Juvelite was made in Germany by condensing the phenol and formaldehyde with the aid of mineral acids, and Laccain was made under an English patent by using organic acids as catalysts. A Russian phenol resin, under the name of Karbolite, employed an equal amount of naphthalenesulfonic acid, C 10 H 7 SO 3 H, with the formaldehyde. The hundreds of different phenolic molding compounds can be divided into six groups on the basis of major performance characteris- tics. General-purpose phenolics are low-cost compounds with fillers such as wood flour and flock, and they are formulated for noncritical functional requirements. They provide a balance of moderately good mechanical and electrical properties and are generally suitable in temperatures up to 300°F (149°C). Impact-resistant grades are higher in cost. They are designed for use in electrical and structural compo- nents subject to impact loads. The fillers are usually paper, chopped fabric, or glass fibers. Electrical grades, with mineral fillers, have high electrical resistivity plus good arc resistance, and they retain their resistivity under high-temperature and high-humidity condi- tions. Heat-resistant grades are usually mineral- or glass-filled com- pounds that retain their mechanical properties in the 375 to 500°F (190 to 260°C) temperature range. Some of these, such as phenylsi- lanes, provide long-term stability at temperatures up to 550°F (288°C). Special-purpose grades are formulated for service applica- tions requiring exceptional resistance to chemicals or water, or combi- nations of conditions such as impact loading and a chemical environment. The chemical-resistant grades, for example, are inert to most common solvents and weak acids, and their alkali resistance is good. Nonbleeding grades are compounded specially for use in con- tainer closures and for cosmetic cases. The resins are marketed usually in granular form, partly polymer- ized for molding under heat and pressure, which complete the poly- merization, making the product infusible and relatively insoluble. They may also come as solutions, or compounded with reinforcing fillers and pigments. The tensile strength of a molded part made form a simple phenol-formaldehyde resin may be only about 6,000 lb/in 2 (41 MPa), with a specific gravity of 1.27 and dielectric strength of about 450 V/mil (17.7 ϫ 10 6 V/m). Reinforcement is needed for higher strength, and with a wood-flour filler the tensile strength may be as high as 10,000 lb/in 2 (69 MPa). With a fabric filler the tensile strength may be 15,000 lb/in 2 (103 MPa), or 18,000 lb/in 2 (124 MPa) with a mineral filler. The specific gravity is also raised, and the mineral fillers usually increase the dielectric strength. Proper balance of fillers is important, since too large a quantity may produce brittleness. Organic fillers absorb the resin and tend to 700 PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses brittleness and reduced flexural strength, although organic fibers and fabrics generally give high impact strength. Wood flour is the usual filler for general-service products, but prepared compounds may have mineral powders, mica, asbestos, organic fibers, or macerated fabrics, or mixtures of organic and mineral materials. Bakelite was the origi- nal name for phenol plastics, but trade names now usually cover a range of different plastics, and the types and grades are designated by numbers. The specific gravity of filled phenol plastics may be as high as 1.70. The natural color is amber, and because the resin tends to discolor, it is usually pigmented with dark colors. Normal phenol resin cures to single-carbon methylene groups between the phenolic groups, and the molded part tends to be brittle. Thus, many of the innumerable varia- tions of phenol are now used to produce the resins, and modern phe- nol resins may also be blended or cross-linked with other resins to give higher mechanical and electrical characteristics. Furfural is fre- quently blended with formaldehyde to give better flow, lower specific gravity, and reduced cost. The alkylated phenols give higher physical properties. Phenol-phosphor resin is a phenol resin modified with phosphonitrilic chloride. When cured, the resin contains 15% phos- phorus, 6 nitrogen, and less than 1 chlorine. The tensile strength is 7,000 lb/in 2 (48 MPa), and it withstands continuous temperatures to 500°F (260°C). Phenol resins may also be cast and then hardened by heating. The cast resins usually have a higher percentage of formaldehyde and do not have fillers. They are poured in a syrupy state in lead molds and are hardened in a slow oven. Instead of making phenolic resins by polymerizing phenol formalde- hyde using an acid catalyst, Enzymol International Inc. uses a peroxi- dase enzyme obtained from soybeans to polymerize phenols in an aqueous solution of organic solvents at 122 to 140°F (50 to 60°C). Hydrogen peroxide is added to activate the enzyme. PHONOLITE. Also known as clinkstone. An aluminum-potassium- silicate mineral used in the production of glass, and in Germany for the production of aluminum. Phonolite is a variety of feldspar. It varies greatly in composition, the best of the Eifel Mountains mineral containing 20 to 23.25% alumina, 7 to 9 K 2 O, 6 to 8 Na 2 O, and 50 to 52 silica. A variety of this mineral, nepheline, from the Kòla Peninsula, is used in Russia to produce aluminum, with soda and potash as by-products. Nepheline syanite from Peterborough Co., Ontario, Canada, is used in the ceramic industry in pottery, porcelain, and tile to increase translucency and reduce warpage and crazing. From 3 to 5% added to structural clay increases the mechanical strength. As a substitute for potash feldspar in wall tiles, it increases PHONOLITE 701 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses the fluxing action and lowers the fusing point. Agalmatolite, a name derived from the Greek words meaning image stone, is the massive form of phonolite from which the Chinese carve figures and bas- reliefs. It has a soft, greasy feel and varies in color. PHOSGENE. The common name for carbonyl chloride, COCl 2 , a colorless, poisonous gas made by the action of chlorine on carbon monoxide. It was used as a poison war gas, called D-stoff by the Germans and collongite by the French. But it is now used in the manufacture of metal chlorides and anhydrides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, isocyanate resins, and for blending in synthetic rubbers. It liquefies at 45.7°F (7.6°C) and solidifies at Ϫ180°F (Ϫ118°C). It is decomposed by water. When chloroform is exposed to light and air, it decomposes into phosgene. One part in 10,000 parts of air is a toxic poison, causing pulmonary edema. For chemical warfare it is com- pressed into a liquid in shells. Lacrimite, also a poison war gas, is thiophosgene mixed with stannic chloride. Diphosgene, ClCOOC и Cl 3 , called green cross, superpalite, and perstoff, is an oily liquid boiling at 262°F (128°C). It is an intense lachrymator, has an asphyxi- ating odor, and is a lung irritant. Because of its toxicity, most phosgene is produced and employed immediately in captive applications by Dow Chemical Co., Du Pont Co., and BASF AG. The biggest use of the material is for toluene diisocyanate (TDI), which is then reacted into polyurethane resins for foams, elastomers, and coatings. Approximately 1.4 tons (1.3 met- ric tons) of phosgene is needed to make 1.1 tons (1 metric ton) of TDI. About 0.99 ton (0.9 metric ton) of phosgene is consumed to make 1.1 tons (1 metric ton) of polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate, also used for making polyurethane resins for rigid foams. Polycarbonate manufacturers require 0.46 ton (0.42 metric ton) of phosgene per ton (0.91 metric ton) of product resin. Polycarbonate is used for making break-resistant housings, signs, glazings, and electrical tools. Phosgene also is a reactant for methyl isocyanate, diphenyl- methane-4,4-isocyanate, acyl chloride, chloroformate esters, diethyl carbonate, and dimethyl carbamoyl chloride. The iso- cyanates are used in pesticides, and the di- and polyisocyanates are used in adhesives, coatings, and elastomers. PHOSPHOR BRONZE. Copper-base alloys with low phosphorus con- tent, originally called steel bronze when first produced at the Royal Arsenal in Vienna. It was 92–8 bronze deoxidized with phosphorus and cast in an iron mold. It is now any bronze deoxidized by the addi- tion of phosphorus to the molten metal. It may or may not contain residual phosphorus in the final state. Ordinary bronze frequently 702 PHOSGENE Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses contains cuprous oxide formed by the oxidation of the copper during fusion. By the addition of phosphorus, a powerful reducing agent, a complete reduction of the oxide takes place. Phosphor bronzes have excellent mechanical and cold-working properties and low coefficients of friction, making them suitable for springs, diaphragms, bearing plates, and fasteners. In some environments, such as salt water, they are superior to copper. Phosphor bronzes have been known by many trade names, including Duraflex, a hard-rolled strip and wire prod- uct for springs; Carbobronze, hard-drawn tubing and rod for bear- ings; Corvic, a spring grade with a tensile strength of 95,000 lb/in 2 (655 MPa) and an electrical conductivity of 42% that of copper; and Telnic, a 1% nickel, 0.5 tellurium, 0.2 phosphorus grade. So-called white phosphor bronze is not a bronze, but a 72% lead, 15 phos- phor tin, 12 antimony, 1 copper alloy. Standard wrought phosphor bronzes are designated C50100 to C54800. Tin, which ranges from as much as 0.8 to 11% depending on the alloy, is the principal alloying element, although leaded alloys may contain as much lead (4 to 6%, for example) as tin. Phosphorus content is typically on the order of 0.1 to 0.35%; zinc, 0 to 0.3 (1.5 to 4.5% in C54400); iron, 0 to 0.1; and lead, 0 to 0.05 (0.8 to 6 in leaded alloys). The principal alloys were formerly known by letter designations represent- ing nominal tin content: phosphor bronze A, 5% tin (C51000); phos- phor bronze B, 4.75 tin (C53200); phosphor bronze C, 8 tin (C52100); phosphor bronze D, 10 tin (C52400); and phosphor bronze E, 1.25 tin (C50500). Phosphor bronze E, being almost 99% cop- per, is one of the leanest of these bronzes in the way of alloying ingredi- ents and is used for electrical contacts, pole-line hardware, and flexible tubing. Its electrical conductivity is about half that of copper, and it is readily formed, soldered, brazed, and flash-welded. Thin, flat products have tensile yield strengths ranging from about 12,000 lb/in 2 (83 MPa) in the annealed condition to 75,000 lb/in 2 (517 MPa) in the extra-spring temper. More highly alloyed C54400 (4% tin, 4 lead, and 3 zinc, nomi- nally) is about one-fifth as electrically conductive as copper, has good forming characteristics, and has 80% the machinability of C36000, a free-machining brass. Its ultimate tensile strength ranges from about 48,000 lb/in 2 (331 MPa) in the annealed condition to 100,000 lb/in 2 (690 MPa) in the extra-spring temper. Uses include bearings, bushings, gear shafts, valve components, and screw-machine products. An alloy C94400, which has been called a phosphor bronze, is suitable for sand castings and centrifugal castings. The nominally 81% copper, 11 lead, 8 tin alloy is 10% as electrically conductive as copper and, as sand-cast, has a typical ultimate tensile strength of 32,000 lb/in 2 (221 MPa) and a tensile yield strength of 16,000 lb/in 2 (110 MPa). It matches the machin- ability of C54400 and is used mainly for bushings and bearings. PHOSPHOR BRONZE 703 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses PHOSPHOR COPPER. An alloy of phosphorus and copper, used instead of pure phosphorus for deoxidizing brass and bronze, and for adding phosphorus in making phosphor bronze. It comes in 5, 10, and 15% grades and is added directly to the molten metal. It serves as a powerful deoxidizer, and the phosphorus also hardens the bronze. Even slight additions of phosphorus to copper or bronze increase fatigue strength. Phosphor copper is made by forcing cakes of phos- phorus into molten copper and holding until the reaction ceases. Phosphorus is soluble in copper up to 8.27%, forming Cu 3 P, which has a melting point of about 1305°F (707°C). A 10% phosphor copper melts at 1562°F (850°C) and a 15% at about 1872°F (1022°C). Alloys richer than 15% are unstable. Phosphor copper is marketed in notched slabs or in shot. In Germany phosphor zinc was used as a substitute to conserve copper. Metallophos is a name for German phosphor zinc containing 20 to 30% phosphorus. The name phosphor copper is also applied to commercial copper deoxidized with phospho- rus and retaining up to 0.50% phosphorus. The electrical conductivity is reduced about 30%, but the copper is hardened and strengthened. Phosphor tin is a master alloy of tin and phosphorus used for adding to molten bronze in the making of phosphor bronze. It usually contains up to 5% phosphorus and should not contain lead. It looks like antimony, with large glittering crystals, and is marketed in slabs. PHOSPHORIC ACID. Also known as orthophosphoric acid. A color- less, syrupy liquid of composition H 3 PO 4 used for pickling and rust- proofing metals; for the manufacture of phosphates, pyrotechnics, and fertilizers; as a latex coagulant; as a textile mordant; as an acidulat- ing agent in jellies and beverages; and as a clarifying agent in sugar syrup. The specific gravity is 1.65 and melting point 164°F (73.6°C), and it is soluble in water. The usual grades are 90, 85, 75%, technical 50%, and dilute 10%. As a cleanser for metals, phosphoric acid pro- duces a light etch on steel, aluminum, or zinc, which aids paint adhe- sion. Deoxidine is a phosphoric acid cleanser for metals. Nielite D is phosphoric acid with a rust inhibitor, used as a nonfuming pickling acid for steel. Albrite, from Albright & Wilson Americas, is available in 75, 80, and 85% concentrations in food and electronic grades, both high-purity specifications. DAB and Phosbrite, also from the same company, are called Bright Dip grades, for cleaning applications. Phosphoric anhydride, or phosphorus pentoxide, P 2 O 5 , is a white, water-soluble powder used as a dehydrating agent and as an opalizer for glass. It is also used as a catalyst in asphalt coatings to prevent softening at elevated temperatures and brittleness at low temperatures. Granusic is this material in granular form for remov- ing water from gas streams. Production of phosphoric acid is by diges- tion of apatite ore, a tricalcium phosphate, with sulfuric acid, and 704 PHOSPHOR COPPER Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses purification. For industrial grades, white phosphorus or yellow phosphorus is burned in excess air, and the resulting phosphorus pentoxide is hydrated. PHOSPHORUS. A nonmetallic element, symbol P, widely diffused in nature and found in many rock materials, in ores, in the soil, and in parts of animal organisms. Commercial phosphorus is obtained from phosphate rock by reduction in the electric furnace with carbon, or from bones by burning and treating with sulfuric acid. Phosphate rock occurs in the form of land pebbles and as hard rock. It is plenti- ful in the Bone Valley area of Florida, and it also comes from Tennessee, Idaho, and South Carolina. Vast quantities are mined in Morocco and Tunisia. Large deposits are found on many of the Pacific Islands, the Christmas Island resources being estimated at 30 ϫ 10 6 tons (27 ϫ 10 6 metric tons) and those on Nauru at 100 ϫ 10 6 tons (91 ϫ 10 6 metric tons). It is a calcium phosphate high in P 2 O 5 . The min- eral apatite, widely distributed in the Appalachian range, in Idaho, Brazil, and French Oceania, is also a source of phosphorous, contain- ing up to 20% P 2 O 5 , with iron oxide and lime. The Egyptian rock con- tains 62 to 70% tricalcium phosphate. The aluminocalceous phosphate rock of Senegal is treated to obtain a very soluble fertilizer known as phosphal. Florida hard phosphate rock contains 80% phos- phate of lime. A ton (0.9 metric ton) of phosphorus is obtained from 7.25 tons (6.58 metric tons) of rock, requiring 30 lb (14 kg) of elec- trodes and 11,850 kW of electricity. The Tennessee Valley Authority produces about 8 tons (7 metric tons) of expanded slag for each ton (0.9 metric ton) of phosphorus produced from the phosphate rock. The slag from the smelter is run onto a forehearth at about 2000°F (1093°C) and treated with water, high-pressure steam, and air. The expanded slag formed is crushed to 0.375-in (0.95-cm) size, bulking 50 lb/ft 3 (801 kg/m 3 ). It is called TVA slag and is used for making light- weight concrete blocks. The superphosphate used for fertilizers is made by treating phosphate minerals with concentrated sulfuric acid. It is not a simple compound, but may be a mixture of calcium acid phosphate, CaHPO 4 , and calcium sulfate. Nitrophosphate for fer- tilizer is made by acidulating phosphate rock with a mixture of nitric and phosphoric acids, or with nitric acid and then ammoniation and addition of potassium or ammonium sulfate. Such products are made by Cargill, Inc., and International Minerals & Chemicals Corp. Natural rock phosphate in finely ground form is also used as a fertil- izer for legume crops, but the untreated natural rock is not readily soluble and is thus not as quick-acting as a fertilizer. There are two common forms of phosphorus, yellow and red. The for- mer, also called white phosphorus, P 4 , is a light-yellow, waxlike solid, phosphorescent in the dark and exceedingly poisonous. Its specific PHOSPHORUS 705 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses gravity is 1.83, and it melts at 111°F (44°C). It is used for smoke screens in warfare and for rat poisons and matches. Yellow phospho- rus is produced directly from phosphate rock in the electric furnace. It is cast in cakes of 1 to 3 lb (0.45 to 1.36 kg) each. Red phosphorus is a reddish-brown, amorphous powder, having a specific gravity of 2.20 and a melting point of 1337°F (725°C). Red phosphorus is made by holding white phosphorus at its boiling point for several hours in a reaction vessel. Both forms ignite easily. Amorphous phosphorus, or crystalline black phosphorus, is made by heating white phosphorus for extended periods. It resembles graphite and is less reactive than the red or white forms, which can ignite spontaneously in air. Black phosphorus is made by this process by Atomergic Chemetals Corp. Phosphorus sulfide, P 4 S 3 , may be used instead of white phosphorus in making matches. Phosphorus pentasulfide, P 2 S 5 , is a canary-yel- low powder of specific gravity 1.30, or solid of specific gravity 2.0, con- taining 27.8% phosphorus, used in making oil additives and insecticides. It is decomposed by water. Phosphorus is an essential element in the human body, a normal person having more than a pound of it in the system, but it can be taken into the system only in certain compounds. Nerve gases used in chemical warfare contain phosphorus which combines with and inactivates the choline sterase enzyme of the brain. This enzyme con- trols the supply of the hormone which transmits nerve impulses, and when it is inactivated, the excess hormone causes paralysis of the nerves and cuts off breathing. Organic phosphates are widely used in the food, textile, and chemical industries. Tributyl phosphate, for example, is a colorless liquid, used as a plasticizer in plastics and as an antifoaming agent in paper coatings and textile sizings. Briquest is an organic phosphate from Albright & Wilson Inc. that is employed for scale and corrosion control, ore flotation, pigment dispersion, and detergents. Diethylchlorothiophosphate (DECTP) is a highly reactive intermediate chemical from Ethyl Corp. Flour and other foodstuffs are fortified with ferric phosphate, FePO 4 и 2H 2 O. Iron phosphate is used as an extender in paints. Tricalcium phos- phate, Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , is used as an anticaking agent in salt, sugar, and other food products and to provide a source of phosphorus. The trical- cium phosphate used in toothpastes as a polishing agent and to reduce the staining of chlorophyll has formula (10CaO и H 2 O и 3P 2 O 5 )3H 2 O and is a fine, white powder. Dicalcium phosphate, used in animal feeds, is precipitated from the bones used for making gelatin, but is also made by treating lime with phosphoric acid made from phosphate rock. Diammonium phosphate, (NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 , is a mildly alkaline, white, crystalline powder used in ammoniated denti- frices, for pH control in bakery products, in making phosphors and to prevent afterglow in matches, and for flameproofing paper. 706 PHOSPHORUS Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses For manufacturing operations, phosphorus is generally utilized in the form of intermediate chemicals, but the phosphorus used for dop- ing semiconductors and in electroluminescent coatings is 99.9999% pure. Phosphorus trichloride, PCl 3 , is an important chemical for making phosphites. It is a colorless liquid boiling at 169°F (76°C). It decomposes in water to form phosphorus and hydrochloric acid. Phosphorus oxychloride, POCl 3 , is a very reactive liquid used as a chlorinating agent and for making organic chemicals. In water it decomposes to form phosphoric and hydrochloric acids. Phosphorus thiochloride, PSCl 3 , is a yellowish liquid containing 18.5% phospho- rus and 18.6 sulfur. It is used for making insecticides and oil addi- tives. Phosphine, PH 3 , is produced by hydrolysis of a metal phosphide, such as calcium phosphide or aluminum phosphide. A toxic gas, it is widely used as a ligand in catalysis. PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE. A white, crystalline material of composition C 6 H 4 (CO) 2 O, with a melting point of 267°F (130.8°C), soluble in water and in alcohol. It is made by oxidizing naphthalene, or it is produced from orthoxylene derived from petroleum. BASF Corp. markets the product both as flake and in the molten state. It is used in the manu- facture of alkyd resins and for the production of dibutyl phthalate and other plasticizers, dyes, and many chemicals. Chlorinated phthalic anhydride is also used as a compounding medium in plastics. It is a white, odorless, nonhygroscopic, stable powder containing 50% chlo- rine. It gives higher temperature resistance and increased stability to plastics. Niagathal is a chlorinated phthalic anhydride of Niagara Alkali Co. Tetrahydrophthalic anhydride is a white, crystalline powder with a molecular weight of 152.1, melting at 212°F (100°C), used to replace phthalic anhydride where a lighter color is desired. It is produced by condensing butadiene with maleic anhydride. In syn- thetic resin coatings it gives higher adhesion. Terephthalic acid may be obtained as a by-product in the production of phthalic anhydride from petroleum. It has a long-chain alkyl group having an amide link- age on one end and a methyl ester on the other. It is used for produc- ing polyethylene terephthalate and other polyesters. The esters can also be made from dimethyl terephthalate, a molten material that burns readily when ignited. The dust can form explosive mixtures with air. The terephthalates are useful as textile and tire-cord fibers, plastic tape, and food-packaging polymers. Their sodium salt is used as a gelling agent for high-temperature lubricating greases for uses to 600°F (316°C). It forms fine crystallites of soft, flexible fibers in the grease. Oronite GA10 is this material. Isophthalic acid, made by oxidation of ethyl benzene and orthoxylene, produces alkyd paint resins of greater heat stability than phthalic anhydride. Maleic anhy- dride, (CHCO) 2 O, is a white, crystalline solid used to replace phthalic PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE 707 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses anhydride in alkyd resins to increase the hardness for baking enamels and to resist yellowing. Its use in papermaking, as sizing, is growing, as are markets in lubricating-oil additives, acidulation, where it is a flavoring agent, and agricultural chemicals. Maleic anhydride is also a building block for L-aspartame, used for making NutraSweet, the aspartame synthetic sweetener. Maleic anhydride was traditionally made from benzene, but n-butane has become the feedstock of choice because of its lower cost and because benzene is a carcinogen. In the United States, the transition was completed in the late 1980s. Recent uses for maleic anhydride, and maleic acid recovered from the cat- alytic oxidation of butane to maleic anhydride, are the production of chemical intermediates 1,4-butanediol (BDO), tetrahydrofuran (THF), and gammabutyrolactone (GBL). PIASSAVA. Also called Pará grass and monkey grass. A coarse, stiff, and elastic fiber obtained from a species of palm tree, Leopoldinia piassaba, of Brazil, used for making brushes and brooms. The plant has long beards of bristlelike fibers, which are combed out and cut off the young plants. These fibers sometimes reach a length of 4 ft (1.2 m). The soft, finer fibers are made into cordage, and the coarser ones are used for brushes. Piassava is very resistant to water. The fiber for brush manufacture is separated into three classes, the heavy fibers being known as bass, the medium as bassine, and the fine as palmyra. The bass is used for heavy floor sweeps. The fiber of the palm Attalea funifera, which grows in the state of Bahia, Brazil, and is also called piassava, is a harder and stronger material than the piassava of Amazonas. It is used for marine cordage and is resistant to salt water. A substitute for pias- sava is acury, from the leaves of the palm A. phalerata of Matto Grosso. It is used for cordage and brushes, and the coarser fibers are used for brooms. PICKLING ACIDS. Acids used for pickling, or cleaning castings or metal articles. The common pickling bath for iron and steel is com- posed of a solution of sulfuric acid and water, 1 part acid to 5 to 10 parts water being used. This acid attacks the metal and cleans it of the oxides and sand by loosening them. For pickling scale from stain- less steels a 25% cold solution of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid is used, or hydrofluoric acid with the addition of anhydrous ferric sulfate is used. Hydrofluoric acid solutions are sometimes used for pickling iron castings. This acid attacks and dissolves away the sand itself. For bright-cleaning brass, a mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid is used. For a matte finish the mixed acid is used with a small amount of zinc sulfate. Copper and copper alloys can be pickled with sulfuric 708 PIASSAVA Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses acid to which anhydrous ferric sulfate is added to speed the action, or sodium bichromate is added to the sulfuric acid to remove red cuprous oxide stains. Brass forgings are pickled in nitric acid to bring out the color. Since all of these acids form salts rapidly by the chemi- cal action with the metal, they must be renewed with frequent addi- tions of fresh acid. The French pickling solution known as framanol, used for aluminum, is a mixture of chromium phosphate and tri- ethanolamine. The latter emulsifies the grease and oil, and the alu- minum oxide film is dissolved by the phosphoric acid, leaving the metal with a thin film of chromic oxide. The temperature of most pickling is from 140 to 180°F (60 to 82°C). An increase of 20°F (11°C) will double the rate of pickling. Acid brittle- ness after pickling is due to the absorption of hydrogen when the acid acts on iron, and is reduced by shortening the pickling time. Inhibitors are chemicals added to reduce the time of pickling by permitting higher temperatures and stronger solutions without hydrogen absorption. Hibitite, of Monsanto, is a brown liquid of composition C 27 H 45 NO 10 S 2 , used as a metal pickling inhibitor. Addition of a small amount of 2% tincture of iodine to a 5% sulfuric acid solution gives a 95% retardation of acid attack on steel without decreasing the rate of dissolution of rust. In plating baths, fluoboric acid, HBF 4 , has high throwing power and has a cleansing effect by dissolving sand and silicides from iron castings and steel surfaces. It is a colorless liquid with specific gravity of 1.33 and decomposes at 266°F (130°C). Pennsalt FA-42, of Atochem North America Inc., is this material. It is a 42% solution of fluoboric acid for pickling and for control of acidity of plating baths. Phosphoric acid is employed in hot solution as a dip bath for steel parts to be finished to a rough or etched surface. It leaves a basic iron phosphate coating on the steel which is resistant to corrosion and gives a rough base for the finish. Coslettized steel is steel rust- proofed by dipping in a hot solution of iron phosphate and phosphoric acid. Parkerized steel is rustproofed steel treated in a bath of iron and manganese phosphates. Bonderized steel is steel treated with phosphoric acid and a catalyst to give a rough, tough, rust-resistant base for paints. Granodized steel is produced with zinc phosphate. In general, the coatings left on steel by phosphate treatments are extremely thin, not over 0.0002 in (0.0005 cm). The iron-manganese coatings are black, and the iron-zinc-phosphate coatings are gray. Metals can be treated with alkaline solutions, too. Rust can be removed by caustic soda baths in which is mixed a sequestrant, such as sodium gluconate or ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA), to complex the dissolved iron and keep it from precipitating. Hampene EDTA is a chelating agent from Hampshire Div. of W. R. Grace & Co. In general, the alkali treatments work more slowly than acid-based ones. PICKLING ACIDS 709 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses [...]... powder comes in fine submesh particle size It is made by chemical reduction and is at least 99.9% pure, with amorphous particles 12 to 138 in (0.3 to 3.5m) in diameter Atomized powder has spherical particles of 50 to 200 mesh, and is 99.9% pure and free-flowing Platinum flake has the powder particles in the form of tiny laminar platelets which overlap in the coating film The particles in Platinum flake... electrostatic charge opposite to that applied to the part to be coated When the charged particles leave the gun, they are attracted to the part, where they cling until fused together as a plastic coating Other powder application methods include flock and flow coating, flame and plasma spraying, and a cloud-chamber technique PLASTIC POWDER COATINGS A major group of materials that are primarily noncrystalline... process, fluidized bed, parts are preheated and then immersed in a tank of finely divided plastic powders, which are held in a suspended state by a rising current of air When the powder particles contact the heated part, they fuse and adhere to the surface, forming a continuous, uniform coating Another process, electrostatic spraying, works on the principle that oppositely charged materials attract each... high-pressure laminates to hold together the reinforcing materials that comprise the body of the finished product The reinforcing materials may be cloth, paper, wood, or glass fibers The end product may be plain, flat sheets, or decorative sheets as in countertops, rods, tubes, or formed shapes Almost all plastics contain one or more additive materials to improve their physical properties and processing... has been reduced (the most widely used having contained as much as 80%) or eliminated Reinforcement materials in plastics are not normally considered additives Usually in fiber or mat form, they are used primarily to improve mechanical properties, particularly strength Although asbestos and some other materials are used, glass fibers are the predominant reinforcement for plastics Downloaded from Digital... increase the hiding power and depth of color of a pigment if the extender is of such fine particle size that it will be dispersed in the voids between the pigment particles Extremely fine silica will also cement itself chemically to lead pigments and add wearing qualities Hi-Sil of PPG Industries is a silica with a particle size of 0.984 in (0.025 m) As a pigment for rubber, it adds strength and wear... drawn parts Kydex 200, of Kleerdex Co., is an acrylic-PVC alloy in the form of sheet 0.04 to 0.25 in (1 to 6.4 mm) thick in various surface textures and colors The tensile strength is 6,000 lb/in2 (41 MPa), flexural modulus is 350,000 lb/in2 (2,413 MPa), and the notched Izod impact strength is 4 to 6 ft и lb/in (214 to 320 J/m) PVC is also alloyed with chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) to gain materials. .. symbol to describe the type and grade Textolite, for example, embraces more than 70 categories of laminates subdivided into use-specification grades, all produced in many sizes and thicknesses Textolite 117 11 is an electronic laminate for such uses as multilayer circuit boards It is made with polyphenylene oxide resin and may have a copper or aluminum cladding The tensile strength is up to 10,000 lb/in2... @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website Materials, Their Properties and Uses PIGMENT 711 to duplicate the Cuban iron These irons are considered especially suitable for heavy rolls or high-grade castings Mayari pig contains 1.60 to 2.50% chromium, 0.80 to 1.25 nickel,... high-purity kaolins that have been delaminated or sheared to further decrease the particle size, and bleached to Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website Materials, Their Properties and Uses 712 PIGMENT increase brightness They are . (7.6°C) and solidifies at Ϫ180°F ( 118 °C). It is decomposed by water. When chloroform is exposed to light and air, it decomposes into phosgene. One part in 10,000 parts of air is a toxic poison,. use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Materials, Their Properties and Uses gravity is 1.83, and it melts at 111 °F (44°C). It is used for smoke screens in warfare and for. nonmetallic element, symbol P, widely diffused in nature and found in many rock materials, in ores, in the soil, and in parts of animal organisms. Commercial phosphorus is obtained from phosphate