Seconds... Radius F1gure4.6 irradiance as follows, Gaussian decay of laser across the surface is - 37% of Ro For the SLA- 250 , typical values are given by Jacobs and it is of interest to relate laser behavior to resin solidification: Nominal Central laser power spot size = (PL) = (2Wo) = = 15 milliwatts 0. 25 millimeters For the whole spot the Gaussian irradiance curve controls the basic physics, any point source . Com- puter Integrated Manufacturing 12, no. 6: 52 5 -54 0. Woo, T. 1992. Rapid prototyping in CAD. Computer Aided Design 24: 403-404. Wright, P. K., and D. A. Bourne. 1988. Manufacturing intelligence Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Baumgart, B. G. 19 75. A polyhedron representation for computer vision. NCC 75: 58 9 -59 6. Berners-Lee, T.1989. Information management: A proposal. CERN. Journal of Manufacturing Systems 15, no. 6: 432 442. Stcri, 1.A, and P. K. Wrighl. 199". A knowledge based system for machining operation plan- ning in feature based, open architecture manufacturing.