990 PLANNING Planning is a field of study which encompasses a number of related physical development and social and scientific func- tions including land use analysis, transportation planning, housing policy, economic analysis, environmental planning, urban and rural development and redevelopment. The broad goal of planning is to provide thoughtful examination of physical development and related public policy initiatives. Planning has evolved from the early social concerns of 19th Century urban life—crowding, squalor and unhealthful living conditions focuses attention on such concepts as the public interest and on laws which protect the public health and safety. Controls on the location of unhealthful industrial uses such as slaughterhouses have evolved into land use planning and zoning controls. Concern for over crowding and provision of adequate light and air are now measured by housing analysis and population surveys. Planning is an inter-disciplinary field which brings an understanding of public health, legal and social issues, and architectural design principles to develop theories of the his- tory and future of development patterns. From principles of urban design appropriate street layout, open space and urban densities are derived which provide light and air. Traffic transportation planners identify the need for mass transit systems as well as traffic improvements. Standards in envi- ronmental planning provide a background to evaluate costs, benefits and impacts of new developments and initiatives. Planners are a diverse and loosely defined group who identify themselves by the branch of planning they engage in, thus land use planners, public health planners, economic planners, housing planners and transportation planners working side by side and within their own particular area of expertise in government and private industry. The advancement of the public interest and the protection of the public health, safety and welfare are two principles which continue to support a myriad of planning initiatives. The goals can be seen within the studies of environmen- tal planning: wetland management and other conservation efforts are viewed as controls which protect the public inter- est; air quality controls protect the public health, safety and welfare. Planners utilize academia as a home base, where the lessons of urban planning are taught, together with analyti- cal methods for the determination of social and scientific standards and criteria urban design and aesthetic principles. Professional planning societies also provide information and forums for discussion on planning issues. The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP) offers a membership admittance test which serves to provide a roster of qualified professionals. Ethics standards promulgated by the AICP attempt to self-police the profession. Only two states, New Jersey and Michigan, license professional planners. The key analytical methods and models of planners include survey and sampling methods, ranking strategies, program evaluation, location planning, population forecast- ing and models for measuring impact of landuse actions including air quality analysis, transportation capacity, and employment, economic and fiscal impact. Land use planners utilize planning principles to determine appropriate locations for land uses within a specified area. The land use planner may be employed by a town or city to conduct long range planning and maintain and advance the master plan through day to day land use decision-making. Comprehensive plans provide forecasting tools for a variety of resources, popu- lation trends and social service needs, resource projections and utility and infrastructure investments as well as transportation planning, roadway improvements, and conservation lands and sensitive environmental lands. The role of government in planning in the United States is generally regarding as a local activity, for example, defin- ing the appropriate use for the abandoned industrial plant in your home town is a local decision-making process. However, planners are engaged at each level of government; that is, the federal, State and local level. From these broad perspectives the role of a planner shifts to reflects the chang- ing role of government. The federal government provides planning through public policy initiatives and laws and regulation. The two functions adhere to the two pronged principles of planning; the public interest and the public health safety and welfare. The public interest is served through programs which promote a particu- lar public policy initiative which is encouraged, such as open space or local park funding. Federal programs which admin- ister funding for state and local actions, such as Community Development Block Grants for urban redevelopment pro- mote the public interest. Promulgation and enforcement of regulations which protect the public health safety and welfare include the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 is a key milestone within the federal government, aimed at promot- ing the general welfare, in that it requires federal actions to be subject to both inter-governmental and public review. The C016_006_r03.indd 990C016_006_r03.indd 990 11/18/2005 11:01:05 AM11/18/2005 11:01:05 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PLANNING 991 intent of this law is to provide for a careful analysis of the likely effects of an action prior to use of federal funds. This law serves to open up the process of government decision- making to the public. In addition, the NEPA legislation pro- vides a model for similar environmental scrutiny at the state and local level, thus providing a network of environmental planning at all levels of government. In terms of land use decision-making, there is no central planning. The federal government role is confined to public policy, grants in aid and regulatory control (the environmen- tal controls placed on filling of wetland areas is an issue which most closely approximates central planning in that the effect of these regulations can often nullify development proposals which may be encouraged at the local level). Information gathering, such as census data provided by the Department of Commerce, is the key central planning function used universally by planners in all disciplines and sectors: statistics and forecasts are used by public agencies, private consultants and commerce and industry to under- stand and plan for communities with regard to population, transportation, housing, the economy and employment and a host of demographic and industrial data. At the State level, planning functions are both assumed from the federal government and conveyed to local govern- ments. State governments serve to administer federal pro- grams and assume responsibility for enforcement of some key planning and environmental responsibilities such as the Clean Air Act. Often, compliance with federal goals in one area forms the basis for government aid or funding of related public initiatives, for example, efforts to comply with air quality goals are often related to transportation funding. The State works closely with federal agencies as a conduit for policy and funding of government programs, often creating mirror agencies for administration of transportation, historic preservation and environmental protection. Also parallel and in association with the federal government, States provide for the collection and dissemination of statistical informa- tion such as the census and economic forecasting. The state government assigns and provides to local gov- ernments the authority to plan and zone. The power to plan in its narrow sense, land use control, is based upon the police power. Planning is seen to protect the health safety and gen- eral welfare of the public. The majority of planning work is done at the municipal level (a certain amount of master plan- ning and regional coordination is provided at the country and state level). The first element in municipal planning is the formulation of the Master Plan. The Master Plan or compre- hensive plan is an amalgam of public policy objectives and practical information for future planning such as existing demographic information and trends with projections of the future to the benefit of landuse plans, transportation plans, utilities, and education. The master plan should be a unique reflection of both the physical elements of the city and the people who live in it. Thus the master plan, which culmi- nates in a landuse map becomes the guide to the develop- ment regulations of a city. The zone plant sets forth the physical controls on uses and densities within the jurisdictional area. The physical layout of the city is assigned uses, densities and standards for development in a land use plan. A zone plan presents the regulations which carry out a given land use plan. The integ- rity of a zone plan is as strong as the development review boards. Planning Boards and Zoning Boards are charged with maintaining the integrity of the plan with the power to review subdivision, site plan and various requests. The site plan review process illustrates the typical plan- ning exercise and scope and range of municipal review powers. The site plan review, and variance requests, for example, a use variance, are subject to review and scrutiny from a municipal board with regard to the merits of the site plan, the need for the use, how the use is consistent with the master plan, how it advances planning goals of the commu- nity and what hardships or unique physical characteristics would justify a departure from set development standards and proscribed uses. Many municipalities have established environmental commissions, architectural or historical resource review boards all which serve to advise in the site plan review pur- suant to the general welfare. The environmental review at the municipal level should encompass the full range of rel- evant issues to asses the scope of the proposed activity and its likely impact on site and surrounding resources. ELIZABETH McLOUGHLIN PS & S Key Span C016_006_r03.indd 991C016_006_r03.indd 991 11/18/2005 11:01:05 AM11/18/2005 11:01:05 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC . 990 PLANNING Planning is a field of study which encompasses a number of related physical development and social and scientific func- tions including land use analysis, transportation planning, . determination of social and scientific standards and criteria urban design and aesthetic principles. Professional planning societies also provide information and forums for discussion on planning. crowding and provision of adequate light and air are now measured by housing analysis and population surveys. Planning is an inter-disciplinary field which brings an understanding of public