Teaching Today A Practical Guide Fourth Edition - part 6 pot

Essays and reports 307 An alternative approach is to use a ‘same and different’ diagram (page 156). This works especially well for distinguishing between two things. The distinguishing features are the parts of the diagram that don’t overlap. But don’t forget to use spectacles too. Structuring writing that evaluates Evaluation asks, ‘How good is it?’ ‘Critically appraise the care of the patient in this case study.’ ‘Evaluate the government’s fi shing policy.’ ‘Evaluate the teaching resource you have created.’ Let’s take the evaluation of a teaching resource as our example. These questions are often structured by listing strengths and weaknesses. These can be written side by side in a sort of comparison table, but don’t forget to use spectacles. An alterna- tive is to fi rst establish criteria which the resource should meet. For example, a teaching resource should: explain clearly• be easy to use• require the student to make sense of it, etc.• These criteria can then be used in turn as spectacles to look at the resource. As part of any evaluation, you should also consider: alternatives – other resources that do the same or a similar job• fi tness for purpose – does the resource do what it is supposed to do?• This approach – devise criteria, then use the criteria as spectacles – can be used to evaluate anything. Do consider ‘alternatives’ and ‘fi tness for purpose’ in all evaluations. Other evaluation criteria or spectacles for evaluating teaching resources are shown on pages 386 and 395. An alternative approach is to use other graphic organisers, such as mind-maps (page 155) or visual essay planning (pages 352–3). Petty 2006 has a more detailed account of how to structure an evaluation. Sometimes students are required to evaluate the truth of a statement; this is consid- ered at the end of Chapter 38. Often it helps to describe what you are evaluating before evaluating it, in which case you might use non-evaluative spectacles, such as ‘use of colour’, before evaluative ones such as ‘effectiveness’. Structuring writing that describes causes and effects In what way does nutrition affect child development? What were the main causes of the Second World War? What factors help to ensure a teaching course is inclusive? P02b.indd 307 3/3/09 14:52:32 The teacher’s toolkit 308 These are all cause-and-effect questions, so description tables or comparison tables won’t help, unless you want to describe one of the causes or effects in detail before tackling the main question. Instead, a fl ow diagram showing the chains of causes and effects can help structure the writing. Once the diagram is completed, it is usually a simple matter to follow the fl ow of the diagram, expanding each bullet point into a sentence or more. As with other structures, headings may help. Sometimes it is not easy to decide which of the three structures to use. For example, ‘analyse the contribution made by computing to modern teaching methods’ could be tackled using any of these three structures because it could be seen as: a description• – describe the ‘contribution made’ a comparison• – compare computing and non-computing methods a cause and effect• – how can computers cause learning? So, in this unusual case, you could use all three approaches – one at a time though! Usually, you will be pleased to hear, one structure will do. Structuring writing is an art rather than a science, so be prepared to be fl exible, but do use headings and other pointers to show the reader where they are in your structure – for example, ‘So let’s now consider the importance of fatty acids in a child’s diet.’ Using bridging to establish the writing process Your students will already think they know how to write a report or essay, and you need to improve this conception rather than teach a new one over the top of it. Otherwise they will only revert to their bad practice in times of forgetfulness or exam stress. The best approach is to get students to write, or at least plan, their fi rst report or essay in class. This is a very useful investment of time and will help them learn the content they write about, as well as the skill of writing. I will describe the use of process proformas like the report-writing help sheet shown on page 310. However, you could adapt the following approach to teach students to structure writing with graphic organisers, as described above. I once saw Janice Evans, a brilliant history teacher, teach this lesson – one of the best I have ever observed. She gave her A-level students a list of 20 or more essay titles from past exams and asked whether a description table or comparison table should be used for each. The students had diffi - culty with some of them. She asked what the diffi cult titles had in common, and students realised they were all cause-and-effect questions. She set a homework for students to decide a structure for a cause-and-effect question. Try this lesson yourself! P02b.indd 308 3/3/09 14:52:32 Essays and reports 309 Hand out the brief with the assessment criteria, but not the process sheet shown overleaf, and then ask, ‘What should we do fi rst?’ They will probably suggest collect- ing information – hopefully they won’t say, ‘Find the top-left hand corner of the paper and start writing’! Then you can say, ‘But what should we do before that?’ Once the appropriate task is established, you can ask, ‘Why?’ and ‘What would happen if we had forgotten to do this?’ In this way, you can step your way through the process, after each phase asking, ‘What should we do next?’ and ‘Why?’ This should gradually change their concep- tion of how to plan and write. When you have fi nished this process and the essay or report is written, or at least planned, ask the bridging questions: ‘How did we do that?’ Stress that they did a good job, and then ask why they were so successful. This should result in their giving the process back to you. If they miss a stage, say, ‘But what should we do before that?’ as above. Again ask, ‘Why?’ and ‘What would happen if we missed that stage out?’ Get the class to explain and justify the process, using their own names for each stage. When they have fi nished, you can ask: ‘Is there anywhere else we could use that process?’ Make them realise that the process was not peculiar to the topic they were writing about, and could be used for any report or essay, or any extended piece of writing. The next time they do a similar piece of writing, remind them of their successful process, and ask them to self-assess how effectively they used it. You probably won’t like the report-writing process shown overleaf – that’s fi ne! Change it or develop your own. But do use bridging to teach whatever process you decide on. It is one of the main methods that Feuerstein uses to add 20 or 30 IQ points to his students. Alternatively, you could use the ICEDIP processes outlined in Chapter 30. There are still other approaches on www.geoffpetty.com on the generic skills pages. Ten per cent of articles submitted to the quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology are judged to be so unintelligible that it is not possible to decide what experiment (if any) has been carried out! If mature research students fi nd diffi culty in expressing themselves, don’t expect your students to pick up the skill without help. Marking essays It is vital that your students get good feedback on their essay or report writing in order to learn this diffi cult skill. See Chapters 6 and especially 43 for the detail on this. P02b.indd 309 3/3/09 14:52:32 The teacher’s toolkit 310 Read, think and plan Read the assignment brief or title and make sure you understand it thoroughly. Re-read it often. W hat will it include? Where could you find information? W hen must you hand it in? Plan the report-writing process. Research and brainstorm Brainstorm sources of information and points to mention. Then gather information relevant to t he topic. Consider using: library; CD-ROM; Internet; visits; ask people; etc. Re-read the assignment brief! Check relevance Check your information for relevance. Re-read the assignment brief. Classify Use an ordered set of headings or mind-maps to sort your information into groups, e.g.: • topics and subtopics • strengths and weaknesses • arguments for and arguments against. The categories you use will depend on the report title, so re-read it before you start classifying. Look at the material with different ke y s p ectacles or q uestions in mind. Draw conclusions and get evidence W hat do you want your report to say? For example, what are the strengths and weaknesses of w hat you have been investigating? • Summarise your main conclusions. • Get evidence for each of your conclusions. Plan the report Make a mind-map or series of headings based on your classification stage. Make notes of what y ou want to say. Make sure you do all the tasks or questions. W rite the report , then leave it for a day or so. Proofread the report, making changes where necessary. Present the report (one time!). Report-writing process: help sheet GNVQ Health and Social Care team Use this process for all reports in all units. When you can use this process well, write your report without this help sheet, but still using the process. Report-writing process: help sheet (Health and Social Care team) P02b.indd 310 3/3/09 14:52:32 Essays and reports 311 Try putting one tick in the margin for an important point, and a double tick for a well-made point. Coda In most areas of study, students must understand the rules of clear thinking if they are to write an effective essay – that is, what is and what is not evidence; when generalisations can be made, and when they cannot; the dangers of oversimplifi ca- tion and bias, and the tyranny of labels; and so on. Reasoning is a hugely diffi cult skill – nobody fully masters it! There seems to be an invariable law in education that the time spent teaching a skill is in inverse proportion to its importance. We spend a great deal of time teaching facts that can easily be looked up in reference books. We spend very little time developing creative thinking and problem-solving, though our students will be involved in these activities all their lives. But the importance of reasoning is so great that it is usually not taught at all! (See ‘The skill of opinion forming’, starting on page 429 of this book.) Checklist Was the essay well defi ned in writing, with guidance notes? ❏ Was assessment transparent, and were criteria given in advance? ❏ Were students adequately prepared for the essay? ❏ Have you developed an essay- or report-writing process with your students? ❏ Do students see exemplar essays (not too wonderful), preferably after ❏ attempting an essay on the same title themselves? How would you change the title or guidance notes if you set the same essay ❏ next year – have you made a note of these suggestions? While marking, do you give students medals and missions, or use learning ❏ loops, as explained in Chapter 43? Did a debriefi ng session confi rm what students should have learned? ❏ References Beard, R. and Hartley, T. (1984) Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (4th edition), London: PCP. Caviglioli, O. and Harris, I. (2008) Wiseguide to Visual Tools: A Practical Classroom Guide for Raising Achievement, Stafford: Network Educational Press. Petty, G. (2006) Evidence Based Teaching, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Sharron, H. and Coulter, M. (1994) Changing Children’s Minds: Feuerstein’s Revolu- tion in the Teaching of Intelligence, Birmingham: Imaginative Minds. P02b.indd 311 3/3/09 14:52:33 312 Welcome to an educational minefi eld, and a delightful teaching method! But before considering the case for and against discovery learning, let’s look at what this teaching method involves. There are two approaches to teaching: teaching by telling and teaching by asking. Teaching by telling. This is teacher-centred or ‘didactic’ teaching, where learners have the new learning explained to them, and then they are expected to use and remember this new material. Teaching by asking. The teacher asks questions or sets tasks which require learners to work out the new learning for themselves – though usually with some guidance or special preparation. This new learning is then corrected and confi rmed by the teacher. Guided discovery is an example of this latter approach. It may seem perverse, but huge educational advantages are claimed for this method. ‘Teaching by asking’ can only be used if learners can puzzle out the new learning from their existing knowledge and experience. For example, business studies students could use reason and experience to decide on the various purposes of product packaging. History students could also reason out why the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas à Becket, was murdered, given the events leading up to his death. Their answers may need correcting, but the reasoning required by ‘teaching by asking’ is greatly enjoyed by students, develops their reasoning skills, and provides the teacher with feedback on the students’ skills and understanding. Let’s consider some examples. How could a discovery, or ‘teaching by asking’, approach be used to teach the following? For a circle of any size, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is 3.14 1 (= π). The time for small swings of a simple pendulum depends on the length of the 2 pendulum, but not on the mass of the bob or the width of the swing. The main motives of adult learners enrolling on adult recreational courses 3 are to develop skills important to their life or career; to gain intellectual stimulation; to follow a hobby or interest; and to enjoy social contact and a change from their home environment. The advantages and disadvantages of laser and inkjet computer printers.4 How to use French railway timetables.5 How to solder electrical components onto printed circuit boards.6 29 Guided discovery: teaching by asking P02b.indd 312 3/3/09 14:52:33 Guided discovery: teaching by asking 313 Let’s take each of the above topics in turn: Topic 1. Assuming the learners are familiar with the concepts of circumference and diameter, the teacher could say: ‘Measure the different-sized circles I have given you, and see if you can see any patterns in your data.’ Topic 2. The teacher could ask the learners to guess what variables might affect the time for one swing of a pendulum; and to devise an experiment to investigate each variable in turn, and so discover how they affect the time for one swing. Topic 3. The teacher could ask the learners to investigate the motives of adult learners, and, if they did not think of it for themselves, be asked to devise and administer a questionnaire to obtain the information for themselves. Topic 4. The teacher could ask the learners to use such printers themselves, and to survey advertisements in computer magazines to discover the advantages and disadvantages. Topic 5. The teacher could give the learners copies of French maps and railway timetables, and challenge them to discover, without help, how to travel from Calais to Burgundy. Topic 6. The teacher could ask the learners to experiment with different types of solder and soldering iron, and with different techniques; and to use this experience to draw up guidelines for soldering. Which method would you prefer to be taught by: the didactic or the discovery approach? (Note that searching out information from books is not discovery learning.) Discovery activities are usually carried out in groups. They require high-order thinking skills in order to puzzle them out, and because learners are developing their own meanings, learning is of a high quality. Each member of the group can provide their part of the ‘jigsaw puzzle’ of understanding for the topic being investigated. Discovery methods are used by many primary teachers, and by many science teachers – for example, the Nuffi eld Science programme has made extensive use of the method. However, discovery can be used by teachers of all disciplines. Effective use of the discovery method When well devised and managed, the discovery method offers active learning and an achievable challenge which engages interest. Consequently, discovery activities motivate all but the most apathetic students. They are also very effective in develop- ing the learners’ understanding. However, it must be stressed that if the activities are poorly thought out, or ineffectively managed, the result can be lack of learning, confused and frustrated students, and a waste of time and goodwill. P02b.indd 313 3/3/09 14:52:33 The teacher’s toolkit 314 How should the method be used? The following are the most important consid- erations: Learners must have any essential background knowledge and techniques they need in order to make a success of the discovery activity. Learners must clearly understand what is expected of them. It usually helps to have the task precisely and concisely written on the board. The great majority, if not all, of the learners must be able to make a success of the activity. This effectively means that guidance must be given where necessary. For example, before starting their soldering activity (topic 6 above), students could be shown how to test a soldered joint. By means of question and answer, the class could also be introduced to the factors which may affect the soldered joint: size of soldering iron bit, where it is placed, time it is in contact, type of solder used, whether fl ux is used, and so on. The teacher could even suggest experiments for the class to carry out in detail, if they failed to think of their own. This is ‘guided discovery’. Too much guidance, and the students feel cheated of the chance to make their own discovery; too little, and they are fl oundering in frustra- tion. Clearly you must know your students’ capabilities before using this teaching method. Often some groups need more guidance than others, but don’t leap in with guidance until the learner(s) have had a chance to think things through for themselves. In practice, nearly all discovery is guided; it is just a matter of how much guidance has been given. If it took science 2,000 years to arrive at Galileo’s ideas about dynamics, one can’t expect 2B to do it in an hour and a quarter! Students’ work must be carefully monitored. Because of their inevitable lack of understanding at the start of the activity, students can spend hours on fruitless activity if left entirely to their own devices. Ask them what they have decided to do. If the method is unsatisfactory, it is usually best to use question and answer to improve it. Here is a teacher who has found a group trying to measure the circumference of a circle by following it with a ruler. Teacher How accurate is that method? Student Not very; it’s hard to do. Teacher Try measuring the same circle twice, and see if you get the same answer. (A little later) 12 cm and 15 cm for the same circle? That’s miles out, isn’t it! Can you think of a better way? Student Use string? John says we should cut the circles out and roll them … It sometimes helps if students bring their ideas to the teacher before embarking on them. This gives you the opportunity to check that methods are feasible, and to ensure vital steps or data are included. Alternatively, visit each group in the fi rst few minutes to check they are on the right track. P02b.indd 314 3/3/09 14:52:33 Guided discovery: teaching by asking 315 Sometimes students learn a good deal by being left to see the consequences of their own errors, but this can be counterproductive; guidance is often the safest option. If they waste hours chasing a wild goose with a clutch of red herrings, guess who will be blamed when they fi nd out! Choose a topic where reasoning is required, but where students are very unlikely to know the answer in full. It is galling to outline a discovery activity, only to have one or two students shout out ‘the answer’, even though the activity may still usefully consolidate and confi rm their prior knowledge. If you suspect some students do have such knowledge, ask them to keep their ideas to themselves for the sake of the others. If you can, develop a ‘stretching activity’ for those who fi nish quickly. Leave plenty of time. About twice as much as you expect should do! Summarise what students should have learned at the end. This is critical. Some ‘discoveries’ will lack clarity, and others may be entirely wrong-headed. It is crucial that you summarise the main teaching point(s) of the activity, explaining it fully by reference to their fi ndings. The best way is to ask them what they have learned, and then correct and develop this. If you want students to write their own summaries, then try: ‘When you have agreed your conclusion, tell me about it before writing it up.’ Students used to teacher-centred methods may need a little practice in the discovery method before they can use it to its full effect. Strengths and weaknesses of the discovery method The discovery method has been criticised for leading students to discover ‘the wrong thing’, and for leaving learners confused. This, however, is a criticism of the way the method is implemented, not a criticism of the method itself. Every method has such traps, and it is the business of the teacher to avoid them, though it must be said that this method is one of the more diffi cult for an inexperienced teacher to use. If you are worried by this, show your plans to an experienced teacher or to your tutor/mentor, especially if you have had limited previous contact with the group you will be teaching. The method is slow, but even this disadvantage can be largely overcome if enough guidance is given. A far more important limitation of the discovery method, often ignored even by experienced advocates, is that, like all methods, it may not be suffi cient by itself. For example, it is one thing to ‘discover’ an equation describing the oscillation of P02b.indd 315 3/3/09 14:52:33 The seven general The teacher’s toolkit 316 a simple pendulum; it is another thing to be able to use this equation to predict a pendulum’s behaviour. Discovery provides an understanding, but rarely provides corrected practice for all the skills required. The main advantages of the discovery method, appropriately used, are that: It is active, involving, motivating and fun. The questioning involved fosters • curiosity, and intrinsic interest in the subject matter. Students must ‘make their own meaning’ – that is, create their own under-• standing of the subject matter. Consequently, they will understand it, and its links to their prior learning. It is the pre-eminent ‘constructivist’ method! Students are likely to remember what they worked out for themselves.• It involves the students in high-order thinking: evaluation, creative thinking, • problem-solving, analysis, synthesis, etc. By contrast, teacher-centred methods often involve the learner only in low-order skills, such as attending and comprehending. As with other student-centred teaching methods, students are encouraged • to see learning as something they do to themselves, rather than something that experts do to them. Some teachers believe this ‘hidden curriculum’ is the method’s most important attribute. It allows students to enjoy the fun of puzzling things out for themselves, and so • arguably it develops their intrinsic as opposed to their extrinsic motivation. The method does have some limitations. It can be slow, and there is no practical way of using it for some topics – for example, simple, fact-based topics or those where the student is highly unlikely to be able to make the discovery required. As in much group work, there is also a danger of ‘passengers’ – students who watch rather than participate. You can, however, avoid passengers by nominating students to explain their group’s fi ndings after the group discussion, rather than asking for volunteers. This is important, and is explained in Chapter 14 and especially Chapter 24. The discovery method is still very popular amongst leading theorists; for example, David Ausubel believes that new learning requires appropriate background knowl- edge, and must be organised by the learner and then integrated into his or her existing knowledge. He sees discovery learning as an excellent method of produc- ing this integrated learning. Case study: making use of discovery A media studies lecturer is teaching the historical development of printing in a 90-minute lesson. She is using the CIA process to decide on questions so she can use discovery, or ‘teaching by asking’. Content Decide on the content you will cover. In this case, it would include the dates of inventions, Acts of Parliament and similar developments affecting printing. P02b.indd 316 3/3/09 14:52:34 [...]... ‘Kick-start’ material, with only an oblique relevance to the subject matter, is often surprisingly productive, as it encourages a more unusual approach A magazine article about a tidal barrage, or a coastguard safety leaflet, will suggest more original words or approaches to the sea topic than examining a description of the sea in a novel The more material the better; rifle the library! More advanced... be able to escape from the plant and pot ‘Po’ is particularly useful in group work Backtracking If one is at a dead end, it is often helpful to go back a few paces and take a different route To take the plant-watering example again, if the design team was experiencing difficulty developing a cheap electrical design, they could ‘backtrack’ and look at a gravity-fed design which would probably be cheaper... greatest, great ideas almost never come in a flash; that it is important to have a clear idea of what one is trying to achieve; and so on Make it clear that the creative process is the same for painting and for engineering, for business management and for poetry There are handouts and questionnaires to help you in the Chapter 24 downloads at: www.geoffpetty.com/evidence_based_downloads.htm Anyone can... Was anybody resentful about their role? The aim is an honest but non-accusatory evaluation of performance, where mistakes are seen as inevitable and even valuable It’s all right to fail, if you (and others) can learn from your mistakes In Chinese, the word for disaster also means opportunity Having reflected, the teacher steers the discussion on to ‘abstract conceptualisation’ (3) What are the general... each phase may be encountered many times, and not in any particular sequence However, at any given time, the learner will usually be concentrating on one phase or another Let’s examine each of the phases Inspiration This is the research phase, and involves an uncritical search for ideas The process is an uninhibited exploration and is characterised by spontaneity, experimentation, intuition, untrammelled... untrammelled imagination and risk-taking improvisation Very much as in the first stage in brainstorming (see Chapter 19), the idea is to develop as many ideas as possible, however off-beam or impractical they may seem initially In the field of the creative arts, this phase is often associated with a voice, and with an attempt to conjure up deep sympathy, spirituality or empathy with the subject matter If students... 43 for self- and peer assessment.) Peer assessment Peer assessment is another means of encouraging reflection Checklists can be used in a similar way as for self-assessment, and the advantages of peer assessment are similar to those of self-assessment Diaries and journals Here is a further way of encouraging students to reflect on their experience Students are provided with a diary folder and asked to... being uncritical and ‘slap-happy’ when choosing from alternative ideas It is common to find learners who are strong in one phase and weak in another One student will be full of ideas, but unable to evaluate them critically; while another will have a dearth of ideas on which to apply their good judgement Most ‘creative blocks’ are due to people trying to use an inappropriate phase, an inappropriate mindset,... sound, as well as imaginative Creativity is like mining for diamonds: most of what you dig up is thrown away But that does not make the digging a waste of time! 329 The teacher’s toolkit Encouraging the remaining phases The other phases in the creative process are more easily encouraged; one simply needs to set appropriate tasks: Clarification phase ‘I want you to produce a clear statement of exactly what... day when still 339 The teacher’s toolkit reasonably fresh Diaries are perhaps particularly useful where emotional responses are strong, as, for example, with students of social work, teaching or nursing After completing a day on a geriatric ward, a student nurse could record factual material about her experiences first, and then her emotional responses; then, what she found difficult or rewarding; what . evaluations. Other evaluation criteria or spectacles for evaluating teaching resources are shown on pages 3 86 and 395. An alternative approach is to use other graphic organisers, such as mind-maps. discovery learning, let’s look at what this teaching method involves. There are two approaches to teaching: teaching by telling and teaching by asking. Teaching by telling. This is teacher-centred. teacher. Guided discovery is an example of this latter approach. It may seem perverse, but huge educational advantages are claimed for this method. Teaching by asking’ can only be used if learners