Teaching Today A Practical Guide Fourth Edition - part 3 docx

The learner’s practical and emotional needs 118 A ‘chat’ A ‘word’ A ‘telling-off’ Non-directive adult- Parent-to-adult style Directive parent- to-adult style to-child style Teacher’s implied Teacher’s implied Teacher’s implied message: message: message: ‘I think you are willing and ‘I think you need some ‘You are a perishing nuisance able to solve your own pressure to solve your own and I don’t like you.’ problems.’ problems.’ ‘You can’t solve your own ‘I respect you as an individual problems.’ and have some sympathy for your diffi culties.’ Technique: Technique: Technique: Ask probing questions and Set clear targets. Tell the ‘PEP’ – proximity, eye LISTEN: student the consequences if contact, pose questions and/ ‘What do you fi nd most the targets are not met. or use ‘broken record’: diffi cult … ?’ Evaluate the achievement of ‘Why haven’t you ?’ the targets. (A persistent ‘Do you realise the series of meetings may be consequences of necessary.) this behaviour?’ Style and body language: supportive/encouraging dictatorial non-judgemental judgemental accepting directing listening telling Likely student reaction: Likely student reaction: Likely student reaction: cooperative compliant resentful but compliant Escalating your response to repeated inappropriate behaviour If you have a persistent problem with a class or individual, your response to that problem may be ineffective. You must change the response if it doesn’t work! This idea is simple but critical, and often overlooked. If you fi nd yourself saying ‘For heaven’s sake, how many times have I told you not to … ?’, then stop and think: why are you using a response you have proved does not work? A response to misbehav- iour should not be tried more than two or three times consecutively with the same student. After this, change or escalate your response, or threaten to do so. P01.indd 118 2/3/09 16:42:36 Discipline and problem-solving 119 If you’re in a hole, stop digging! If you habitually respond in the same way, the students will begin to feel secure about repeating the inappropriate behaviour: ‘He only tells you off if you talk, so I’ll have another chat with Mandy.’ You must gradually increase the severity of your response, until the gain the student experiences from the inappropriate behaviour is no longer worth the unpleasant consequences of being caught at it. Only steady escalation will help you discover what is a suffi cient deterrent. If you always do what you’ve always done, You’ll always get what you’ve always got. Teachers who are very good at maintaining control often have a wide range of reactions to inappropriate behaviour. This means they are rarely at a loss, and are always able to move to a new reaction if a previous one did not work. The list below is roughly in order of severity; it would, of course, be up to you to choose which techniques are appropriate in any given situation. I certainly do not suggest that you work mechanically through the list in every case, but if the strategy you are using is ineffective, try one a little further down the list. (You may like to make up your own list, using this one as a guide.) Look at the student.• Sustain eye contact.• Move towards the student, maintaining eye contact.• Remain close to the student.• Shake your head or frown while looking at the student.• (All these fi rst fi ve techniques can be used without interrupting teacher talk, etc. Bear in mind when reading the following that you can request a change in behav- iour, giving the work-related reason, you can insist on the change, then you can threaten undesirable consequences if the change is not forthcoming, then you can carry out the threat.) Stop talking and look at the student until they notice your attention; sustain • eye contact in silence, then continue. Use the student’s name without explanation: ‘Then, John, I’ll look at Act II.’• Ask the student a work-related question.• Ask the student to explain some aspect of the work to the rest of the class.• Stop what you are doing, and ask the student in a fi rm voice to stop the • behaviour. This can be done in public, but is best one-to-one.• Do the above with more non-verbal pressure – e.g. sustained eye contact in • silence, stern voice – while standing close to the student. Ask the student a question about the behaviour (PEP). P01.indd 119 2/3/09 16:42:36 The learner’s practical and emotional needs 120 Speak to the student after the class, using adult-to-adult style. Set targets and • evaluate these. Repeat as necessary. Threaten to move the student.• Move the student.• Put the student ‘on report’ – that is, he or she must show you work done at • the end of the lesson, or after every lesson in the week. Threaten to report the student to a higher authority, e.g. to his or her tutor.• Report the student. Keep the higher authority updated verbally on the student’s • subsequent behaviour. Tell the student this. (Don’t be afraid to ask for help from experienced staff or from your teacher education tutor. It is not an admission of failure to ask for advice.) Record the student’s behaviour on paper, sending a copy to a higher authority, • keeping your own copy. You could tell the student you are doing this. Threaten to ask a senior teacher to talk to the student.• In response to misbehaviour that has been constantly repeated, despite every • attempt to stop it. Stop what you are doing. Move away from the student if you are close, and get a piece of paper; ask someone for the date and the exact time. Coolly write down the behaviour on the piece of paper, saying: ‘OK. I’ve had enough. If this is the way you want it, so be it.’ Do not say what will happen to your piece of paper. If asked, be vague: ‘You’ll see.’ This will almost certainly stop the student misbehaving. Give a copy to the tutor responsible for the student. In response to outright defi ance• . As immediately above. This removes you from the confrontation, and some students will ‘back down’ almost as soon as the pressure is released. It is essential that defi ance is reported. It is widely accepted in the profession that you should not be expected to teach students who are not prepared to accept your authority in the classroom, for safety reasons if for no other. Contracts• . The student agrees, in writing, to a code of behaviour. The student should then be ‘forgiven’ and fully accepted back into the fold. In addition to all the above, your school or college may have standard forms • of punishment with which you should comply. Exactly what you do is less important than the fact that you increase the severity of your response, and that you appear confi dent and in control at all times. Changing tactics leaves the student uncertain of the consequences of repeating a misde- meanour. This uncertainty acts as a deterrent. Never physically handle or hit a student. Do not send a student out of a class unless you have been told this is acceptable. If you do send a student out of a class, you are responsible for anything the student does in class time. Don’t bear grudges. Try very hard not to show resentment towards a student who is causing you trouble. I know this is very hard, but if you show resentment the student may retaliate. A student who believes you dislike him or her will make your job much more diffi cult. Having threatened a student, you must carry out this threat to the letter if the student persists; otherwise, your credibility will go down in the eyes of the students, and should you make another threat it will not be taken seriously. Only consistency P01.indd 120 2/3/09 16:42:37 Discipline and problem-solving 121 will give your authority credibility. For this reason, it is very important not to get so angry with a student that you deliver a threat that you regret, or that you could not carry out! Long before you get really angry, pretend that you have reached the end of your tether and ‘act angry’ with the student; that way you are more likely to appear in control. Use your temper, don’t lose your temper. Sometimes it is better to say ‘I will see you about this after the class’ than to rush to hasty threats or punishments. This gives you time to think, and the student time to reconsider. Make sure you have your facts right before you reprimand a student. ABC ABC stands for antecedent → behaviour → consequences. Behaviourist psycholo- gists suggest that inappropriate behaviour is triggered by a situation they call the antecedent, and that the behaviour usually has desirable consequences for the misbehaving student. Behaviour can be changed by changing either the anteced- ent or the consequences, or both. Avoid the antecedent that triggers the behaviour. If students squabble when they collect equipment, give the equipment out yourself or elect a student to do so. If students arriving late disrupt the teacher-talk introduction to your classes, start the lesson with group or individual activities. If a class cannot maintain concentration for longer than two minutes, then don’t talk for longer than a minute and a half at a time. I followed this approach with a particularly diffi cult group: I communicated with an overhead projector, with handouts, by talking one at a time to a series of small groups, and with the blackboard which I prepared before the lesson. This transformed the lessons. First, I wasn’t frustrated by students’ poor concentra- tion or their interruptions; and, second, these methods of communication released me from teacher talk, so I could give my undivided attention to fi refi ghting and to praising and encouraging students who were working well. Avoid situations you know cause problems. Why struggle over a wall when you can walk round it? If you can’t change the antecedents, see if you can change the consequences. If you repeatedly come across a problem, ask yourself, ‘What are the students getting out of this inappropriate behaviour?’ – then try to remove these gains. For example, suppose you are having diffi culties with students packing up their folders fi ve minutes before the end of the session. You can’t change the antecedent, which is that the lesson is near its end, so what are the consequences for the students? They do less work! You could change this consequence by asking students who pack up early to summarise the main points of the lesson for you, or to answer searching questions on the lesson. If packing up early begins to mean more rather than less work, then this type of work-avoidance behaviour will naturally disappear. P01.indd 121 2/3/09 16:42:37 The learner’s practical and emotional needs 122 Sandra was repeatedly late to my classes, and she played the class clown when giving excuses for her lateness. The consequences for her were that she got atten- tion from the class. I made it clear that from now on I wanted written excuses for lateness, and the behaviour disappeared. If students don’t gain from their misbe- haviour, then the behaviour usually ceases. However, the problem with denying needs is that, however successful in the short term, it leaves those needs unsatisfi ed, and the student may seek their fulfi lment in some other way. Attention-seekers and students who are bored, frustrated or angry are not easily put off; if you close one door, they will soon fi nd another. Can you discover what these students really want – perhaps attention, or an opportunity to be a leader – and give this to them in a legitimate activity? Authority without resentment There is a difference between authoritarianism and the vigorous use of legitimate authority. The former is resented and the latter is not. Suppose your ship sank on a cruise, and you and the other passengers were marooned with the captain on the proverbial desert island. What principles should be followed by the system the captain might use to maintain ‘law and order’? Most people would suggest the following guidelines: There must be equality before the law• . The objective of the law must be to protect the interests of all its subjects equally. It should not be used to the unfair advantage of a privileged minority or those in authority. If subjects believe the law benefi ts the lawmakers and law-keepers, rather than them- selves, then they may well revolt (the ‘revolution’ syndrome). The law, including case law, should be widely understood. The law must be effectively policed• . Ideally, the policing should be conspicu- ous and effective, and transgressors should know they stand a good chance of being caught. If a law is not enforced effectively, at least some members of the community will consider the law inoperative. (For example, it is illegal to travel at 75 mph on the motorway, but many travel at this speed, believing the police will not charge them.) If policing is conspicuously absent, then law- breaking can become widespread; even the usually law-abiding may then take advantage and join in the lawless behaviour (the ‘looting’ syndrome). Policing should be seen to be fair• . If an element of the community believes it is being ‘picked on’, harassed or kept down by policing, then respect for the law and its enforcement diminishes, and it can even be seen as an instrument of oppression. Student teachers often complain of the lack of attention of some students in their class while they are talking. What are the antecedents and the conse- quences for this behaviour? Can you think of solutions to this problem? There are answers in the box on page 115. (No, don’t look – think the answer out for yourself fi rst!) P01.indd 122 2/3/09 16:42:37 Discipline and problem-solving 123 During diffi culties in Toxteth in 1988, the police started ‘saturation policing’. This caused resentment in the black community, who complained of being harassed. Eventually, resentment at this perceived injustice caused serious riots, and millions of pounds of damage was caused. Subjects should have a right to a fair trial• . Subjects should have a right to a fair hearing, and the decisions of the court should be seen as impartial, consistent and equally fair to all subjects. In Los Angeles in 1992, a court saw a widely broadcast amateur video showing four white policemen beating a black motorist, Rodney King, whom they had pinned to the ground. The man sustained nine fractures to the skull and was in intensive care for some time. The court found the policemen not guilty on all charges. Riots ensued in which 60 people died. Punishment should be fair and suffi ciently onerous.• Likely punishments should also be well known, and they should be severe enough to have a deterrent effect. Where possible, punishment should attempt to achieve rehabilita- tion of the transgressor. After accepting punishment, the subjects should be welcomed back into the fold without bitterness. At the end of the First World War the German people were made to give up German land, and to pay reparations to the Allies. Most historians now recognise this as a dreadful if understandable mistake. The German people were seething with resentment at the reparations; they saw them as a humiliation, and looked around for someone to restore German pride. This led to the rise of Hitler, and to the Second World War. If a punishment is perceived (eventually) by the miscreant as being fair, it is effective. If it is perceived as being unfair, it may actually encourage further lawbreaking. Law and order in the classroom If the general principles above are applied to the classroom, class rules should be based on educational, moral and safety criteria only. They should not be seen by students as being primarily for the teacher’s benefi t. The rules and their purposes should be well understood. The rules should be equally applied to all students. It may help to emphasise that the rules are there to benefi t the students in the class, not just the teacher. P01.indd 123 2/3/09 16:42:37 The learner’s practical and emotional needs 124 When you have more confi dence, why not try involving your students in rule- making? Agree the class rules in your fi rst few classes, asking for educational justifi cations for the rules. Punishments suggested by students can be surprisingly tough; you may need to soften them. Then, if a student transgresses, you have the class’s authority behind you: ‘Ashley, we agreed no talking when I’m talking.’ This democratic approach can be most effective. Another effective ‘democratic’ approach is best shown by example. During a prac- tical session a class works well, but is very noisy. Most teachers would stop the class, say the noise is a disgrace, and tell the students to be quiet. An alternative approach is: Teacher I really can’t work in this noise. I like a quiet classroom, I just can’t think straight with noise like this. I know it’s work noise mainly, but is there something we can do about this please? (Some students offer to work more quietly.) Teacher Yes, but we have tried that before and fi ve minutes later everyone is noisy again. (A student suggests a new class rule that students can only talk to someone within a metre of them. This is accepted by the class, and the teacher thanks students for their consideration, but enforces the rule.) This approach, of honestly expressing your own feelings, accepting those of your students, and then giving the problem to the students, is both assertive and demo- cratic. It requires good rapport, but may not work immediately with very immature students, though it may be worth a try. Policing Make sure you are constantly ‘on the beat’, enforce the rules conspicuously, and be vigilant. However, don’t harass individuals. It is perceptions that count here. If a student feels harassed, or ‘picked on’, he or she might rebel, making future class management more diffi cult. It makes little difference if students are wrong in feeling picked on (unless they can be persuaded they are wrong); it is not reality that determines behaviour, but perceptions. If a student feels picked on, tell other students off for the same offence (preferably within earshot) before repeating a criticism of the ‘harassed’ student. Escalating your response can avoid the need to nag a student for repeating a misbehaviour. Fair trial and punishment Don’t punish unless you are clear about the facts. Listen to excuses, don’t punish in anger, be consistent. Only those who have transgressed should be punished; don’t punish a whole class. After punishment, show that you don’t bear grudges – for example, by showing an interest in the student’s work, smiling, etc. P01.indd 124 2/3/09 16:42:39 Discipline and problem-solving 125 Unsolvable problems God, give me the grace to accept the things I cannot change, the courage to change the things I can – and the wisdom to know the difference. Don’t blame yourself for failing to deal with diffi culties caused by factors beyond your control – for example, severe local unemployment, or family and emotional problems. Those who are unloved become unlovable; all we can do is try to treat such unlucky creatures as professionally as we can. From an NSPCC poster: ‘He drinks, he smokes, he spits at his teacher … What he needs is a damned good cuddle.’ Curriculum problems Many criticise our school system because it recognises and rewards intellectual skills, but in comparison ignores, for example, manual skills, creative skills and personal skills, even though these are of great personal and economic importance. Students with these non-intellectual skills feel undervalued, and as a result tend to reject the system they feel has rejected them. Many ‘behaviour’ problems are really curriculum problems. It is beyond the scope of this book to look into this problem in any detail, but on the next page is an exercise to make the point. Mark each type of skill listed out of ten, fi rst for use and then for value. Comment on any discrepancy you fi nd between the marks for ‘use’ and ‘value’, and its effect on learning – bearing in mind that success is a prereq- uisite for learning, and that students will tend to value an education which values their skills. Suggested answers to the problem on page 120 The antecedent is that the teacher is using teacher talk, so use teacher talk less often and for shorter periods. The consequence of inattention is that the student avoids work. If every student who shows inattention is asked a question, then the behaviour actually increases work rate – and so should die out! P01.indd 125 2/3/09 16:42:39 The learner’s practical and emotional needs 126 This simple exercise raises more questions than it answers: for example, how teachable or examinable are these skills? To some extent, the problems raised are beginning to be addressed, with the moves towards vocational education and common or core skills. If, with some groups, discipline is a problem even for experienced teachers, then there is something wrong. Often the problem is that the students do not see the educative experience as being in their own interest. Frankly, they are sometimes correct in this perception. If a curriculum consistently condemns a student as a failure, then the student may well retaliate by condemning the curriculum and those charged with teaching it. The solution for such problems lies in developing a curriculum that is perceived by students as being in their own best interests. This may be done in part by valuing every student’s attempts to learn, and by develop- ing a curriculum which recognises such a wide variety of skills that most students have a chance of having some of their abilities recognised and valued. ‘My argument is that our present secondary school system … exerts on many pupils … a destruction of their dignity which is so massive and persuasive that few subsequently recover from it.’ David Hargreaves EXERCISE Note: ‘Use’ = usefulness in the real world, e.g. in commerce and industry, or at home. ‘Value’ = value and reward given by schools and by post-school education. Use/Value Intellectual skills. Academic skills in any subject: arts or sciences, humanities. Manual skills. Any skills that involve coordination of hands and eyes: woodwork, metalwork, electronic assembly, dressmaking, etc. Creative skills. Ability in design; ability to create, in the visual and other arts; ability to think up new ideas or use established ideas in a new way; ability to be proactive rather than reactive, e.g. entrepreneurial skills. Self-organisational skills. For example, being organised and dependable, able to work unsupervised. Interpersonal skills. Ability to work well in a team; ability to lead or to motivate others; sensitivity to others; caring skills; ability to cope with diffi cult emotional situations; being ‘good with people’. Vocationally specifi c skills. Knowledge and capability specifi c to a vocation or profession. P01.indd 126 3/3/09 14:16:21 Discipline and problem-solving 127 The use of reinforcement Don’t, in your diffi culties, lose sight of your most powerful ally, the use of reinforce- ment for good behaviour. An American-inspired system called ‘assertive discipline’ has recently been introduced in some British schools. In outline, six rules are displayed in every classroom. Pupils are told they must arrive quietly and on time for lessons; bring everything they need; remain seated unless asked to move; follow instructions the fi rst time they are given; raise their hand before speaking; and treat others, their work and their belongings with respect. There is nothing surprising here, so why are teachers using the system almost universally enthusiastic? Why does it work? Because of reinforcement. Students who obey all six rules get an ‘R’ for reward in the teacher’s register every class. Six letters earn a ‘Bronze’ letter of commendation, noting their high standards of behaviour, to take home to their parents. Silver and Gold certifi cates can be earned for more ‘R’s. This was a school-wide initiative, of a kind which you will not be in a position to institute by yourself. But the principle is what counts: reward good behaviour with recognition, encouragement and praise. Below is a ‘mind-map’ for the topic of discipline. (You might like to ask your students to prepare mind-maps for the topics you teach; research shows they aid understanding and memory.) A summarising concept map for Chapters 8 and 9. Try using mind-maps in your teaching. P01.indd 127 2/3/09 16:42:41 [...]... 0 3 2 3 0 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 –5 3 0 3 3 3 3 5 –5 –5 5 3 –5 –5 0 –5 5 5 –5 YES! 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Yes No NO! 5 5 –5 3 –5 5 –5 5 –5 –2 5 3 3 5 –2 3 –2 3 3 3 3 2 3 5 –2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 0 2 –2 3 3 5 5 5 –5 5 –5 5 0 –2 3 Positive score Negative score TOTAL SCORE –100 to –40 Your attitudes are likely to produce learners who do as they are told and nothing more Please read... left- and right-brain teaching strategies, and believes that many ‘learning difficulties’ are often really teaching difficulties For example, some learners may experience ‘learning difficulties’ if they are taught in an almost exclusively verbal and sequential manner We all need both a right-brain and a left-brain understanding, and good teachers provide both of these Left-brain and right-brain teaching. .. Right- and left-brain approaches are not interchangeable alternatives, they are complementary We return to this approach in ‘Styles of analysis’ below (page 152) 147 The teacher’s toolkit Theorist – the rational self (males often prefer this) Innovators- the experimental self Likes: Logical, rational, and mathematical activities (as opposed to: emotional, spiritual, musical, artistic, reading, arts and... (1992) The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell (2nd edition) , Part 10, London: Routledge Short essays on education, teaching and its aims 137 In order to make an informed choice of teaching method or learning strategy, and in order to be adaptable and have a variety of activities for lesson planning, the teacher must know: • • • • what teaching methods are available what are the strengths and weaknesses... Becoming a facilitator rather than an instructor is not so much about the use of techniques or teaching methods It is an attitude and a set of values Facilitators argue that giving students more control over and responsibility for their learning has the following advantages: • It encourages active and deep learning, rather than passive and superficial learning • It develops self-management and ‘learning... parts – sequential, language and logic sees things as a whole – spatial, music and images Left-brain learners Right-brain learners (Verbal sequential, or a serialist learner) (Visual holistic learner) You have a preference for learning in a sequential style, logically step by step You like to be organised and ordered in your approach, doing one thing at a time You like to break things down into categories... diagram, which clarifies understanding by eliminating the detail and only showing the key points and their interrelationships This diagram has different strengths to the verbal explanation It shows the topic ‘all at once’ or holistically, it organises the information, and the learner can search it for clarification It also aids recall Neither the verbal explanation nor the diagram alone are as good as... than others Teaching is embarking on a revolution and I hope you will be part of it In the last few decades, researchers have tested teaching methods by asking a good teacher to use their usual methods with a ‘control’ group; and to teach a parallel and nearly identical ‘experimental’ group This group is taught in the same way, except that the method being researched is included in an appropriate part. .. video and try to answer the questions [a/ r/ t] Styles of analysis There are two ways of analysing a topic, a left-brain, ‘atomistic’ approach, and a right-brain, holistic approach We need to use both styles, but many teachers and students only use the left-brain, atomistic method Both are needed for a full understanding A topic 1 2 3 Atomistic and holistic analysis 152 B topic 4 C D Introduction Atomistic... finished’ and so stop work If they are taught to analyse using spectacles as well as by parts, the quality of their work can improve greatly Professor John Biggs has researched the characteristics of high- and low-grade work, and shown with his ‘SOLO taxonomy’ that full (right-brain) relational thinking is a characteristic of high-grade academic achievement Students must see the big picture and the patterns . NO! 1 30 35 13 5 3 –2 3 2 5 3 3 –5 14 5 5 3 3 3 5 5 3 –5 15 –5 –2 2 5 4 30 3516 3 3 3 5 5 – 533 317 –5 –2 3 5 6 5 2 –5 –5 18 5 3 3 –5 7 5 3 3 –5 19 –5 3 2 5 8 30 0020 5 3 3 –5 9 5 2 3 –5. work-avoidance behaviour will naturally disappear. P01.indd 121 2 /3/ 09 16:42 :37 The learner’s practical and emotional needs 122 Sandra was repeatedly late to my classes, and she played the class. The learner’s practical and emotional needs 118 A ‘chat’ A ‘word’ A ‘telling-off’ Non-directive adult- Parent-to-adult style Directive parent- to-adult style to-child style Teacher’s implied