1003 PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS INTRODUCTION It is estimated that over 1.5 billion people in the world are without adequate water supply and waste disposal facili- ties. 1 Waterborne diseases kill an average of 25,000 people every day, and millions suffer the debilitating effects of the diseases. 2 Concerned about the need for safe water supply and sanitation, the United Nations (UN) declared 1981–1990 as the International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade with the professed goal of supplying potable water for all the people of the world by 1990, and also of providing all people with the means to safe disposal of human excreta. This goal was highly optimistic in view of the fact the nearly 80 percent of the population in the developing countries does not have access to piped water supply, and even a large percentage lacks public sewers and household waste disposal systems. 3,4 At the end of the International Water and Sanitation Decade, it was estimated that almost 31 and 44 percent of the world population was lacking safe water supply and adequate human waste disposal, respectively. The global population being 5.28 billions, total population currently having inad- equate water supply and sanitation is therefore staggering. 5 – 7 Based on an assessment of the successes and failures of the Decade, it is believed that much has been accomplished, but progress is needed on all fronts: rehabilitation and operation of existing systems, training of personnel, financing, and new construction to achieve the goals of the Decade within a reasonable time in the future. In this article many factors that contribute to successes and failures of the Water Decade goals are reviewed. The discussion is divided into (1) under- standing of the needs, (2) appropriate technology for water supply and waste disposal, (3) commitment, (4) financial resources, (5) training of people to plan, design, build, oper- ate and maintain water and sanitary projects, and (6) role of developed nations. 8 – 10 UNDERSTANDING THE NEEDS Adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation are the foundation of health. Water pollution and poor sanitation are probably responsible for 80 percent of the morbidity and mortality in the developing countries. It is estimated that over 900 million cases of diarrhea related illness occur each year, resulting in the death of over 3 million chil- dren. Common diseases associated with polluted water are 11 Prevention of such diseases depends on the improvement of the quality of the water supply, personal hygiene, food handling and preparation; as well as the provi- sion of adequate sanitation, including sanitary facilities for human waste disposal. The importance of personal hygiene specially on the part of mothers and children is the key to beneficial results in dis- ease prevention. Therefore, more intensive activities directed to improve personal hygiene should be emphasized in the developing countries. Furthermore, a meaningful program of providing safe water supply in developing countries must also include safe disposal of human excreta, basic education, and improvement of sanitary conditions. The major constraints on the progress of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade have been operation and maintenance and rehabilitation of the systems that were built earlier. Broken-down and poorly functioning facilities waste money, are a threat to health, and discourage future investments. Also, inappropriate technology is at the root of many water supply and waste disposal problems in the developing countries. 12,14 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY Water Supply The goal of the UN Water Decade was to provide “clean water and adequate sanitation for all by 1990”. It should be noted that this did not mean a tap and a flush toilet in every house. Reasonable access to safe water is usually understood to be within 500 m of the household; for many developing countries, adequate sanitation probably refers to some tech- nology intermediate between the water flush toilet and the simple pit latrine. The scope of the task of the UN Water Decade was truly enormous considering that the two pri- ority areas are the rural population (71%), who often have to travel long distances for water, and the crowded urban poor (25%), for whom water supply often is grossly inad- equate; 87% of rural population and 47% of urban fringe areas lack adequate sanitation. 12 Naturally, achieving uni- versal coverage would mean not only supplying almost one billion people currently without safe water supplies and the 1.7 billion people without sanitation, but matching popula- tion growth as well. Annual investment is currently in the range of 15 to 20 billion dollars per year—about 2 to 3 per- cent of gross investment in developing countries. If the share C016_008_r03.indd 1003C016_008_r03.indd 1003 11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC grouped in Table 1. 1004 PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS remains constant over the next fifteen to twenty years, eco- nomic growth will allow investment to double in real terms, to 30–40 billion a year. 13 Therefore, selection of appropriate technology and service levels must be established in bring- ing down the capital costs of water supply and sanitation projects. It was also demonstrated in the first half of the Decade that the biggest priority is correcting the inadequate training of the operating personnel. 14 Selection of appropriate technology for use by the devel- oping countries requires (1) understanding of the cultural background, regional environmental conditions, and local needs; (2) selection of appropriate systems that will be within TABLE 1 Common disease associated with contaminated water and poor sanitation Disease Common Vehicle Water-borne diseases Amoebic dysentery Bacillary dysentery Cholera Criptospridiosis Gastroenteritis Giardiasis Hepatitis Leptospirosis Paratyphoid fever Salmonellosis Typhoid Diseases transmitted by ingesting contaminated water and food Water-washed diseases Conjunctivitis Hookworm (Ankylostoma) Leprosy Scabies Skin sepsis and ulcers Trihcuriasis Whipworm (Enterobius) Yaws Lack of adequate quantity of uncontaminated water, and poor personal hygiene create conditions favorable for their spread Water-based diseases Bilharziosis Dracunculosis Oncholersosis Philariosis Schistosomiasis Treadworm Diseases caused by infecting agents by contact with or without ingestion of water. An essential part of the life cycle of the infection agent takes place in an aquatic animal Fecal-disposal diseases Clonorchiasis Diphyllobothriasis Fasciolopsiasis Paragonimiasis Diseases caused by infecting agent mostly contracted by eating uncooked fish and other food Water-related vectors Arbovirus Bancroftian Dengue fever Encephalitis Filariasis Hemorrhagic fever Malaria Diseases transmitted by insects which live and breed close to water. Infections are spread by mosquitoes, flies, and insect bite Adapted in part from Ref. 11. C016_008_r03.indd 1004C016_008_r03.indd 1004 11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 1005 the financial (minimizing initial investment cost as well as maintenance cost) and technical (minimizing operational failures) resources; (3) training paraprofessional rural water technicians (using available labor where possible instead of expensive imported equipment); (4) promoting complemen- tary activities to help people to obtain the most benefits from the systems (so that users will receive long-term benefits of these basic services); and (5) selection of the most appropri- ate water source and the most appropriate energy source for conveying water to its users. The different sources of small community water supply systems in developing countries can be categorized as fol- lows: (1) groundwater, (2) rain water, (3) springwater, and (4) surface water. Depending on the sources of water supply, many techniques have been found effective and applicable to the water and sanitation programs in the developing coun- tries. Some of these techniques are presented below . Groundwater In areas where groundwater is read- ily available at moderate depth, constructing a number of wells fitted with hand pumps is by far the cheapest means of providing a good water supply. 14 Although, community water systems piped under pressure to households and public standposts may be an ultimate goal, many areas will realisti- cally have to seek hand pumps as an interim if not an ulti- mate measure. The trouble with most hand operated water pumps used in developing countries is that they are not hardy enough and require frequent maintenance. Pump parts are usually expensive to buy and are difficult to make locally to fit the pump. Development work started at the Consumer Research Laboratory (CRL) in England has led to the snappy plastic pump: a simpler, cheaper and hardier device that has many beneficial features. A complete description of such hand pumps is given by Sattaur. 15 Additional information on other types of hand pump manufactured in developing coun- tries may be found in Ref. 15. Hofkes provides some other techniques and methods of groundwater withdrawal used by small water supply systems in developing countries. 11 Rainwater In developing countries rainwater is some- times used to supplement the other water supply sources. In some tropical islands rainwater is the only source of domestic water supply. Rainwater harvesting requires adequate provi- sion for the interception, collection and storage of the water. Generally, cisterns are built to collect the runoff from the roofs. Water quality preservation is very important and some basic measures should be followed to exclude bird drop- pings, insects and dirt from the stored water. Also, storage in cool conditions, exclusion of light, and regular cleaning is essential. Simple disinfection devices may be very useful. Rainwater catchments are relatively simple to construct and maintain. It is expected that these systems will be widely used in the future. In Kenya, concrete jars used as storage tanks are said to be the most popular appropriate technology. Their popularity is growing among the villagers in Thailand where the construction and maintenance of these units is undertaken by technicians of the Sanitation Division of the Department of Health. The technician directs the voluntary labor of villagers in constructing concrete storage tanks rein- forced with bamboo. The Villagers then repay the costs of the tanks in 12 monthly installments. The owners of these tanks, having contributed so much of their time and money into their construction are usually very keen to operate and maintain it properly. 16 Design details and economics of many cisterns, storage tanks, and other rainwater harvesting systems may be found in Refs. 17 – 21 Spring and Surface Water There are many situations in the developing world where water is available from a nearby stream or spring. Various devices have been constructed to utilize the energy available in flowing streams to pump the water to the point of use. The more successful devices, that will represent substan- tial savings in pumping water are the hydraulic ram pumps (hydram) and low-head turbine pumps. One converts pres- sure energy to mechanical work and the other converts kinetic energy to mechanical work. These two practical devices have been described and compared in detail by Schiller. 22 He observed that the hydram is easier to operate and maintain, but installation of the turbine pump is easier and simpler. Before the Water Decade program started the water qual- ity control was given least importance in developing coun- tries. Perhaps, the major reason was inappropriate operation and maintenance of the equipment. The primary goal of any water project started in the Drinking Water Decade was to provide a facility and system that can be operated, maintained and managed at local levels giving self sufficiency with proper personnel and financial needs. 23 Local capabilities for operation and maintenance must be developed through training local maintenance personnel, establishing a locally managed maintenance fund, selecting an easily maintained technology, and requiring capital contributions from the community to increase local sense of ownership and respon- sibility for the systems. 24 Finally, a successful drinking water program requires extensive local participation (materials and labor) and minimize dependence on overseas materials and equipment for construction and operation of facilities. 25 Human Waste Disposal Rapid growth of the urban populations (mainly because of migration from rural areas) has led to severe problems in providing human waste disposal systems. Only 32 percent of the population in the developing countries is directly con- nected to sewer systems. Therefore, the collection and dis- posal of human wastes constitute a serious environmental and health problem. 26 Several alternatives are available; each has its own limitations and constraints. Certainly there is no single option appropriate to all situations. The range of options described below is sufficient to cover the vast major- ity of the situations within the low income communities of the developing countries. One of the fundamental principles of community sanita- tion is to remove all putrescible matter, particularly human wastes. A satisfactory excreta disposal method must satisfy the following requirements: 26 1) Should not be accessible to flies or animals 2) Should not cause odors or unsightly conditions C016_008_r03.indd 1005C016_008_r03.indd 1005 11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM11/18/2005 11:01:57 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1006 PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 3) Should be simple and inexpensive to construct and operate 4) Should not cause ground water or surface water contamination 5) Should not cause soil contamination. The appropriate technology for human waste disposal in developing nations fall into two major applications (1) rural, and urban areas without sewers, and (2) urban areas having municipal sewers. Appropriate technology for each of the above applications are discussed below: Rural and Urban Areas without Municipal Sewers The environmentally acceptable methods of human waste disposal in rural areas include various types of sewerless composting toilets. Common examples of such toilets are bored-hole latrine, pit privy, vault privy, septic privy, chemi- cal toilet, soil or composting toilet, methane forming toilet, and box-and-can privy. 26,27 These devices are simple and inexpensive to build and operate. Each of these devices is briefly discussed below. Bored-hole Latrine: Bored-hole latrines consist of a hole in the ground 25 to 60 cm in diameter, and 2 to 3 meters deep. The hole may be braced to prevent it from caving. A concrete slab with a hole cut in it may be placed over it, and the entire assembly is made into an outhouse. When the hole is filled, the structure is moved to another hole. Fly and odor problems are controlled by keeping the hole covered, and dropping dry soil in the hole on a regular basis. Deep bored-hole latrines present danger of ground-water pollution. 26 Pit or Vault Privy: Pit or vault privies can serve the needs of homes, schools or groups of homes. A concrete pit or vault is constructed in the ground and a toilet seat is located on the top. The seat cover must be kept closed to prevent flies from entering. Odor is a problem. A vent pipe raised over the roof has been helpful in odor control. In 3 to 4 months when the pit or vault becomes full, there is the unpleasant job of cleaning it. Some vaults have two compartments. When one compartment is full it is kept closed for 2 to 3 months while the other side is used. During this time, the excreta is decom- posed, and cleaning becomes less objectionable. Pit or vault privies with separate back covers have also been used. These back covers help in the cleaning operation. 26 Septic Privy: Septic privies utilize a liquefying tank similar to a septic tank. The waste is digested and overflow may be discharged into a percolation field. The toilet has a shallow trap. After use the toilet must be flushed by pouring 2 to 3 liters of water. 26 Chemical Toilet: Chemical toilets consist of a tank in which waste accumulates. The toilet seat is provided directly over the tank. Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide (NaOH)) is most commonly used to kill the bacteria and to liquefy the wastes. The caustic soda dosage is 1 to 2 kg of sodium hydroxide per month for a family of four. The tank is emptied periodically. If caustic soda is used the tank contents can be carefully applied over farming land. Many types of chemical toilets are available from various manufacturers. 26,28,29 Soil or Composting Toilet: This is dry toilet capable of being used indoors. The toilet consists of a wooden frame with toilet seat, and a bucket lined with a plastic bag. The toilet is started with a layer of dry soil 10 to 15 cm deep. Users must sprinkle several scoops of soil after each use. Once or twice a week, the bag is removed, tied and stored. After a decomposition of several weeks the contents are spread over farm land. 30 A more involved is the Clivus Multrum composting toilet. This toilet was developed and has been successfully used for some time in Sweden and is now manufactured in the United States. 31 The toilet is capable of composting toilet waste, kitchen wastes, and even leaves and grass. It has three sloping chambers and is started with a layer of peat moss four to five inches thick. Design and operational details may be obtained in Ref. 31. Another toilet similar to Clivus Multrum toilet is the Toa-Throne compost toilet also devel- oped in Sweden. Another dry composting toilet that has been proven highly successful in Vietnam, offers a suitable system for all developing nations. 32 The toilet consists of two-holer outhouse in which only one hole is used at any one time. There is no raised seat, instead each hole is placed in a squat- ting plate at floor level. The urine flows out and soaks into the ground outside the outhouse. The fecal wastes go into the other hole. The user must drop dry soil or ash after use. When the toilet is two-thirds full, the rest is filled with soil, and the vault is tightly sealed. The other side is started. After a composting period of approximately 45 days the contents are taken out and used over the farm as rich compost. 33,34 Methane Farming Toilet: In India small biogas plants are extensively built in rural areas. These biogas plants anaero- bically digest animal manure and other organic wastes, and the methane is used to light, heat, and power the farms. Singh gave the basic design and construction details of such toilet. 34 Other designs of anaerobic digesters utilizing human, animal and other organic wastes are used in Kenya and Brazil. 35 – 37 Morris developed a package unit for meth- ane generation from human wastes. 37 Khandelwal provided design and operational details on dome-shaped biogas plants used in India. 38 Eusebio and Rabino provided design of large biogas plants used in Philippines, India and Africa. 39 Box-and-can Privy: The toilet system consists of a wooden box, the lid and toilet seat. The can or pail is remov- able through the top or side of the box. The cans are removed manually under regular scavenger service, emptied, cleaned, and replaced. This system is most commonly used in cities that do not have a sewerage system. This type of system is associated with odors and serious fly problems if the lids are not tightly closed after use. For satisfactory operation there should be a regular scavenger service, preferably under a governmental supervision with ordinances covering types and size of box and can, method of emptying and cleaning of the cans, and ultimate disposal of the human waste. A speedy and convenient way is to use identical toilet boxes and cans for the entire community. The scavengers remover the can and place it in his vehicle without emptying, and replacing a clean can. The vehicle when full is taken to a central disposal facility for emptying, and replac- ing with clean cans. The disposal facility should be located in C016_008_r03.indd 1006C016_008_r03.indd 1006 11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 1007 a remote area and should utilize anaerobic digesters whereby the recovery and sale of methane gas, and digested sludge as soil conditioner can be achieved. The central disposal facili- ties should be equipped with running water, hose, and chemi- cal solution for washing and cleaning the cans. Experience has shown that such systems based on pay- ments by the residents to private scavengers have been unsat- isfactory. The service is poor, irregular and wastes may be dumped uncontrolled upon land and in waters. The box-and-can system should be used only as a tempo- rary means of waste disposal with continued effort to replace it by other more acceptable methods. Furthermore, it should be carried out only under the supervision of trained person- nel and under strict governmental control. Urban Areas with Municipal Sewers The wastewater collected through municipal sewers contains large volumes of water. Therefore, treatment technology is much more complex than discussed above. Treatment schemes to achieve second- ary level of treatment (90% organics and total suspended solids removal) include screening, grit removal, primary sedimenta- tion, biological treatment (activated sludge or trickling filter), final clarification, and disinfection. Other physical, chemical and biological treatment processes may be added to remove phosphorus, nitrogen, and additional organics and suspended solids. The solids fraction (sludge) is digested aerobically or anaerobically. Although, such treatment technology may be desirable for the developed nations, their use in developing nations may not be appropriate. Such treatment processes are costly to build, and complex to operate. Desirable treatment meth- ods for developing nations may include the following: 1) stabilization pond followed by effluent reuse on farming lands, 2) Imhoff tanks followed by stabilization pond and effluent reuse on farming land, and 3) upflow anaerobic sludge blanket process. Imhoff tanks provide primary sedimentation, and anaero- bic digestion of settled sludge. The methane is collected for energy source and digested sludge is used as compost. The stabilization pond (oxidation pond or lagoon) is an earthen basin that retains the wastewater for sufficient time to stabilize the organic matter, and destroy large percentage of pathogens. The effluent is used for irrigation, or discharged into natu- ral waters. 40 – 43 The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket process (UASB) was developed in Netherlands and is extensively used and tested in the developing nations. 44 In this process the wastewater enters the bottom of the reactor and percolates up through the sludge blanket where organics are converted to methane and carbon dioxide by anaerobic organisms. The gas is collected, and treated effluent is drawn off from the top. 34 COMMITMENT The water supply and sanitation schemes in developing countries cannot be successful without the willingness of the government to commit the resources to undertake water supply and sanitation projects. Unfortunately, the govern- mental priority in this area is quite low. Most of the develop- ing countries set their priorities as follows: (1) agriculture, (2) industries, (3) energy resource development, (4) educa- tion, (5) commerce and transportation, (6) family planning, (7) housing and urban development, and (8) water supply, and sanitation, and environmental control. 45 Such priorities have been set on account of necessities. It is necessary that the developing countries give needed priority on water and sanitation. FINANCIAL RESOURCES The success of any program in any country depends upon the financial commitments of the respective governments. Developing nations (except for the oil exporting nations) are poor and have very limited funds. A 1975 study indi- cated that villagers if they have to pay more than 50 cents per month for water supply, they would not participate in the program. 45 Their ability to pay for water and sanitation is very limited. Success of the program will depend upon outside funds, and local labor. TRAINING AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT It is well recognized that the success of any program requires well trained people. Unfortunately, past experience has shown that many internationally supported training pro- grams were not successful because the emphasis was incor- rectly placed. Engineers from developing nations when trained in the western world generally learn the theory and design of most sophisticated unit operations and processes in water and wastewater treatment and environmental engi- neering. When they return to their countries, they are gen- erally eager to utilize such technologies, although in most cases these may be quite inappropriate. Furthermore, for- eign consultant’s unfamiliarity with the cultural and operat- ing competence of the people in developing countries have resulted in selection and design of technology that have not functioned. What is really needed is a program where training at all levels may be effectively provided. The includes training of central government officials and engineers; local govern- ment officials, residents and technicians; on-the-job training of operators; and users education. Government officials set the priorities and make funding decisions. Engineers have responsibility to evaluate, select and implement the appro- priate technology. Local officials participate and support the program. The technicians and operators have the responsibil- ity for continued operation and maintenance of the system. And finally, users education is essential as they are the ulti- mate beneficiary. In order to effectively provide such a complex training opportunity, programs must be developed in the develop- ing nations. Such training programs must be developed as C016_008_r03.indd 1007C016_008_r03.indd 1007 11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1008 PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS academic programs, short courses, seminars, and internships to address different audiences yet meet the specific needs of each. Brief discussion is given below. Academic Programs Academic programs include regular undergraduate and graduate programs at universities, and technology or voca- tional programs in polytechnics and colleges. Both programs have different objectives. University Programs Regular academic programs such as master’s and bachelor’s degrees in civil, sanitary or envi- ronmental engineering, biology, public health, and so on. have been modeled along the lines of western universities. These programs often may not be directly applicable to the needs of the developing nations. It is necessary to modify or develop new programs tailored for their national needs. As an example, graduates in civil, sanitary or public health engi- neering must also know community interactions, socio-eco- nomic implications, relationships between service levels and health and well-being, that dictate the success or failure of any water supply and sanitation projects, especially in rural and urban settings of developing nations. Technology Programs The technology or vocational programs should be directed towards training technicians, health inspectors, and community workers. Specialized train- ing is needed so that these personnel can undertake field work, organize the community, conduct training, and assist the com- munity in the selection and installation of water supply and sanitation facilities, and provide continued operation and maintenance of such facilities. Special training is needed for personnel to motivate people and implement the programs in rural areas where approximately 75% of the population lives. Short Courses and Seminars In corporation with the health ministry specialized short courses of one- or two-week duration should be conducted at universities, colleges, and high schools. These short courses should be designed to provide training to full-range of people including decision makers, engineers, operators and community workers. Decision Makers The government officials who have the responsibility for setting up priorities, and allocation of funds must be aware of the relationship between service levels and health and other benefits, cost of construction and operation, and short-range and long-range implications of the investments in water supply and sanitation projects. Engineers and Designers The intensive short courses designed for engineers and designers should cover the suc- cesses and failures of different projects, improvements needed in future systems, public education, and how to relate health conditions and project objectives in order to develop the most cost-effective system for the specific conditions. Operators and Community Workers Intensive short courses should be conducted for operators and community workers in basic topics ranging from chemistry, biology, vec- tors, communicable diseases, to metal working, equipment repairs, operation and maintenance, leak repairs, book keep- ing, to management of public works projects. On-the-job Training On-the-job training programs of varying periods with or without short courses should be developed to train field workers and inspectors and local people in construction techniques and operation of water supply and sanitation systems. Such practical training can be a powerful tool for manpower development. Primary Health Care Workers Health education or sanitation education should be provided at village level. Villagers, literate or illiterate, should be trained as primary health care workers, or barefoot doctors, whose training should be emphasized on prevention, and curative care. Six to 12 months intensive training could be provided at local high schools or through health education service. Users Education Training of villagers in water supply and sanitation must also be provided as part of user or adult education program. This can be achieved by mass campaigns by health education extension services. Health education must also be instituted in primary schools. This will provide the broadest, and most dependable coverage to younger groups. The program must include community sanitation; hygiene habits in home; fly rodent and other vector control; water con- tamination and use of water supply devices; and proper use and maintenance of various types of privies and latrines. Training and Educational Material, and Education of Trainers It is important that training, educational and technical material should be in the form of posters, technical books, manuals, photographs, slides, films and audio-visual aids. Audio-visual equipment has been highly successful in train- ing personnel, and illiterate population in rural areas. A porta- ble power generator may be necessary for rural areas without electrification. Educational material must be carefully prepared for the specific audience. General health related material covering disease transmission, vector control, water and food pro- tection, personal hygiene, should be prepared for general public with no education. Information on public use of water supply and sanitation devices should also be prepared for general audience. Technical and semitechnical information should cover the design and construction; and operation and maintenance of different types of water supply and sanita- tion devices presented earlier in this paper. The other most important of all training program activi- ties is the selection and training of instructors or trainers. Technicians and supervisors should be trained so that they can teach their colleagues, subordinates or interns on the job. Education of trainers should be provided in schools, through short courses, audio-visual aids, and job training. ROLE OF DEVELOPED NATIONS Developed nations can play a major role in helping the developing nations to achieve the original goals of the UN C016_008_r03.indd 1008C016_008_r03.indd 1008 11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM11/18/2005 11:01:58 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 1009 Water Decade. The assistance may come in the form of fund- ing of the international agencies (UN, World Bank, etc.) and international development agencies in their own countries. The technical assistance and transfer of know-how can also be achieved in the form of advisory services to the gov- ernments, utilities, and institutions. 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Group, LLC PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 1005 the financial (minimizing initial investment cost as well as maintenance cost) and technical (minimizing operational. home; fly rodent and other vector control; water con- tamination and use of water supply devices; and proper use and maintenance of various types of privies and latrines. Training and Educational. PLANNING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 3) Should be simple and inexpensive to construct and operate 4) Should not cause ground water or surface water contamination