Mercury Hazards to Living Organisms - Chapter 5 ppsx

P ART 2 Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Abiotic Materials, Plants, and Animals © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 47 C HAPTER 5 Mercury Concentrations in Abiotic Materials Mercury burdens in sediments and other nonbiological materials are estimated to have increased up to five times prehuman levels, primarily as a result of anthropogenic activities (USNAS, 1978). Maximum increases are reported in freshwater and estuarine sediments and in freshwater lakes and rivers, but estimated increases in oceanic waters and terrestrial soils have been negligible (USNAS, 1978). Methylmercury accounts for a comparatively small fraction of the total mercury found in sediments, surface waters, and sediment interstitial waters of Poplar Creek, Tennessee, which was initially contaminated with mercury in the 1950s and 1960s. Mercury measurements in Poplar Creek from 1993 to 1994 showed that methylmercury accounted for 0.01% of the total mercury in sediments, 0.1% in surface waters, and 0.3% in sediment interstitial waters (Campbell et al., 1998). The residence time of mercury in nonbiological materials is variable, and depends on a number of physicochemical conditions. Estimated half-time residence values for mercury are 11 days in the atmosphere, 1000 years in terrestrial soils, 2100 to 3200 years in ocean waters, and more than 250 million years in oceanic sediments (USNAS, 1978; Boudou and Ribeyre, 1983; Clarkson et al., 1984); however, this estimate was only 1 month to 5 years for water from the contaminated Saguenay River in Quebec (Smith and Loring, 1981). This chapter documents mercury concentrations in air, coal, pelagic clays, sediments, sewage sludge, snow, soils, suspended particulate matter, seawater, freshwater, groundwater, and sediment interstitial waters from selected geographic locales. 5.1 AIR Most (up to 59.1%) of the mercury contributed to the atmosphere each year is from anthropogenic sources such as combustion of fossil fuels from power plants, with natural sources such as oceans, land runoff, and volcanoes contributing almost all the remainder (Table 5.1). Atmospheric concentrations of total mercury in the northern hemisphere are about three times higher than those sampled in the southern hemisphere owing to greater sources from human activities in the comparatively industrialized and populated north (Lamborg et al., 1999). Different mercury species are dominant at different Japanese locations. For example, in 1977 to 1978, Hg 2+ was the dominant species in air over hot springs, volcanoes, and urban centers; however, Hg o was dominant in air over chloralkali plants and rural areas (Takizawa et al., 1981; Table 5.2). Enrichment of toxic metals in respirable particulate matter emissions from a coal-fired power plant in Central India is documented, especially for mercury that was enriched 4.8 times over the coal (Sharma and Pervez, 2004; Table 5.2). © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 48 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 5.1 Contributions to Atmospheric Mercury from Natural and Anthropogenic Sources Source (% of total) a Mercury Concentration or Emission Estimated Amount of Mercury Discharged into Global Atmosphere per Year (metric tons) Ref. b Volcanoes (1.0–1.4) 28.0–1400.0 ng/m 3 60 1–3 Land (16.7–22.7) 1.0–6.0 ng/m 3 1000 2, 4, 5 Mines (0.2–2.3) 1.0–5000.0 ng/m 3 10–100 4, 6–9 Oceans (13.3–45.4) 1.0–3.0 ng/m 3 800–2000 5, 10 Anthropogenic (33.3–59.1) 10.0–900.0 kg/year c 2000–2600 5, 10, 11 a The estimated total amount of mercury contributed to the atmosphere worldwide ranges between 4400 and 6000 metric tons annually; mercury concentrations in the atmosphere usually range between 1.0 and 2.0 ng/m 3 (Porcella, 1994; Lamborg et al., 2000; Gray, 2003). b Reference: 1, Fitzgerald, 1989; 2, Varekamp and Buseck, 1986; 3, Ferrara et al., 1994; 4, Gustin et al., 1994; 5, Mason et al., 1994; 6, Ferrara et al., 1991; 7, Ferrara et al., 1998; 8, Gustin et al., 1996; 9, Gustin et al., 2000; 10, Lamborg et al., 2000; 11, USEPA, 2000. c Range of mercury emissions from power plants in the United States (USEPA, 2000). Table 5.2 Mercury Concentrations in Selected Abiotic Materials Material (units) Concentration Ref. a Air (ng/m 3 ) Atmosphere over open ocean; total mercury: Southern hemisphere, 60 °S 1.0 25 Northern hemisphere 3.0 25 India; near a large coal-fired power station: Respirable suspended particulate matter 50.0 31 Nonrespirable suspended particulate matter 30.0 31 Flyash 28.0 31 Japan: Remote areas < 5.0–20.0 12 Urban areas 85.0–100.0 12 Japan; 1977–1978; maximum values: Over open volcanoes (southern Japan) vs. over hot springs (northern Japan): Particulate mercury 2.0 vs. 1.0 27, 29 Hg 2+ 368.0 vs. 126.0 29 CH 3 Hg + 19.0 vs. 9.0 27, 29 Hg o 97.0 vs. 21.0 29 (CH 3 ) 2 Hg 9.0 vs. 5.0 29 Urban vs. rural: Particulate mercury 0.0 vs. 1.0 27 Hg 2+ 44.0 vs. 33.0 27 CH 3 Hg + 38.0 vs. 8.0 27 Hg o 10.0 vs. 30.0 27 (CH 3 ) 2 Hg 5.0 vs. 6.0 27 Over chloralkali plant: Particulate mercury 0.0 27 Hg 2+ 80.0 27, 29 CH 3 Hg + 34.0 27 Hg o 61.0 27 (CH 3 ) 2 Hg 17.0 27 Siberia, 1992–1993; summer vs. winter: Gaseous 0.7–2.3 vs. 1.2–6.1 14 Particulate 0.005–0.02 vs. 0.02–0.09 14 MERCURY CONCENTRATIONS IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS 49 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Material (units) Concentration Ref. a Coal (mg/kg dry weight = DW) Bituminous 0.07 10 Lignite 0.12 10 Sub-bituminous 0.03 10 Various mean 0.2; rarely >1.0 33 Pelagic Clays (mg/kg fresh weight) 430 km southeast of San Diego, CA 0.39 18 Rock ( µg/kg DW) Limestone, Pennsylvania 9.0 (4.0–14.0) 36 Shale, eastern Canada 42.0 37 Sediments, Mercury-Contaminated Areas (mg/kg DW) Near chloralkali plant: Quebec, Canada 12.0 3 Norway 250.0 (90.0–350.0) 4 Thailand 8.0–58.0 5 Near gold mining operations b : South Dakota 0.1–4.1 6 Australia 120.0 7 Ecuador (cyanide extraction facility); 1988; dry season 0.1–5.8 c 28 Near mercury-fungicide plant: Denmark 22.0 8 Near offshore oil fields: Southeastern Brazil; 1998–1999 vs. reference locations 0.036–0.047 (0.013–0.08) vs. 0.01–0.05 21 Near acetaldehyde plant: Minamata Bay, Japan b 28.0–713.0 4 Near pulp and paper mill: Finland 746.0 9 Tennessee; Oak Ridge; 1993–1994; contaminated in mid-1950s to early 1960s; methylmercury vs. total mercury Max. 0.012 vs. 0.6–140.0 15 Sediments, Uncontaminated Areas (mg/kg DW) Adriatic Sea 0.13–1.5 17 Lakes 0.1–0.3 12 Marine 0.05–0.08 12 Rivers: < 0.05 12 North Central United States 0.02–0.06, max. 0.11 6 South Dakota 0.02–0.1 6 Thailand 0.03 5 Finland 0.02 5 Various lakes Usually < 10.0, frequently < 1.0 4 Wisconsin: Deep precolonial strata 0.04–0.07 13 Top 15 cm 0.09–0.24 13 Sewage Sludge (mg/kg DW) 50 publicly owned treatment works (POTW), United States 2.8 23 74 POTW, Missouri 3.9 (0.6–130.0) 23 (continued) Table 5.2 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Selected Abiotic Materials 50 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 5.2 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Selected Abiotic Materials Material (units) Concentration Ref. a Snow (ng/L) Arctic Alaska 1.5–7.5 35 Siberia, 1992—1993: Total mercury 8.0–60.0 14 Methylmercury 0.1–0.25 14 Soils ( µg/kg DW) Ribeiro Preto, Brazil; vicinity solid waste landfill site: 2002 vs. 2003 < 25.0 vs. 50.0 22 0–500 m from site vs. 200 m from site 50.0 (20.0–80.0) vs. 50.0 22 Critical limit for Brazilian agricultural soils < 2500.0 22 China; contaminated by mercury-containing wastewater from acetaldehyde factory; about 135 tons of mercury discharged into Zhuja River between 1970 and 2000: Quingshen City; high contamination area vs. low contamination area: Total mercury 61,400.0, max. 329,900.0 vs. 7,000.0, max. 98,300.0 26 Methylmercury 45.0, max. 65.1 vs. 5.8, max. 43.6 26 Lanchong reference site: Total mercury 110.0, max. 1780.0 26 Methylmercury 2.3, max. 7.0 26 Jakobstad, Finland: Humus: Rural 303.0 (116.0–393.0) 20 Urban 280.0 (150.0–1028.0) 20 Urban Topsoil 93.0 (11.0–2,309.0) 20 Subsoil 44.0 (< 5.0–540.0) 20 Forest soils; total mercury vs. methylmercury: Humus 100.0–250.0 vs. 0.2–0.5 24 Mineral horizon 15.0–30.0 vs. < 0.05 24 Jamaica; agricultural soils 221.0 (max. 830.0) 32 United Kingdom; near combustion plants; top soils (0–15 cm) vs. subsurface soils (15–30 cm): Coal-fired power plant with flue gas desulfurization system (FGD): Total Hg 297.0 vs. 86.0 16 Elemental Hg 95.0 vs. 64.0 16 Exchangeable Hg 2.0 vs. 1.0 16 Organic Hg 5.0 vs. 5.0 16 Hg sulfide 185.0 vs. 11.0 16 Residual Hg 10.0 vs. 4.0 16 Coal-fired power plant without FGD system: Total Hg 495.0 vs. 135.0 16 Elemental Hg 193.0 vs. 107.0 16 Exchangeable Hg 2.0 vs. 3.0 16 Organic Hg 3.0 vs. 4.0 16 Hg sulfide 245.0 vs. 16.0 16 Residual Hg 51.0 vs. 4.0 16 Waste incinerator: Total Hg 1470.0 vs. 2310.0 16 Elemental Hg 446.0 vs. 1950.0 16 Exchangeable Hg 9.0 vs. 3.0 16 Organic Hg 5.0 vs. 4.0 16 Hg sulfide 869.0 vs. 310.0 16 Residual Hg 136.0 vs. 33.0 16 MERCURY CONCENTRATIONS IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS 51 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Table 5.2 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Selected Abiotic Materials Material (units) Concentration Ref. a Crematorium: Total Hg 392.0 vs. 680.0 16 Elemental Hg 193.0 vs. 480.0 16 Exchangeable Hg 5.0 vs. 3.0 16 Organic Hg 5.0 vs. 2.0 16 Hg sulfide 182.0 vs. 180.0 16 Residual Hg 6.0 vs. 14.0 16 Suspended Particulate Matter (mg/kg DW) Germany, Elbe River, 1988, mercury-contaminated by chloralkali plants: Total mercury 30.0; max. 150.0 11 Methylmercury 2.7 11 Reference site, total mercury 0.4 11 Water (ng/L) Coastal seawater < 20.0 2 Drainage water from mercury mines; California: Total mercury 450,000.0 34 Methylmercury 70.0 34 Estuarine seawater < 50.0 2 Freshwater; Ecuador; near cyanide extraction gold mining facility; 1988; dry season 2.2–1100.0 d 28 Freshwater, surface: Arctic Canada 0.23–0.76 38 Arctic Russia 0.30–1.00 39 Finland 1.3–7.2 40 Lake Superior 0.49 41 High-altitude lakes, United States 1.07 42 Northern Minnesota 0.2–3.2 43 Glacial waters 10.0 2 Groundwater 50.0 2 Groundwater; southern Nevada; 190 km NW of Las Vegas; Amaragosa Desert; Aug.–Sept. 2002: Unfiltered 11.9 (0.4–36.7) 19 Filtered 5.4 (< 0.22–15.7) 19 Japan; Akita area; June–July 1978; maximum values Rain Total Hg 15.2 30 Inorganic Hg 14.3 30 Organic Hg 0.9 30 Lake water vs. river water Total Hg 13.8 vs. 21.1 30 Inorganic Hg 8.8 vs. 9.0 30 Organic Hg 5.5 vs. 12.1 30 Lake water: Siberia, Lake Baikal, summer 1992–1993: Total mercury 0.14–0.77 14 Methylmercury max. 0.038 14 Sweden: Total mercury 1.4–15.1 12 Methylmercury 0.04–0.8 12 United States: Total mercury 0.4–10.7 12 Methylmercury 0.03–0.64 12 (continued) 52 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC In general, mercury concentrations were low in the atmosphere over the open ocean (1 to 3.0 ng/m 3 ), up to 100.0 ng/m 3 in the air of large cities, and highest (495.0 ng/m 3 , 74.0% Hg 2+ ) in the atmosphere over open volcanoes (Table 5.2). Table 5.2 (continued) Mercury Concentrations in Selected Abiotic Materials Material (units) Concentration Ref. a Open ocean 5.3 (3.1–7.5) 1 Open ocean < 10.0 2 Rainwater: Open ocean 1.0 2 Coastal ocean 10.0 2 Continents Often > 50.0 2 Siberia, 1992–1993: Total mercury 3.0–20.0 14 Methylmercury 0.1–0.25 14 Sweden: Total mercury 7.5–89.7 12 Methylmercury 0.04–0.6 12 Rivers and lakes 10.0, max. 50.0 2 River water: Canada, Ottawa River: Total mercury 4.6–9.8 12 Methylmercury 1.6–2.8 12 Japan: Total mercury 19.3–25.9 12 Methylmercury 5.8–7.0 12 Siberia, 1992–1993: Total mercury Max. 2.0 14 Methylmercury Max. 0.16 14 United States, Connecticut River: Total mercury 45.0 12 Methylmercury 21.0 12 Seawater: Japan: Total mercury 3.2–12.5 12 Methylmercury 0.2–1.0 12 United States, New York Total mercury 47.0–78.0 12 Methylmercury 25.0–33.0 12 Sediment interstitial water: Total mercury 100.0–600.0 12, 15 Methylmercury 2.0 15 a Reference: 1, Nishimura and Kumagai, 1983; 2, Fitzgerald, 1979; 3, Smith and Loring, 1981; 4, Skei, 1978; 5, Suckcharoen and Lodenius, 1980; 6, Martin and Hartman, 1984; 7, Bycroft et al., 1982; 8, Kiorboe et al., 1983; 9, Paasivirta et al., 1983; 10, Chu and Porcella, 1995; 11, Wilken and Hintelmann, 1991; 12, Hamasaki et al., 1995; 13, Rada et al., 1989; 14, Meuleman et al., 1995; 15, Campbell et al., 1998; 16, Panyametheekul, 2004; 17, Vucetic et al., 1974; 18, Williams and Weiss, 1973; 19, Cizdziel, 2004; 20, Peltola and Astrom, 2003; 21, Lacerda et al., 2004; 22, Segura-Munoz et al., 2004; 23, Beyer, 1990; 24, Nater and Grigal, 1992; 25, Lamborg et al., 1999; 26, Matsuyama et al., 2004; 27, Takizawa et al., 1981; 28, Tarras-Wahlberg et al., 2000; 29, Takizawa, 1995; 30, Minagawa and Takizawa, 1980; 31, Sharma and Pervez, 2004; 32, Howe et al., 2005; 33, Finkelman, 2003; 34, Rytuba, 2003; 35, Snyder- Conn et al., 1997; 36, McNeal and Rose, 1974; 37, Cameron and Jonasson, 1972; 38, Semkin et al., 2005; 39, Coquery et al., 1995; 40, Verta et al., 1994; 41, Hurley et al., 2002; 42, Krabbenhoft et al., 2002; 43, Monson and Brezonik, 1998. b This subject is covered in greater detail later. c Sediment criterion for aquatic life protection in Ecuador is < 0.45 mg Hg/kg DW (Tarras-Wahlberg et al., 2000). d Freshwater criterion for aquatic life protection in Ecuador is < 100.0 ng Hg/L (Tarras-Wahlberg et al., 2000). MERCURY CONCENTRATIONS IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS 53 5.2 COAL Mercury concentrations were highest in lignite coal (0.12 mg/kg DW), lowest in sub-bituminous coal (0.03 mg/kg DW), and intermediate (0.07 mg/kg DW) in bituminous coal samples measured (Table 5.2). More recent information (Finkelman, 2003) indicates that coal contains, on average, 0.2 mg Hg/kg and may contain as much as 1.0 mg/kg. Most of the mercury in coal is associated with arsenic-bearing pyrite; other forms include organically bound mercurials, elemental mercury, and mercuric sulfides and selenides. In coal samples with low pyrite, mercury selenides may be the primary form (Finkelman, 2003). It is noteworthy that installation of available pollution control technology can significantly lower mercury concentrations in surface soils near coal-fired power plants in the United Kingdom. Thus, surface soils near a coal-fired power plant with a flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system contained 0.297 mg total Hg/kg DW vs. 0.495 mg total Hg/kg DW in a coal-fired power plant without FGD, a 40.0% reduction (Panyametheekul, 2004; Table 5.2). 5.3 SEDIMENTS Much of the mercury that enters freshwater lakes is deposited in bottom sediments (Rada et al., 1993). Sedimentary pools of mercury in these lakes greatly exceed the inventories of mercury in water, seston, and fish, and the release of mercury from the sediments would significantly increase bioavailability and uptake. The dry weight mercury concentrations of sediments seem to under- represent the significance of the shallow water sediments as a reservoir of potentially available mercury when compared to the mass per volume of wet sediment, which more accurately portrayed the depth distribution of mercury in Wisconsin seepage lakes (Rada et al., 1993). The increase in the mercury content of recent lake sediments in Wisconsin is attributed to increased atmospheric deposition of mercury, suggesting that the high mercury burdens measured in gamefish in certain Wisconsin lakes originated from atmospheric sources (Rada et al., 1989). Levels of mercury in sediments can be reflected by an increased mercury content in epibenthic marine fauna. For example, mercury concentrations in sediments near the Hyperion sewer outfall in Los Angeles, which ranged up to 820.0 µg/kg and decreased with increasing distance from the outfall, were reflected in the mercury content in crabs, scallops, and whelks. Concentrations of mercury were highest in organ- isms collected nearest the discharge, and lowest in those collected tens of kilometers away (Klein and Goldberg, 1970). In sediments that were anthropogenically contaminated with mercury, concentrations were significantly elevated (usually > 20.0 mg/kg) when compared with uncontaminated sediments (usually < 1.0 mg/kg; Table 5.2). Significant mercury enrichment in sediments of Newark Bay, New Jersey, may represent a hazard to aquatic life (Gillis et al., 1993). In Finland, sediments near a pulp and paper mill — where mercury was used as a slimicide — contained up to 746.0 mg Hg/kg dry weight (Paasivirta et al., 1983; Table 5.2). In Florida, methylmercury in sediments from uncontaminated southern estuaries in 1995 accounted for 0.77% of the total mercury and was not correlated with total mercury or organic content of sediments (Kannan et al., 1998). 5.4 SEWAGE SLUDGE Concentrations of total mercury in sewage sludge from 74 publicly owned treatment works in Missouri ranged from 0.6 to 130.0 mg/kg DW (Beyer, 1990; Table 5.2), this strongly indicates that sewage sludge applications to agricultural soils should be carefully monitored. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 54 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS 5.5 SNOW AND ICE Total mercury concentrations in Siberian snow ranged between 8.0 and 60.0 ng/L; the maximum methylmercury concentration was 0.25 ng/L (Table 5.2). Mercury concentrations in Arctic ice 4000 to 12,000 years ago during the precultural period were about 20.0% that of present-day concentrations; however, 13,000 to 30,000 years ago during the last glacial period, they were about five times higher than precultural levels (Vandal et al., 1993). Ice cores taken in Wyoming representing the 270-year period from 1715 to 1985 demonstrate that annual concentrations between 1715 and 1900 were usually less than 5.0 ng/L, except for volcanic eruptions in 1815 (Tambora; up to 15.0 ng/L) and 1883 (Krakatoa; up to 25.0 ng/L), and the California gold rush between 1850 and 1884 (up to 18.0 ng/L) (Atkeson et al., 2003). Between 1880 and 1985, mercury concentrations ranged up to 10.0 ng/L annually (1880 to 1950) due to industrialization and World War II manufacturing (1939 to 1945), up to 30.0 ng/L owing to the eruption of Mount St. Helena in 1980, and around 15.0 ng/L for the remainder due to increased industrialization (Atkeson et al., 2003). 5.6 SOILS In general, soil mercury concentrations were higher in the vicinity of acetaldehyde plants, solid waste landfill sites, urban areas, coal-fired power plants, waste incinerators, and crematoriums (Table 5.2). The highest mercury concentrations recorded in soils were from receiving mercury- containing wastes of a Chinese acetaldehyde plant. These soils contained up to 329.9 mg total mercury (0.045 mg methylmercury)/kg dry weight vs. up to 1.78 mg total mercury/kg dry weight from reference sites (Matsuyama et al., 2004; Table 5.2). Jamaican agricultural soils contained up to 0.83 mg total mercury/kg DW, mean 0.221 mg/kg DW (Table 5.2). This was far in excess of Danish and Canadian guidelines for mercury in crop soils (i.e., < 0.007 mg/kg DW) (Howe et al., 2005). Jamaican soils also exceeded Danish and Canadian proposed limits for arsenic, cadmium, copper, and chromium in agricultural soils (Howe et al., 2005). Total mercury concentrations in surface soils near combustion plants range from 0.3 to 1.47 mg/kg DW, and in subsurface soils from 0.09 to 2.3 mg/kg DW (Panyametheekul, 2004; Table 5.2). Total mercury in both topsoils and subsoils is dominated by elemental mercury and mercuric sulfide, with increasing sulfur content in soil associated with increasing HgS. Solubility and pH conditions also influence the occurrence and distribution of mercury in soils near combustion plants (Panyametheekul, 2004). Uptake from the soil is probably a significant route for the entrance of mercury into vegetation in terrestrial ecosystems. In Italy, elevated mercury concentrations in soils near extensive cinnabar deposits and mining activities were reflected in elevated mercury concentrations in plants grown on those soils (Ferrara et al., 1991). Mercury concentrations in tissues of different species of vascular plants growing on flood plain soils at Waynesboro, Virginia, were directly related to soil mercury concentrations that ranged between < 0.2 and 31.0 mg Hg/kg DW soil (Cocking et al., 1995). In a study conducted in Fulton County, Illinois, it was shown that repeated applications of sewage sludge to land will significantly increase the concentration of mercury in surface soils (Granato et al., 1995). However, 80.0 to 100.0% of the mercury remained in the top 15 cm and was not bioavailable to terrestrial vegetation. The authors concluded that models developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency overpredict the uptake rates of mercury from sludge-amended soils into grains and animal forage, and need to be modified (Granato et al., 1995). © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC MERCURY CONCENTRATIONS IN ABIOTIC MATERIALS 55 5.7 WATER Mercury-sensitive ecosystems are those where comparatively small inputs or inventories of total mercury (i.e., 1.0 to 10.0 g Hg/ha) result in elevated concentrations of methylmercury in natural resources. These systems are characterized by efficient conversion of inorganic mercuric mercury to methylmercury sufficient to contaminate aquatic and wildlife food webs (Brumbaugh et al., 1991; Spry and Wiener, 1991; Bodaly et al., 1997; Heyes et al., 2000; Wiener et al., 2003). Known sensitive ecosystems include surface waters adjoining wetlands (St. Louis et al., 1994; Gilmour et al., 1998); low-alkalinity or low-pH lakes (Spry and Wiener, 1991; Watras et al., 1994; Meyer et al., 1995); wetlands (St. Louis et al., 1996; Plourde et al., 1997); and flooded terrestrial areas (Kelly et al., 1997). In southern Nevada groundwaters, mercury concentrations were usually less than 20.0 ng/L in unfiltered samples and less than 10.0 ng/L in filtered samples. Mining activities in southern Nevada have not significantly increased mercury concentrations in groundwater, as was the case in parts of northern Nevada (Cizdziel, 2004). In seawater, most authorities agree that mercury exists mainly bound to suspended particles (Jernelov et al., 1972); that the surface area of the sediment granules is instrumental in determining the final mercury content (Renzoni et al., 1973); that mercury conversion and transformation occur in the surface layer of the sediment or on suspended particles in the water (Dean, 1972; Fagerstrom and Jernelov, 1972; Jernelov et al., 1972); and, finally, that mercury-containing sediments require many decades to return to background levels under natural conditions (Langley, 1973). High concentrations of methylmercury in sub-thermocline, low-oxygen seawater were significantly and positively correlated with median daytime depth (< 200 m to > 300 m) of eight species of pelagic fishes; mean total mercury concentrations in whole fishes ranged between 57.0 and 377.0 µg/kg DW. The enhanced mercury accumulations in the marine mesopelagic compartment is attributable to diet and ultimately to water chemistry that controls mercury speci- ation and uptake at the base of the food chain (Monteiro et al., 1996). Total mercury concentrations in uncontaminated natural waters (presumably unfiltered) now range from about 1.0 to 50.0 ng/L (Table 5.2). Concentrations as high as 1100.0 ng/L are reported in freshwaters near active gold mining facilities in Ecuador (Tarras-Wahlberg et al., 2000; Table 5.2), and up to 450,000.0 ng/L in drainage water from abandoned mercury mines in California (Rytuba, 2003; Table 5.2). Mercury and methylmercury from mercury mine drainage is adsorbed onto iron-rich precipitates and seasonally flushed in streams during periods of high water (Rytuba, 2003). Max- imum concentrations of 89.7 ng/L in Swedish rain, 78.0 ng total mercury (47.0 ng methylmercury)/L in coastal seawater of New York, and 600.0 ng/L in sediment interstitial waters are documented (Table 5.2). Suspended particulate matter in the Elbe River, Germany, contained up to 150.0 mg total mercury (2.7 mg methylmercury)/kg dry weight as a result of mercury-contaminated wastes from a chloralkali plant (Wilken and Hintelmann, 1991; Table 5.2). 5.8 SUMMARY Maximum concentrations of mercury recorded were less than 50.0 ng/L in uncontaminated natural waters; 60.0 ng/L in snow; 78.0 ng/L in coastal seawater; 89.7 ng/L in rain; 600.0 ng/L in groundwater; 1100.0 ng/L in freshwaters near active gold mining sites; 450,000 ng/L in drainage water from mercury mines; 495.0 ng/m 3 in air over Japanese volcanoes (74.0% as Hg 2+ ); 0.12 to 1.0 mg/kg dry weight in coal; 0.39 mg/kg fresh weight in pelagic clays; 130.0 mg/kg dry weight in Missouri, U.S., sewage sludge; 150.0 mg total mercury (2.7 mg methylmercury)/kg dry weight suspended particulate matter in water contaminated by chloralkali wastes in Germany; 329.9 mg © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...].. .56 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS total mercury/ kg dry weight (0.0 45 mg methylmercury/kg dry weight) in soils contaminated by mercury- containing wastewater from a Chinese acetaldehyde plant; and 746.0 mg/kg dry weight in sediments near a Finnish pulp and paper mill where mercury was used as a slimicide REFERENCES Atkeson, T., D Axelrad, C Pollman, and G Keeler 2003 Integrating Atmospheric Mercury. .. model of global-scale mercury biogeochemistry with interhemispheric atmospheric gradients, Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 66, 11 05 1118 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 58 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS Lamborg, C.H., K.R Rolfhus, W.F Fitzgerald, and G Kim 1999 The atmospheric cycling and air-sea exchange of mercury species in the South and equatorial Atlantic Ocean, Deep-Sea Res., 46, 957 –977 Langley,... Serious mercury contamination of sediments in a Norwegian semi-enclosed bay, Mar Pollut Bull., 9, 191–193 Smith, J.N and D.H Loring 1981 Geochronology for mercury pollution in the sediment of the Saguenay Fjord, Quebec, Environ Sci Technol., 15, 94 4-9 51 Snyder-Conn, E., J.R Garbarino, G.L Hoffman, and A Oelkers 1997 Soluble trace elements and total mercury in Arctic Alaskan snow, Arctic, 50 , 201–2 15 Spry,... rocks and soils in Pennsylvania, Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 38, 1 757 –1784 Meuleman, C., M Leermakers, and W Baeyens 19 95 Mercury speciation in Lake Baikal, Water Air Soil Pollut., 80, 53 9 55 1 Meyer, M.W., D.C Evers, T Daulton, and W.E Braselton 19 95 Common loons (Gavia immer) nesting on low pH lakes in northern Wisconsin have elevated blood mercury content, Water Air Soil Pollut., 80, 871–880 Minagawa,... Fish Aquat Sci., 50 , 8 65 873 Rada, R.G., J.G Wiener, M.R Winfrey, and D.E Powell 1989 Recent increases in atmospheric deposition of mercury to north-central Wisconsin lakes inferred from sediment analyses, Arch Environ Contam Toxicol., 18, 1 75 181 Renzoni, A., E Bacci, and L.Falciai 1973 Mercury concentration in the water, sediments and fauna of an area of the Tyrrhenian Coast Pages 17– 45 in 6th International... incineration plant, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil, Bull Environ Contam Toxicol., 73, 57 5 58 2 Semkin, R.G., G Mierle, and R.J Neureuther 20 05 Hydrochemistry and mercury cycling in a high Arctic watershed, Sci Total Environ., 342, 199–221 Sharma, R and S Pervez 2004 A case study of spatial variation and enrichment of selected elements in ambient particulate matter around a large coal-fired power station in central... R.E Keislar 1996 Atmospheric mercury concentrations associated with geologically and anthropogenically enriched sites in central western Nevada, Environ Sci Technol., 30, 257 2– 257 9 Hamasaki, T., H Nagase, Y Yoshioka, and T Sato 19 95 Formation, distribution, and ecotoxicity of methylmetals of tin, mercury, and arsenic in the environment, Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol., 25, 45 91 Heyes, A., T.R Moore, J.W.M... Pollution: Integration and Synthesis, p 153 –177 Lewis Publ., Boca Raton, FL Wiener, J.G., D.P Krabbenhoft, G.H Heinz, and A.M Scheuhammer 2003 Ecotoxicology of mercury In D.J.Hoffman, B.A Rattner, G.A Burton Jr., and J Cairns Jr (Eds.), Handbook of Ecotoxicology, 2nd edition, p 409–463 Lewis Publ., Boca Raton, FL Wilken, R.D and H Hintelmann 1991 Mercury and methylmercury in sediments and suspended particles... inorganic and organic mercury in natural waters by cold-vapor atomic absorption spectrometry after preconcentration on a chelating resin, Anal Chim Acta, 1 15, 103–110 Monson, B.A and P.L Brezonik 1998 Seasonal patterns of mercury species in water and plankton from softwater lakes in northeastern Minnesota, Biogeochemistry, 40, 147–162 Monteiro, L.R., V Costa, R.W Furness, and R.S Santos 1996 Mercury concentrations... organochlorine compounds and mercury in clean and polluted lakes of Finland, Chemosphere, 12, 239– 252 Panyametheekul, S 2004 An operationally defined method to determine the speciation of mercury, Environ Geochem Health, 26, 51 57 Peltola, P amd M Astrom 2003 Urban geochemistry: a multimedia and multielement survey of a small farm in northern Europe, Environ Geochem Health, 25, 397–419 Plourde, Y., M Lucotte, . sludge applications to agricultural soils should be carefully monitored. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 54 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS 5. 5 SNOW AND ICE Total mercury concentrations. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 56 MERCURY HAZARDS TO LIVING ORGANISMS total mercury/ kg dry weight (0.0 45 mg methylmercury/kg dry weight) in soils contaminated by mercury- containing wastewater from. 12 Seawater: Japan: Total mercury 3.2–12 .5 12 Methylmercury 0.2–1.0 12 United States, New York Total mercury 47.0–78.0 12 Methylmercury 25. 0–33.0 12 Sediment interstitial water: Total mercury 100.0–600.0 12, 15 Methylmercury