Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis - Part 8 (end) pdf

Appendix A Site Description G.T Patterson Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada J.A Brierley Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Canada A1 INTRODUCTION A site description is a record of observations for a specific locale, where soil and landscape attributes are to be evaluated A site can be of any size ranging from under a square meter to several square kilometers or more in extent The amount of data recorded at a site as well as the required precision is dependent upon the purpose of the project The purpose also determines the selection of an appropriate site For example, demonstration plots must be easily accessible and preferably visible from the road (Maguire and Jensen 1997) Although there are exceptions, sites are generally chosen to be representative of a typical soil–climate–landscape situation Information about the site serves as the link between the actual location, associated landscape and soil characteristics, and corresponding relevance of the samples A site description provides the context for the various soil properties to be analyzed and may help in the final evaluation and interpretation of analytical results (North Dakota State University [NDSU] Extension Service 1998; Schoeneberger et al 2002) A good site description also defines how information gained at one location can be extrapolated to other areas Site information can be classified into three categories: basic sampling data, such as (a) who did the sampling, where, when, and why; (b) information about the landscape; and (c) a summary of the soil horizon data (Soil Survey Staff 1951; Taylor and Pohlen 1962; Walmsley et al 1980; Day 1983; Knapik et al 1988; USDA 2002) As mentioned previously, the specific site attributes collected depend upon the nature of the project, and thus ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC there can be no definitive list However, as a minimum, the first two categories should be always included If the results of a study are to be scaled-up to broader areas or interpreted within a regional context, then soil horizon data are necessary in order to apply soil classification systems (Soil Survey Staff 1975; Webster and Butler 1976; Soil Classification Working Group 1998) Various methods are available for measuring site attributes Consider location, for example Latitude–longitude measurements of location based upon National Topographic Survey maps may be appropriate at the national level, while legal descriptions might be more appropriate at the farm level Where more precise location coordinates are required, geographic positioning systems (GPS) are readily available devices for accurately locating a site (latitude, longitude, and elevation) to within submeter confidence The list of GPS Web sites at the end of this chapter is a sample of what is available; it is not an endorsement of one product over another All site data are not necessarily measured in the field Soil survey reports, surficial, and bedrock geology maps, hydrology reports can provide valuable background information on the landscape and associated soils A2 SITE ATTRIBUTES Tables A1 through A3 provide a list of site attributes applicable to soil-related studies Table A1 is a list of basic information related to sample site and sampling method Landscape and soil profile attributes are listed in Table A2 and Table A3, respectively TABLE A1 A List of Basic Sampling Data Project ID Regional setting Purpose, e.g., a Fertility status b Environmental assessments (well-site, pipeline) c Long-term monitoring Location, e.g., a Latitude–longitude b Legal description c Latitude–longitude in decimal degrees (GPS) Sampling plan, e.g., a Random b Grid c Purposeful d Single=composite Sampling date Name of sampler Sampling method, e.g., a Probe or auger b Core Horizon or depth sampled Vegetative cover (native, crop) ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC TABLE A2 A List of Landscape Attributes 10 Ecological setting Climate Land use Landform Parent material a Particle size b Mode of deposition including petrology Topography a Aspect b Elevation c Steepness of slope d Slope length e Shape=curvature f Site position g Slope pattern Soil moisture regime (e.g., drainage, seepage, perviousness) Stoniness class Rockiness class Flooding events TABLE A3 A List of Soil Profile Attributes Thickness of layers=horizons Organic layers a Thickness b Organic material composition c von Post scale of decomposition Depth to free carbonates Depth to saline conditions Depth to water table Depth to bedrock Rooting zone a Thickness b Particle size Root-restricting layer a Thickness b Kind c % Area affected REFERENCES Day, J.H Ed 1983 The Canada Soil Information System (CanSIS) Manual for describing soils in the field Expert Committee on Soil Survey LRRC #82-52 Ottawa, Canada, 97 pp GPS Web sites (last verified January 2007) http:= =www.trimble.com=gps ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC http:= =www.garmin.com.=about GPS= http:= =www.omnistar.com Knapik, L.J., Russell, W.B., Riddell, K.M., and Stevens, N 1988 Forest Ecosystem Classification and Land System Mapping Pilot Project Duck Mountain, Manitoba Canadian Forest Services and MB Forest Br., Ottawa, Canada 129 pp Maguire, T and Jensen, T 1997 Guide to Field Experimentation in Agriculture: Site Location Last verified January, 2007 http:= =www1.agric gov.ab.ca=$department=deptdocs.nsf=all=sag3025 North Dakota State University (NDSU) Extension Service 1998 Soil sampling as a basis for fertilizer application Last verified January 2007 http:= =www.ext.nodak.edu=extpubs=plantsci= soilfert=sf-990-3.htm Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., and Broderson, W.D Eds., 2002 Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 2.0 Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE Soil Classification Working Group 1998 The Canadian System of Soil Classification Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publication, 1646 (Revised), Ottawa, Canada 187 pp Soil Survey Staff 1951 Soil Survey Manual SCS U.S Department of Agriculture Handbook 18, Washington, DC, 503 pp ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Soil Survey Staff 1975 Soil Taxonomy SCS U.S Department of Agriculture Handbook 436, Washington, DC, 754 pp Taylor, N.H and Pohlen, I.J 1962 Soil Survey Method A New Zealand Handbook for the Field Study of Soils Soils Bureau Bulletin 25 Taita Exp Sta., Hutt Valley, New Zealand 241 pp USDA 2002 Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils National Soil Survey Centre, Resources Conservation Service Washington, DC, 228 pp Walmsley, M., Utzig, G., Vold, T., Moon, D., and van Barneveld, J 1980 Describing Ecosystems in the Field RAB Technical Paper Land Management Report No Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC, Canada 224 pp Webster, R and Butler, B.E 1976 Soil Classification and survey studies and Ginninderra Aust J Soil Res 14: 1–24 Appendix B General Safe Laboratory Operation Procedures P St-Georges Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Canada B1 GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURES Inform yourself: Consult the material safety data sheets (MSDS) to learn the hazards of each chemical (MSDS can be obtained from chemical suppliers) It is highly recommended (and may be mandatory) that all supervisors, employees, students, and volunteers get Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) certification This system informs workers of commonly used warning labels and symbols for chemicals and other agents used in the workplace Follow all policies, regulations, and safety procedures (municipal, provincial= state, and federal) detailed for your workplace Verify that the appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE) is available and used as prescribed Special attention is required if there are any level hazards listed on the chemical’s National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) label regarding health (blue), fire (red), or reactivity (yellow) Level hazards indicate extreme hazard potential Special training or safety requirements must be attained before handling these chemicals Label chemical bottles and containers when received and opened, as per WHMIS guidelines Most chemicals have a shelf life Some of these chemicals may become unsafe and=or unstable after the expired date Ensure that there is an adequate supply of the reagents before starting any procedure 1197 ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Do not carry glass bottles only by the finger-ring on the neck of the bottle This ring is meant to help grip bottle when pouring its contents Transport the bottle using both hands or use an appropriate rubber=plastic bottle holder Store chemicals in an appropriate location as directed in MSDS Pay special attention to noncompatible chemicals, shelf life, and ventilation Make sure chemicals are properly labeled and an accurate chemical inventory is kept B2 BASES GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRECAUTIONS Bases are caustic and some have low surface tensions, making them difficult to wash off Eye contact: Causes severe eye burns May cause irreversible eye injury Skin contact: Causes skin burns May cause deep, penetrating ulcers of the skin Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract burns May cause perforation of the digestive tract Bases and acids should be stored separately due to incompatibilities (i.e., potentially violent reaction) Strong bases include the following: LiOH (lithium hydroxide), NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), RbOH (rubidium hydroxide), and CsOH (cesium hydroxide) UNIQUE HAZARDS Ammonium Hydroxide Volatile: Produces ammonia fumes which are pungent and toxic This chemical must be used in a fume hood Sodium Hydroxide, Lithium Hydroxide, and Potassium Hydroxide Substances are hygroscopic (i.e., absorb water from the atmosphere) Must be stored in plastic bottles since these bases can fuse glass These bases are exothermic when dissolved=diluted with water LiOH may boil if 10 M stock solution is made; NaOH and KOH will heat up significantly There is a small risk of skin burns Sodium Hypochlorite (Bleach) Toxic if ingested in sufficient quantities Avoid skin contact as this can cause irritation Avoid inhaling excessive quantities of vapor ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Strong oxidizer: This chemical has several incompatibilities (i.e., acids, ammoniabased compounds, hydrogen peroxide, and flammables) B3 ACIDS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRECAUTIONS Most acids are volatile and produce acidic fumes Corrosive to most metals; this reaction can form explosive hydrogen gas Eye contact: Causes severe eye burns May cause irreversible eye injury Skin contact: Causes skin burns May cause deep, penetrating ulcers of the skin Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract burns May cause perforation of the digestive tract Does not induce vomiting Inhalation: May be fatal if inhaled Effects may be delayed May cause irritation of the respiratory tract with burning pain in the nose and throat, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and pulmonary edema Chronic effects: Repeated inhalation may cause chronic bronchitis Reacts exothermically with water, sometimes violently Always add acid to water when making up solutions Store acids and bases separately Strong acids include: HCl (hydrochloric acid), HNO3 (nitric acid), H2 SO4 (sulfuric acid), HBr (hydrobromic acid), HI (hydroiodic acid), and HClO4 (perchloric acid) UNIQUE HAZARDS Acetic Acid Highly volatile: Strong pungent, vinegar-like odor Flammable in its concentrated form (i.e., glacial) Hydrochloric Acid Volatile: Releases toxic chlorine gas Vapors are visible in high humidity Nitric Acid Strong oxidizer: Reacts violently with some chemicals Volatile: Vapors are visible, especially in high humidity ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Sulfuric Acid Hygroscopic: Absorbs moisture from the air Keep tightly sealed Strong inorganic acid Mists containing sulfuric acid may cause cancer Sulfuric acid reacts vigorously, violently, or explosively with many organic and inorganic chemicals, and with water Formic Acid Flash Point is 69 C Both liquid and vapor are combustible Strong reducing agent: Fire and explosion risk if in contact with oxidizing agents Keep refrigerated (Store below 4 C.) Lachrymator (i.e., a substance that produces the flow of tears) Hydrofluoric Acid Poison, Extremely hazardous liquid and vapor Special safety training recommended Neutralizing HF gel (2.5% calcium gluconate gel) must be kept on your person both at and away from the workplace A person’s reaction to exposure may be delayed by h or longer, depending on the concentration of the acid Fluoride ions readily penetrate skin, causing deep tissue and bone damage and can be fatal Any exposure requires hospital care, even after neutralizing gel application Hydrofluoric acid must be stored in plastic bottles, since HF can dissolve glass B4 FLAMMABLES AND COMBUSTIBLES GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRECAUTIONS These substances can result in a fire or explosion if in contact with a heat or ignition source Most flammables are volatile and considered to be toxic Many flammable solvents affect the central nervous system To avoid potential contact with ignition sources, it is important to determine whether fumes are lighter or heavier than air (e.g., chloroform is heavier than air, while natural gases are lighter than air) Some flammables can become unstable through time due to peroxide formation, resulting in auto ignition (e.g., diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran) ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Store in a vented cabinet or room Store away from ignition, heat, or oxidizer sources (including sunlight and room heaters) If flammables need to be stored cold, they must be stored in a fridge which has been specifically designed by the manufacture to be suitable for the storage of flammables The fridge must be labeled as such Reduce routine handling of large volumes of flammable or combustible materials by dispensing into smaller WHMIS-labeled containers Ensure that metal containers are grounded to prevent static discharge Dispense and use flammable or combustible materials in properly working fume hoods or well-ventilated areas Certification of fume hoods is often mandatory to ensure that adequate airflow is available for safe working conditions Do not use the laboratory as a storage place Return all containers to the volatile materials storage facility Store flammables separately from other chemicals: It is especially important to store flammables separately from oxidizers B5 COMPRESSED GAS CYLINDERS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRECAUTIONS Some gases support combustion (e.g., oxygen) Some gases are flammable (e.g., acetylene, hydrogen, propane) Some gases are asphyxiants (e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide) All gases (except air and oxygen) can displace breathable air if they are exhausted into nonvented, closed areas Incorrect use of pressure regulators can cause fires or explosions High temperatures can cause a buildup of pressure in cylinders SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Label all cylinders clearly Do not use a cylinder if its contents cannot be unequivocally identified Keep all unused cylinders well sealed Use appropriate PPE while handling cylinders ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Ventilate storage areas Secure cylinders individually by using chains or straps Do not store cylinders near open flame or heat source Ground all flammable gas cylinders O2 (oxygen) tanks: Ensure all surfaces on the tank and regulator are absolutely free of grease or any other lubricant TRANSPORTATION OF GAS CYLINDERS The appropriate cap must be in place Person(s) transporting the cylinder should wear gloves and safety shoes or boots (steel-toed or equivalent) Prior to transport: Ensure that suitable tie-down chains or straps are available immediately upon arrival at the destination place Use freight elevators (where available) to transport cylinders Person(s) transporting compressed gases in vehicles often requires specific (and mandatory) training and licensing CONNECTION OF PRESSURE REGULATORS Once the cap has been removed from the cylinder, inspect the threads for damage and dirt Do not use any cylinder or regulator if the threads have been damaged Use a cloth to clean any dirt or grease from the threads Use only the pressure regulator which has been designed for the particular cylinder and type of gas Regulators and gas cylinders are designed so that the fittings (compressed gas association, CGA fittings) are unique and must match If the fittings are correct, they will matchup and assemble easily Do not use force when putting fittings together Prior to opening the regulator, turn off the low-pressure side of the regulator Do this by turning the valve counter clockwise Failure to turn off the low-pressure side may force the high-pressure gas into the low-pressure side, resulting in explosion When opening the high-pressure side, a person should face away from the valve gauges Open the valves slowly An explosion could result if the regulator malfunctions, letting highpressure gas enter the low-pressure side of the valve Check for leaks in fittings by applying a leak detection solution (e.g., warm soapy water) Do not direct the compressed gas towards your body or any other person’s body If using multiple compressed gases, consider labeling (e.g., color coding) the gas lines ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC When a cylinder is empty, it must be labeled as such If returning a partially used cylinder to the supplier, the cylinder must be labeled as being partially full B6 PATHOGENS AND VECTORS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRECAUTIONS Precautions are primarily related to human pathogens from untreated fecal waste (e.g., E coli) Workspace (laboratory) areas should have restricted access, in order to limit traffic flow Antibiotics are often used in labs handling pathogens Antibiotics should be treated as if they were toxic Most microbes can form airborne particles and therefore should be handled in fume hoods Avoid skin and eye contact Wear appropriate PPE Wash hands frequently Lab coats used in these areas should be restricted to the laboratory in order to quarantine potentially dangerous microbes SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Lab coats should be dedicated to this workspace and never leave the lab without being autoclaved or disinfected Lab strains of E coli are attenuated (i.e., weakened) and therefore not pathogenic; however, care should be taken to avoid any contamination of these organisms, including direct skin contact, inhalation, or ingestion All bacteria, including transgenic lines (e.g., carrying an antibiotic resistance gene), must be maintained and handled in an aseptic manner to avoid environmental contamination Before disposal, organisms must be killed using a suitable procedure (such as bleach, autoclaving, or 70% ethanol) Workspace and equipment should be decontaminated or sterilized at the end or between procedures If in doubt, consult your laboratory supervisor Before lighting a Bunsen burner, make sure that there are no open flammable chemicals in the vicinity If diethyl ether is being used anywhere in the laboratory, burners must not be used at all BIBLIOGRAPHY Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) 2006 Occupational health and safety resource Available at: www.ccohs.ca= (verified 14 July 2006) 135 Hunter St East, Hamilton, ON, Canada ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Health Canada Environment and Workplace Health— WHMIS guidelines Available at: www.hc-sc.gc.ca= ewh-semt=occup-travail=whmis-simdut=index_e.html (last updated 12 June 2006; verified 14 July 2006) 1010 Somerset St West, Ottawa, ON, Canada National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 2006 Frequently asked questions (FAQs) dealing with NFPA 704—addressing the labeling of hazardous materials for health, flammability, reactivity and special related hazards Available at: www.nfpa.org=faq.asp?categoryID ¼ 928 (verified 14 July 2006) Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA ldmbl-96 (last updated 10 June 1996; verified 14 July 2006) 130 Colonnade Rd., Ottawa, ON, Canada Public Health Agency of Canada 1996 Laboratory Biosafety Guidelines, 2nd Edition 1996 Available at: www.phac-aspc.gc.ca=publicat=lbg- Windholz, M., Budavari, S., Blumetti, R.F., and Otterbein, E.S 1983 The Merck Index, Merck and Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Shugar, G.J and Ballinger, J.T 1996 Chemical Technicians Ready Reference Handbook McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York  ... A3 provide a list of site attributes applicable to soil- related studies Table A1 is a list of basic information related to sample site and sampling method Landscape and soil profile attributes... 19 98 The Canadian System of Soil Classification Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publication, 1646 (Revised), Ottawa, Canada 187 pp Soil Survey Staff 1951 Soil Survey Manual SCS U.S Department of. .. 754 pp Taylor, N.H and Pohlen, I.J 1962 Soil Survey Method A New Zealand Handbook for the Field Study of Soils Soils Bureau Bulletin 25 Taita Exp Sta., Hutt Valley, New Zealand 241 pp USDA 2002