Air Quality Management SECOND EDITION PRINCIPLES OF 7099_C000.fm Page i Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Air Quality Management Roger D. Griffin SECOND EDITION PRINCIPLES OF CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Boca Raton London New York 7099_C000.fm Page iii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-7099-X (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-7099-1 (Hardcover) is book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the conse- quences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Griffin, Roger D. Principles of air quality management / Roger D. Griffin. 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-7099-X (alk. paper) 1. Air quality management. I. Title. TD883.G78 2006 363.739’2 dc22 2006045606 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 7099_C000.fm Page iv Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Dedication Still dedicated to those who seek the Truth in all things, and to Him Who is 7099_C000.fm Page v Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface to the Second Edition In the years since the first edition, we have seen new trends that this author did not think possible when he began his environmental career in 1969. Today there are far fewer “smog alerts,” far fewer acute-health impacts, a far greater acceptance of clean fuels and clean technologies, new engine systems, and a far greater understanding of the sources of air emissions — both natural and man-made. (Air quality improve- ments are detailed in Chapter 10.) On an international scale, air quality issues being addressed include the concern for indoor air quality in developing nations, the push for clean fuels worldwide, and the search for newer, less polluting technologies for industry and control systems. It is worth noting that the stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica — once predicted as taking decades to improve — is increasing. If the estimated methane reserves of 400 million tcf (trillion cubic feet) discov- ered in gas hydrates offshore can be accessed, the entire energy paradigm will shift dramatically to clean fuels. While our goal is the same as in our first edition — “giving the reader a firm grasp of the principles that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution and its management” — we are also celebrating the successes we have seen over the past 40 years of a concerted effort directed toward clean air. I would like to pay tribute to the thousands who have spent myriad hours studying the atmosphere, devising technologies for clean fuels, clean engines and new control systems, inves- tigating health effects, reviewing historical information on climate, monitoring the air, preparing new management strategies, evaluating rules and regulations, and guiding the energies and industries of a modern society in new directions. To you we say thank you. 7099_C000.fm Page vii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface to the First Edition In order to understand and manage our air quality resources, it is necessary to gain a fundamental understanding of the principles that govern our ability to do so. From a local perspective, it may be considered desirable to install huge fans in order to “blow the smog away,” but from a technological and scientific perspective it is not feasible. Likewise, from a regional or continental perspective, it is not acceptable to merely transfer air contaminants from one location to another one by dilution or “blowing it away.” It is therefore the purpose of this book to give the reader a firm grasp of the principles that make up the broad field of air quality, its pollution, and its manage- ment. Starting from the basic definitions of air and types of air pollution, we will follow some of its history through the present century. From that perspective, we will look at the terms used: air quality, emissions, standards and classifications of pollutants, and the production of secondary air pollution or photochemical smog. We next look at the health effects of the criteria air pollutants and those that are considered toxic or hazardous, and the effects of those contaminants on the human body. Air pollutant damages to materials and vegetation are also reviewed. The standards of acceptable air quality from the perspective of health impacts (chronic through emergency episode concentrations) and the techniques for measuring air quality are also reviewed. We approach the sources of air contaminants from an anthropogenic as well as geogenic and biogenic perspective. Between sources and receptors we look at how contaminants are dispersed into the atmosphere from a local, regional, and global perspective. From these studies come an evaluation of the different models used to calculate dispersion and the models used to predict ambient air quality. Federal laws and regulations as well as regional perspectives are summarized and evaluated. Control technologies that are available for both stationary sources and mobile sources are reviewed. From these, we are able to evaluate the possible management options for limiting emissions and optimizing air pollutant strategies. Global air quality concerns, relative global emissions, and the alternative views are evaluated from the perspective of management options that may be available to society at large. Of particular concern are those that may influence long-term air quality and health. Finally, we will be looking at indoor air quality and the future trends in air quality management approaches, with their limitations. 7099_C000.fm Page ix Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC The Author Roger D. Griffin has more than 35 years of technical and management expertise as a result of working on numerous environmental problems. He has in-depth experience in the design, evaluation, and testing of existing and planned combustion, air pollution, waste-to-energy, and hazardous waste sources and control technologies, combined with several years of advanced study of pollutant formation and dispersion from point and area sources. He has served as an expert witness in cases involving air toxics, contaminated properties, and remediation. His master’s thesis was a field validation of the Gaussian plume dispersion model; the antecedent of EPA’s ISC and AERMOD dispersion models. He has conducted remedial investigations at Superfund sites. Mr. Griffin has worked with local government agencies throughout his career, including the County of Orange (California), and the South Coast Air Quality Management District and its predecessor agencies. He has held positions with the Ecology Auto companies (director of Environmental Compliance), Converse Con- sultants (president and managing officer), CH 2 M-Hill, US Ecology, and KVB Engi- neering. He has served in various capacities in his career: analyzing air samples for trace pollutants; and as a field inspector, source testing specialist, permit processing engineer, project manager, and principal-in-charge. His projects have included working on secondary aluminum foundries; perform- ing dispersion modeling and health risk assessments for permits to operate combined cycle power systems; providing expert witness testimony for cases involving haz- ardous air pollutant emissions from a railroad tank car derailment and spill; per- forming extensive NO x testing and control programs on standard and alternative fuels; and providing on-site reviews and evaluations of operating European and United States incineration facilities, determining hazardous and toxic emission lev- els, emissions test methods, and best control technologies for toxic air contaminants. Mr. Griffin has worked on biomass fuel systems (rice hull burner and cow manure combustion systems); performed alternative control technologies and process change evaluations for effectiveness and costs to control odors. His other activities have included preparing hearing board cases, testifying as an expert witness, supervising special studies, preparing emission inventories, and evaluating technological and economic impacts of New Source Review regulation. In addition, he has worked for industrial clients in the food preparation, metallurgical, chemical, petroleum, and power generation industries. In his earlier years, Mr. Griffin supervised a source test team, was responsible for ambient air monitoring instrument calibrations, and advised on methods of air sampling analysis. He taught for 10 years at UCLA and UC–Irvine in their Environmental Engi- neering Extension program, teaching air quality and hazardous materials 7099_C000.fm Page xi Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC management. He has a master’s degree in engineering, a bachelor’s degree in chem- istry, and is a registered chemical engineer in California. CONTRIBUTOR Benjamin K. Griffin practices law as an associate for Bois & Macdonald, an environmental law firm in Irvine, California. In his practice, he has worked with the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD), the California Depart- ment of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), regional water quality control boards, the Los Angeles County Health and Hazardous Materials Division, and the County of San Diego Department of Environmental Health. He works on matters regarding CERCLA, RCRA, USTCF, and NPL listed sites. He also has worked on claims involving construction delay and inverse condemnation. He earned his J.D. degree from Pepperdine University School of Law. While in law school, Mr. Griffin distinguished himself as a member of the Law School Honor Board, serving as prosecutor. During his second year of law school he was selected as a Blackstone Fellow. Mr. Griffin earned his B.A. degree from The Citadel, with department honors, in political science, international politics, and military affairs. Mr. Griffin is a member of the State Bar of California, the U.S. District Court, Central District of California, the American Bar Association, and the Environmental Law Section of the Orange County Bar Association. 7099_C000.fm Page xii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Acknowledgments The following individuals are acknowledged for their contributions to this book and to a greater understanding of the field of air quality management: Dr. Kathryn Kelly of Delta Toxicology, Inc. Michael Oard, Retired Meteorologist Dr. James Pitts of the University of California, Riverside Dr. Scott Samuelson of the University of California, Irvine Dr. Larry Vardiman of the Institute of Creation Research A special acknowledgment is given to my wife, Dr. Avice Marie Griffin, without whose encouragement this book would not have been possible. 7099_C000.fm Page xiii Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents Chapter 1 The Atmosphere and Its Contaminants 1 History of Air Pollution 1 Medieval Experiences 1 Industrialization 2 The Early 20th Century 2 The Great London Smog Disaster — December 1952 3 Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries 4 Terms and Definitions 4 Ambient Air 4 Criteria and Noncriteria Air Pollutants 5 Emissions 6 The Epidemiologic Model 7 Components of the Atmosphere 7 Physical Characteristics 8 Standard Conditions 9 Dew Point and Humidity 9 States of Air Pollutants 10 Pollutant Gas Features 10 Particulate Features 10 Contaminant Classifications 13 Primary Contaminants 13 Natural Emissions 14 Anthropogenic Emissions 14 Secondary Contaminants 14 Photochemical Smog 14 Air Quality Management Aspects of Photochemical Reactions 18 Chapter 2 Effects of Air Pollution 21 Time Effects and Sensitivities 21 Acute versus Chronic 21 Sensitive Populations 22 Criteria versus Noncriteria Air Pollutants 22 Criteria Air Pollutant Effects 23 Ozone 23 Sulfur Dioxide 24 Particulate Matter 26 Nitrogen Dioxide 26 Carbon Monoxide 27 Lead 27 7099_C000.fm Page xv Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... 10 4 Jet Streams .10 5 Surface Effects 10 5 Other Forces 10 7 Patterns of High and Low Pressure .10 7 Friction .11 1 Horizontal and Vertical Air Patterns 11 1 Atmospheric Stability 11 1 Vertical Mixing 11 3 Horizontal Air Movements 11 3 Regional Air Pollution Meteorology .11 5 Inversions .11 5 Types of Inversions... 11 5 Southern California — The Classic Example .11 7 Sea and Land Breezes 11 7 Other Dispersive Characteristics of the Atmosphere 11 9 Valley Effects 11 9 Chimney Effect 12 1 Vegetation Effects 12 1 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7099_C000.fm Page xix Monday, July 24, 2006 2:52 PM Mountain Effects 12 2 Urban Heat Island Effects 12 2... .14 2 Materials Changes 14 4 Process-Optimizing Actions 14 5 Combustion Modifications 14 6 Fuels and Fuel Modification 15 1 Efficiency 15 1 Secondary Utilization 15 1 Fuel Switching .15 2 Fuel Blending .15 2 Fuel Cleaning .15 3 Additives .15 4 Fuel Modifications .15 4 Fuel Refining 15 6... 12 2 Local Air Pollutant Dispersion 12 3 Point Sources and Plume Dispersion 12 3 Plume Rise 12 4 Plume Shape .12 5 Line Sources .12 7 Area Sources 12 8 Dispersion Modeling .12 8 Point-Source Modeling 12 9 Model Averaging Time 13 1 Plume Model Modifications .13 1 Line-Source Models 13 3 Area Modeling... Modeling .13 3 Catastrophic Releases 13 3 Visibility .13 4 Mathematical Models 13 4 Planning Based 13 4 Receptor Based 13 6 Statistical Based 13 6 Chapter 6 Stationary-Source Control Approaches 13 9 Source Reduction 13 9 Management and Operational Changes 14 0 Fugitive Emissions .14 1 Product Storage... 17 4 Oxides of Nitrogen .17 4 Selective Catalytic Reduction 17 6 Selective Noncatalytic Reduction 17 6 Oxidative Systems 17 7 Technology Comparisons 17 7 Control System Hardware Considerations 17 8 Chapter 7 Mobile Sources and Control Approaches 17 9 Engines and Air Pollutant Emissions 17 9 Pollutant Formation in Spark-Ignited Engines .18 1... ambient air trimodal distribution of particulate diameters versus number density These three size groupings are generally attributable to different sources © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7099_book.fm Page 11 Friday, July 14 , 2006 3 :13 PM The Atmosphere and Its Contaminants 0.002 0. 01 0 .1 Nuclei mode 11 1 2 Particle diameter, (µm) 10 10 0 Accumulation mode Fine particles Coarse particles FIGURE 1. 1... majority of the reactions producing ozone in the atmosphere — CO competes with the formation of ozone by reacting with OH free radicals to produce a free hydrogen atom The latter reacts rapidly with oxygen to © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7099_book.fm Page 16 Friday, July 14 , 2006 3 :13 PM 16 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition 10 9 8 CO∗ ppm 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 12 M 4:00 AM 8:00 AM 12 ... of the 13 th century, there was considerable agitation about the use of “sea-coal,” 1 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7099_book.fm Page 2 Friday, July 14 , 2006 3 :13 PM 2 Principles of Air Quality Management, Second Edition and air quality complaints were mounting In 13 06, King Edward I attempted to drastically curtail the use of coal in London by passing a law stating that “no coal was to be burned... decades of the 20th and the first decade of the 21st century have air quality management strategies taken hold In the last 30 years, there have been significant reversals in earlier air quality trends from increasingly poor air quality to increasingly healthy air quality This change has come about as a result of dedicated people and of societal decisions to pursue clean air as a priority Most significant, . Forces 10 7 Patterns of High and Low Pressure 10 7 Friction 11 1 Horizontal and Vertical Air Patterns 11 1 Atmospheric Stability 11 1 Vertical Mixing 11 3 Horizontal Air Movements 11 3 Regional Air Pollution. United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number -1 0 : 0-8 49 3-7 099-X (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number -1 3 : 97 8-0 -8 49 3-7 09 9 -1 (Hardcover) is. Meteorology 11 5 Inversions 11 5 Types of Inversions 11 5 Southern California — The Classic Example 11 7 Sea and Land Breezes 11 7 Other Dispersive Characteristics of the Atmosphere 11 9 Valley Effects 11 9 Chimney