18 Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil David V. Nakles, David A. Dzombak, Rajat S. Ghosh, George M. Wong-Chong, and Thomas L. Theis CONTENTS 18.1 U.S. Regulations, Guidelines and Criteria for Cyanide in Water 352 18.1.1 Drinking Water 355 18.1.2 Surface Water and Groundwater 359 18.1.3 Federal Wastewater Discharge Standards 360 18.1.3.1 Effluent Guidelines and Standards 360 18.1.3.2 Specific Characteristics of Guidelines/Standards 361 18.1.4 Groundwater (RCRA and CERCLA) 362 18.1.4.1 Groundwater (RCRA) 371 18.1.4.2 Groundwater (CERCLA) 372 18.2 U.S. Regulations, Guidelines, and Criteria for Soil, Sediment, and Process Residuals 372 18.2.1 Soil and Process Residuals 372 18.2.1.1 Listed Wastes 373 18.2.1.2 Characteristic Wastes 373 18.2.2 Sediment 373 18.3 International Regulatory Standards and Guidelines for Cyanide in Water and Soil 375 18.3.1 Water 376 18.3.1.1 Drinking Water 376 18.3.1.2 Surface Water 376 18.3.1.3 Groundwater 377 18.3.2 Soil 378 18.3.3 Sediment 378 18.4 Technical/Regulatory Issues 380 18.4.1 Lack of Consistency: Analytical Methods and Regulations 380 18.4.2 Cyanide Transformation in the Environment 381 18.4.3 Cyanide Toxicological Database 381 18.4.4 Cyanide as a CERCLA Hazardous Substance 382 18.5 Summary and Conclusions 382 References 383 Various forms of cyanide in water and soil have been regulated in the United States and elsewhere for many years, dating back to the beginning of the environmental era of the early 1970s. The primary driver for regulating cyanide, of all forms, is the acute human and ecological toxicity associated with hydrogen cyanide. The toxicological effects of this compound on humans and animals have been 351 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC extensively examined and are well understood (see Chapters 13–15). However, it is also understood 352 Cyanide in Water and Soil that cyanide may exist in a number of different chemical forms, none of which are as toxic as hydrogen cyanide. In fact, several forms of cyanide are known to exist naturally in the environment or approved for regulatory use relatively recently. These circumstances have led to fairly conservative cyanide regulations for soil and water that are in many cases based on the concentration of total cyanide. That is, many regulations do not discrim- inate among the various forms of cyanide that may be present. This was a reasonable approach for regulating cyanide-impacted media in the 1970s, given the previous state of the analytical methods and the potential for specific nontoxic forms of cyanide to release hydrogen cyanide under certain environmental conditions. However, as the science for the detection of cyanide species and the under- standing of the fate of these species in the environment has evolved, modifications to the regulatory framework have begun to be implemented at both the state and Federal levels in the United States, and in other countries as well. This chapter presents a summary of the U.S. environmental regulations that address the forms of cyanide that may be present in a soil or water matrix. A brief examination of some water and soil regulations for cyanide in other countries is also provided. At the Federal level in the United States, cyanide in water and soil is regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), and the Resource Conservation and Recov- ery Act (RCRA). The regulations promulgated under these acts by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) havesetforthspecific standards and criteria for cyanide in receiving water, drinking water, wastewaters, soil, and various wastes. Spills of regulated hazardous substances that contain cyanide may also invoke the requirements of Superfund, that is, the Comprehensive Environmental Response and Liability Act, or CERCLA. At the same time, there are number of state regulations that address cyanide, most of which have been derived from the existing Federal legislation. In addition to summarizing the regulations, this chapter also discusses a number of technical issues that can, and often do, complicate the strict application of the regulations. These issues can be grouped under the topics of cyanide speciation, cyanide analytical methods, environmental transformation of cyanide, and cyanide toxicology. Each of these topics is also discussed in more detail in other chapters of this book. 18.1 U.S. REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA FOR CYANIDE IN WATER Water quality-related standards and guidelines for cyanide in the United States are voluminous authority (national or state), regulatory focus (surface water, drinking water, wastewater), health effects target (human or aquatic life), cyanide form (total, free, complexed, amenable), if specified, summarizes such categories as they are defined by selected states. A complete listing of all health- related cyanide standards as of 1997 can be found in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services report on the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide [1]. A review of the information contained in Tables 18.1–18.4 reveals several features of interest. First, criteria for cyanide vary significantly depending on the designated use for the water. These criteria also reflect the large differential toxicities that cyanide compounds can exhibit among tar- get organisms. For instance, numerical standards related to human consumption and exposure are generally considerably higher than those for sensitive aquatic organisms. Further, the most sensitive organism can vary depending on the specific aquatic environment (e.g., marine vs. fresh waters, or cold vs. warm waters). Second, in recognition of the toxicity differences among cyanide spe- cies (regardless of target organism), many criteria attempt to differentiate among chemical forms © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC and to serve as a source of nitrogen in the natural life cycle of plants and other organisms (Chapters 3 and 12). Analytical methods for the detection of these different forms of cyanide have been developed and complex. Tables 18.1–18.4 present a summary of this information according to the governing and water usage or origin. State criteria are often assigned based on water usage category. Table 18.5 Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 353 TABLE 18.1 National USEPA Guidelines for Cyanide Description Limit (µg/l) Designation 1-Day Health Advisory Child 220 Cyanide 10-Day Health Advisory Child 220 Cyanide Lifetime Health Advisory Adult 200 Cyanide Longer-term Health Advisory Child 200 Cyanide Adult 800 Cyanide Maximum contaminant level Copper cyanide, cyanide, potassium silver cyanide, sodium cyanide 200 Maximum contaminant level goal Cyanide, potassium silver cyanide, sodium cyanide, potassium cyanide 200 Copper cyanide 1300 Ambient water quality criteria for human health Potassium silver cyanide, sodium cyanide, potassium cyanide, copper cyanide (water and fish) 200 Ambient water quality criteria for aquatic organisms Sodium cyanide, potassium cyanide Freshwater acute 22 Freshwater chronic 5.2 Marine acute 1 Copper cyanide Freshwater acute 9.2 Freshwater chronic 6.5 Marine acute 2.9 Proposed rule: Great Lakes system water quality standards Acute water quality criteria for protection of aquatic life 22 Free cyanide Chronic water quality criteria for protection of aquatic life 5.2 Free cyanide Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997. of cyanide, sometimes by specifically listing them (e.g., free cyanide, copper cyanide, potassium cyanide), or by specifying an operational class of cyanide compounds as measurable by an analytical procedure (e.g., cyanide amenable to chlorination). Third, and perhaps most critically, the degree of specificity among cyanide compounds and chemical forms listed among the various standards, when viewed collectively across national and state criteria, is inconsistent with available approved analytical methodologies; that is, many more chemical forms are recognized as being of importance than current approved analytical methods can accommodate. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 354 Cyanide in Water and Soil TABLE 18.2 State Human Health Standards for Cyanide State Description Limit (µg/l) Designation Arizona Drinking water guideline 220 Domestic water source (DWS) 140 Total cyanide Fish consumption (FC) 210,000 Total cyanide Full body contact (FBC) 3,100 Total cyanide Partial body contact (PBC) 3,100 Total cyanide Colorado 200 Connecticut Degree of treatment Disinfection and chemical 10 Complete 200 Maximum permissible level 200 District of Columbia Class C 3 Class D 200 Florida Domestic/drinking 200 MCL (Maximum contaminant level) 200 Criteria for surface waters, Class I–V 5.0 Iowa MCL Class B waters 5 Class C waters 20 Illinois MCL 200 Idaho MCL 200 Indiana Continuous (4-day average) Point of water intake 200 Kansas Drinking water guideline 154 Kentucky MCL: domestic water supply 200 Free cyanide Massachusetts Drinking water guideline 140 Maine Drinking water guideline 154 Michigan Domestic/drinking 150 Free cyanide Minnesota Drinking water guideline 154 Class A and B waters 10 (CN) Class D waters 200 (CN) New Hampshire Drinking water guideline 154 MCL 10 (CN) Municipal/domestic 200 New Jersey Domestic/drinking 200 Groundwater quality: 200 New Mexico Groundwater 200 (CN) New York Domestic/drinking 100 Groundwater Effluent Standards: maximum allowable concentration 400 Surface waters and groundwater A, A-S, AA, AA-S 100 GA 100 North Carolina Class GSA groundwater 154 Ohio 30-day average 200 Oklahoma Maximum allowable levels 200 Oregon Domestic/drinking 200 Rhode Island Drinking water guideline 150 Tennessee Domestic/drinking 200 Utah MCL 200 Free cyanide Virginia Groundwater 5 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 355 TABLE 18.2 Continued State Description Limit (µg/l) Designation Vermont Drinking water standard 154 Class A or B waters 200 Wyoming MCL — groundwaters 200 Wisconsin Public water supplier Warmwater sport fish communities 600 Total cyanide Cold water communities 600 Total cyanide Great Lakes communities 600 Total cyanide Nonpublic water supplier Warmwater sport fish communities 40,000 Total cyanide Cold water communities 40,000 Total cyanide Warmwater forage and limited forage 120,000 Total cyanide Groundwater Enforcement standard 200 Prevention action limit 40 West Virginia Water quality criteria Warm water fishery streams 5 Free cyanide Trout waters 5 Free cyanide Small nonfishable streams 5 Free cyanide Water contact, recreation 5 Free cyanide Water supply, public 5 Free cyanide Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1987. 18.1.1 DRINKING WATER The national water quality criterion for the protection of human health, that is, the maximum con- taminant level or MCL, developed by the USEPA, is 200 micrograms per liter (µg/l), measured also designated the maximum contaminant level goal, or MCLG, for cyanide in drinking water. The concentration limit was derived based on the assumption that an adult can ingest 0.02 mg of cyanide per kilogram of body weight per day without causing an unacceptable adverse health effect. This acceptable dose was determined based on a study in which 10 female and 10 male rates were provided a range of cyanide doses (delivered as sodium cyanide) in drinking water for 13 weeks [1]. Note that copper cyanide has an MCLG (1300 µg/l) that is much higher than that of free cyanide. This elevated MCLG is indicative of the difference in toxicity between this form of cyanide and those typically included as part of the free cyanide, that is, hydrogen cyanide, potassium cyanide, potassium silver cyanide, and sodium cyanide. Table 18.1 also lists other health-related cyanide standards, all of which were abstracted from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services report on the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide explicitly designated as applicable to either children or adults; however, none of these advisories designate the specific formofthecyanide to which they apply. The health advisories for children range from 200 (Longer-term Health Advisory) to 220 µg/l (1- and 10-day health advisories) of cyanide; only a Longer-term Health Advisory of 800 µg/l and a Lifetime Health Advisory of 200 µg/l are specified for adults. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC as free cyanide (see Table 18.1). This value was developed under the SDWA; the same value is (Table 7.1, [1]). These standards are referenced as Health Advisories and include levels that are 356 Cyanide in Water and Soil TABLE 18.3 State Aquatic Life Standards for Cyanide State Description Limit (µg/l) Designation Alabama Freshwater:acute 22.0 Freshwater: chronic 5.2 Marine: acute 1.0 Marine: chronic — Arizona Acute criteria for aquatic & wildlife Cold water fishery (A&Wc) 22.0 T (total recoverable) Warm water fishery (A&Ws) 41.0 T Effluent dominated water (A&Wedw) 41.0 T Ephemeral (A&We) 84.0 T Chronic criteria for aquatic & wildlife A&Wc 5.2 T A&Ws 9.7 T A&Wedw 9.7 T A&We 19.0 T Florida Criteria for surface water, Class I-V 5.0 Hawaii Freshwater: acute (ecological standard) 22 Freshwater: chronic (ecological standard) 5.2 Saltwater: acute (ecological standard) 1.0 Saltwater: chronic (ecological standard) 1.0 Indiana Acute aquatic criterion 22.0 Continuous (4-day average) outside of mixing zone: chronic aquatic criterion 5.2 Kentucky Maximum allowable instream conc Chronic (ecological standard) 5 Free cyanide Acute (ecological standard) 22 Free cyanide Maryland Ambient surface waters Freshwater: acute 22.0 Freshwater: chronic 5.2 Estuarine: acute — Estuarine:chronic — Saltwater: acute 1.0 Saltwater: chronic — Minnesota Class A, B, C waters 20.0 (CN) Mississippi Freshwater: acute 22.0 Freshwater: chronic 5.2 Saltwater: acute 1.0 Saltwater: chronic 1.0 Missouri Chronic toxicity 5.0 Amenable to chlorination Acute toxicity 22.0 Amenable to chlorination Nevada Single value 52.0 24-h average 3.5 Propagation of wildlife 5.0 New York Surface waters & groundwaters A, A-S, AA, AA-S, B, C 5.2 D 22.0 SA, SB, SC 1.0 SD 1.0 North Dakota Class I streams 5.0 Total cyanides North Carolina Freshwater 5.0 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 357 TABLE 18.3 Continued State Description Limit (µg/l) Designation Puerto Rico Coastal estuarine waters 20.0 Surface waters 20.0 Oklahoma Acute 45.93 Chronic 10.72 Ohio Outside mixing zone (maximum) Cold water 46.0 Free cyanide Limited resource warm water 22.0 Free cyanide 30-day average cold water 5.2 Free cyanide Inside mixing zone (maximum) Cold water 45.0 Limited resource warm water 92.0 Virginia Freshwater 5.2 Total cyanide Saltwater 1.0 Total cyanide Vermont Acute 22.0 Chronic 5.2 Wyoming Special A waters 5.0 Wisconsin Great Lakes 22.4 Free cyanide Cold water 22.4 Free cyanide Warm water sport fish 46.2 Free cyanide All others 46.2 Free cyanide Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997. TABLE 18.4 Miscellaneous State Standards for Cyanide State Description Limit (µg/l) Designation Water quality: agricultural uses Arizona Agricultural irrigation (AgI) No numerical standard Livestock watering (Ag L) 200 Total recoverable Nevada Ag L 200 Hazardous constituents Indiana Allowable concentration using leaching test method: Class IV 200 Class III 2000 Class II 5000 Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 358 Cyanide in Water and Soil TABLE 18.5 Selected State Water Classifications Florida Class I — Potable water supplies Class II — Shellfish propagation or harvesting Class III — Recreation, propagating, and maintenance of healthy, well-balanced population of fish and wildlife Class IV — Agricultural water supplies ClassV—Navigation, utility, and industrial use Minnesota Class 1 — Domestic consumption Class 2 — Aquatic life and recreation New Jersey GW1 — Ground water of special ecological significance GW2 — Ground water for potable water supply GW3 — Ground water with uses other than potable water supply New York Class N — fresh surface waters Class A, AA, Special (AA-S) — fresh surface waters (drinking) Class B — fresh surface waters (primary and secondary contact) Class C, D — fresh surface waters (fishing) Class SA — saline surface waters (fish propagation and survival) Class SB — saline surface waters (primary and secondary contact) Class SC — saline surface waters (fishing) Class I — saline surface waters (secondary contact recreation) Class SD — saline surface waters (fish survival) Class GA — fresh groundwaters (drinking) Class GSA — saline groundwaters (potable mineral waters) Class GSB — saline groundwaters (receiving waters) North Carolina Class GA — groundwaters (drinking water) Class GSA — groundwaters; usage and occurrence (potable mineral waters) Class GC — groundwaters; usage and occurrence (nondrinking uses) Vermont Class A(1) — Ecological waters Class A(2) — Public water supplies Class B — Cold and warm water fish habitats Wyoming Special A waters — Suitable for fish and aquatic life Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997. a greater degree of variability in the concentrations of cyanide that are acceptable in drinking water. An examination of all 50 states reveals that most states do adopt, in some manner, the national MCL of 200 µg/l free cyanide. However, there are often variations from this value based on a specific classification of the water that is being consumed. For example, Arizona has a drinking water guideline of 220 µg/l free cyanide but also has a standard of 140 µg/l of total cyanide for domestic water sources (DWS). Similarly, Massachusetts and Maine have drinking water guidelines © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC A review of the human health standards and guidelines for various states (Table 18.2) indicates Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 359 of 140 and 154 µg/l, respectively, although they do not indicate the form of cyanide that should be measured. New Hampshire has a similar drinking water guideline (i.e., 154 µg/l) but also has its own MCL of 10 µg/l, measured as [CN]. This value represents the lowest human-health water quality standard for cyanide that exists among all of the 50 states. 18.1.2 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER Section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act requires USEPA to develop and publish ambient water quality criteria for selected pollutants, of which cyanide is one. Ambient surface water quality criteria for aquatic organisms are provided to protect against both chronic and acute toxicological effects. Simply stated, acute toxicity is toxicity that occurs very rapidly, for example, minutes to hours, after exposure whereas chronic toxicity occurs only after exposure over long periods of time, for example, days to years. The chronic and acute ambient water criteria for cyanide in freshwater are 5.2 and 22 µg/l, respectively, expressed as free cyanide (as CN). These criteria were developed criteria. However, the same is not true for saltwater criteria, which are 1.0 µg/l for both chronic and acute toxicity. These criteria are at or below the detection limit for available analytical meth- the saltwater criteria, Cancer irroratus, is uncommon and atypically sensitive [2]. This issue is examined in detail in Chapter 14, where the aquatic toxicity database underlying the national ambi- ent water quality criteria for cyanide is summarized and critiqued. Surface water quality criteria are also defined specifically for copper cyanide with values of 9.2, 6.5, and 2.9 µg/l respect- ively, for acute and chronic effects in freshwater and both acute and chronic effects in saltwater The Clean Water Act also directs USEPA to develop ambient water quality criteria for protection of human health, especially for exposure through consumption of fish and also including incidental water consumption, for example, through recreation activities. The criteria are developed using a methodology that incorporates a set of standard data and approaches for evaluating exposure and health risk [3]. The human health water quality criteria for cyanide were revised in 2003 [4]. The criterion for both “consumption of water and organism” and “consumption of organism only” is 140 µg/l total cyanide. It is noted in the USEPA criteria document [3] that the recommended water quality criterion is expressed as total cyanide even though the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) reference dose used to derive the criterion is based on free cyanide. USEPA notes that “if a substantial fraction of the cyanide present in a water body is present in complexed form (e.g., Fe 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 3 ), this recommended criterion may be overly conservative.” Typical examples of these categories include potable water supplies, recreational use, agricultural water supplies, groundwater, saline/fresh surface water, and cold/warm water fish habitats, to name a few. A review of the state aquatic life protection criteria in Table 18.3 reveals a range of concentra- tions for total cyanide and total recoverable cyanide (1.0 µg/l [saltwater/acute and chronic effects (several states); New York: selected freshwater effects] to 84 µg/l [Arizona]); cyanide amenable to chlorination (Several states: 5 µg/l [chronic toxicity] to 22 µg/l [acute toxicity]), and free cyanide (5.2 µg/l [Ohio: 30-day average cold water] to 46.2 µg/l [Wisconsin: warm water sport fish and all others]). Cyanide water quality criteria for groundwater are not common. Those that do exist usually treat the groundwater as either a potential drinking water or as a potential source to an adjacent surface water. In the former instance, the criteria are usually based onthe MCL or 200 µg/l of freecyanide. In the latter case, the criteria approach those concentrations that will be protective of aquatic organisms, that is, approximately 5 µg/l (Virginia). New York is an exception and has a maximum allowable concentration of 400 µg/l of cyanide (unspecified form) as a groundwater effluent standard. Many © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC based on trout toxicity data (Chapter 14). There is little debate about the validity of these freshwater ods (Chapter 7). Further, some have suggested that the test organism used by the USEPA to derive (see Table 18.1). State surface water criteria are often assigned based on water usage categories (Tables 18.3–18.5). 360 Cyanide in Water and Soil states have developed groundwater quality guidelines for cyanide in the context of contaminated site remediation, however, as discussed in subsequent sections on RCRA and CERCLA. 18.1.3 FEDERAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGE STANDARDS The ambient water quality criteria provide guidance to states in adopting water quality standards, which ultimately provide a basisforcontrollingdischarges or releases of pollutants intothewaterways of the nation. The limits associated with these discharges or releases are set in the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits established under the authority of the Clean Water Act. Ambient water quality criteria that are derived to address site-specific situations are not included as part of this Federal regulation. 18.1.3.1 Effluent Guidelines and Standards Cyanide has been regulated inindustrial wastewater discharges for many years. Under the direction of the Clean Water Act, the USEPA has developed effluent guidelines and standards for a large number of specific industries. These guidelines and standards are technology-based, that is, they are based on a projection of the effluent quality that will be produced by applying the best available treatment (BAT) technology to the typical wastewater that is generated by the specified industrial category. (Another category of treatment technologies is the best practical treatment or BPT. BPT differs from BAT in that the former gives some consideration to the cost of treatment.) These discharge standards have been developed for a total of 56 industry categories and are presented in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR, Subchapter N, Parts 400 to 471). The discharge of some chemical form of evaluations for the industrial categories listed in Table 18.6 are implemented as part of the NPDES permit system, which requires a permit for all discharges to the surface waters of thenation. Permitted discharges must comply with the discharge limits that are prescribed for the appropriate industrial categories. State environmental agencies usually administer the NPDES program for the USEPA. In issuing a discharge permit, a state has the authority to stipulate either BAT limits or more stringent water quality limits, depending on the classification of the receiving water body. There is another set of discharge standards for these industrial categories which applies when the treated effluent is discharged to a publicly owned treatment facility, or POTW, prior to the discharge to a surface water body. These standards are known as pretreatment standards and were developed taking into consideration that some degree of treatment of the regulated contaminants would occur in the POTW. Two sets of standards exist for discharges to POTWs: (1) Pretreatment standards for new sources (PSNS) and (2) Pretreatment standards for existing sources (PSES). The differences in these standards reflect the assumption that new sources of wastewater are expected to generate reduced loads of contaminants as a result of improved or more efficient upstream process operations. Generally, these standards are essentially the same as BAT limits. For discharges to POTWs, pretreatment discharge limits may be based on PSES or PSNS limits or more stringent water quality limits, as dictated by NPDES requirements for the POTW. The Pollution Prevention Act, passed in 1990, is aimed at helping industry reduce or prevent pol- lution at the source, with one benefit being improved compliance with wastewater effluent guidelines and limits. USEPA was directed to provide technical assistance to businesses and to promote source reduction with industry. In response, USEPA developed initiatives with many different industries. In the context of reducing the volume and environmental impact of industrial wastewater discharges, the Agency initiated collaborations, for example, with the electroplating and metals manufacturing industries. Efforts of these industries in source reduction have yielded progress. In the years ahead there will be increasing focus on modification of manufacturing processes as part of wastewater © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC cyanide is regulated in 13 of these industrial categories, listed in Table 18.6. Treatment technology [...]... CYANIDE IN WATER AND SOIL Regulations paralleling those of the United States have been developed in most other industrialized countries for managing discharges of contaminants to water and land, for establishing acceptable concentrations of contaminants in drinking water and surface water, and for guiding cleanup of © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Cyanide in Water and Soil 376 TABLE 18. 10 Selected... countries for cyanide in water and soil are briefly examined 18. 3.1 WATER 18. 3.1.1 Drinking Water Maximum acceptable concentrations (MAC) for free cyanide in drinking water that have been established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and various countries around the world are listed in Table 18. 11 As seen there, the MAC for free cyanide in Canada, 200 µg/l, is the same as the MCL in the United... manufacturing, and metal finishing • In the United States and elsewhere, groundwater and soil quality guidelines and standards have been developed in the context of contaminated land remediation Forms of cyanide are commonly detected at contaminated sites As national groundwater and soil quality standards have not been developed in the United States, individual states have been active in developing such... methods as they relate to determining regulatory compliance © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 381 18. 4.2 CYANIDE TRANSFORMATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT The inconsistency between the regulations and guidelines and available analytical methods is further exacerbated by uncertainties in the fate of cyanide in wastewaters and receiving waters, that is, the role of photolysis... confusion in the interpretation and use of water and soil regulations for cyanide • The current use of the term cyanide( s)” in many water and soil quality regulations in the United States and elsewhere is confusing by not defining the specific cyanide species being regulated © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 383 • The maximum acceptable concentration of free cyanide. .. of product (30-day average) 0.00569 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day max) 0.00190 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average) Cyanide in Water and Soil NSPS Iron/steel manufacturingd (1) By-product coke making (iron and steel) Cyanide form Standard,b PSNS (b) Cathode reprocessing operated with wet potline scrubbing (c) Potline wet air pollution control operated with cathode reprocessing Total cyanide 157.6... EPA-ROD/RO 3-8 5-0 12, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3, Philadelphia, PA, 1985 17 USEPA, EPA’s contaminated sediment management strategy, EPA-823-R-9 8-0 01, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 1998 18 USEPA, The incidence and severity of sediment contamination in surface waters of the United States, EPA-823-R-0 4-0 07, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Science and. .. of Cyanide in Water and Soil 361 TABLE 18. 6 USEPA Industrial Wastewater Discharge Categories that Include Effluent Standards for Cyanide Electroplating Organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibers Inorganic chemicals manufacturing Iron and steel manufacturing Nonferrous metals manufacturing Steam electric power generation Ferroalloy manufacturing Pharmaceutical manufacturing Photographic processing... used in establishing these guidelines and standards As cyanide is a frequently occurring subsurface contaminant [14], it is frequently included in state lists of guidelines and standards These lists are available via the Internet; an excellent compendium is available at cleanuplevels.com [15] In Pennsylvania, for example, © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 372 Cyanide in Water and Soil groundwater... facility, concrete bunker, or vault In the context of RCRA and CERCLA, the states have been very active in developing guidelines and standards for soil remediation A wide range of approaches has been used in establishing these guidelines and standards As cyanide is a frequently occurring subsurface contaminant [14], it is frequently included in state lists of guidelines and standards These lists are available . for Cyanide in Water 352 18. 1.1 Drinking Water 355 18. 1.2 Surface Water and Groundwater 359 18. 1.3 Federal Wastewater Discharge Standards 360 18. 1.3.1 Effluent Guidelines and Standards 360 18. 1.3.2. domestic water supply 200 Free cyanide Massachusetts Drinking water guideline 140 Maine Drinking water guideline 154 Michigan Domestic/drinking 150 Free cyanide Minnesota Drinking water guideline. and Guidelines for Cyanide in Water and Soil 375 18. 3.1 Water 376 18. 3.1.1 Drinking Water 376 18. 3.1.2 Surface Water 376 18. 3.1.3 Groundwater 377 18. 3.2 Soil 378 18. 3.3 Sediment 378 18. 4 Technical/Regulatory