52 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS question will be harder. If you answer incorrectly, your next question will be easier. Here is an overview of the differences between the two tests: Computer Test: Paper-and-Pencil: Structure Structure and Written Expression 15–20 minutes 25 minutes 20–25 questions 40 questions Computer adaptive: the Test takers answer the same level of difficulty of ques- questions. tions is based on each test-taker’s ability. Question types are mixed Question types fall into two together and presented sections: at random. Part A—15 sentence- completion questions Part B—25 questions in which you identify grammar mistakes Once you submit an answer, You can return to previous you cannot change it. questions and change your answers. Your score on the structure Your score on this section is section is combined with not combined with another your score in the writing part of the test. portion of the test. STRUCTURE 53 MAKING SENSE OF SENTENCES The grass grows. This is an example of the basic unit of thought in the English language: the sentence. Sentences must have two key parts—a subject and a predicate—and express a complete thought. The subject (grass) names what the sentence is talking about. The predicate is a verb or verb phrase (grows) that tells us something about the subject. The subject of a sentence may be singular, meaning that there is only one subject. Subjects may also be compound, meaning they have more than one subject: The grass and the flowers grow. The predicate may also be singular or compound. For exam- ple, here the predicate is singular: I ate a bowl of spaghetti. In the following example, the predicate is a compound: I ate a bowl of spaghetti and drank two glasses of milk. WHAT IS A CLAUSE? Like sentences, clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Clauses may be independent or dependent. An independent clause stands alone and expresses a complete idea as in this example: Ximena walked on the grass. When a sentence has more than one independent clause, it is called a compound sentence. In compound sentences, independent clauses are joined by a connecting word or conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so, or yet). In the following example, the independent clauses are under- lined: Ximena walked on the grass , but she didn’t get her new shoes wet. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought: though it was wet. When a dependent clause stands alone, it is called a sentence fragment. To make a complete thought, a dependent 54 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS clause needs an independent clause: Though it was wet, Ximena walked on the grass. Sentences that contain an independent clause and a dependent clause are called complex sentences. Quick tip: To identify a sentence fragment or dependent clause on the TOEFL exam, look for the following joining words, called subordinating conjunctions. When a clause has a sub- ordinating conjunction, it needs an independent clause to com- plete an idea. after because once though when although before since unless where as, as if if that until while Practice Underline the independent clauses in the following sentences. Find the answers on page 82. 1. I went for a walk downtown and mailed your letter. 2. If it is hot tomorrow, let’s go to the beach. 3. The 20-foot-tall, long-necked giraffe is the tallest living animal on Earth. 4. The log-cabin quilt was probably designed as a way to give a second life to unwieldy but warm fabrics salvaged from suits and coats. PARTS OF SPEECH A word can be classified as a different part of speech depending on how it works in a sentence. For example, the word quiet can be a noun, verb, or adjective; add –ly and it can function as an adverb. This table lists the parts of speech: STRUCTURE 55 Part of Speech Function Examples noun names a person, Emma, cat, girl, Elm place, thing, or Street, vase, pen, New concept York, weather pronoun takes the place of a I,you,he,she,us,they,this, noun so that the that, themselves, some- noun does not have body, who, which to be repeated verb describes an action, swim, becomes, is, occurrence, or state seemed, hoping of being helping combines with other forms of be, do and have; verb verbs (main verbs) to can, could, may, might, create verb phrases must, shall, should, will, that help indicate would tenses adjective describes nouns and green, content, awake, pronouns; can also small, heavy, happy; that identify or quantify (e.g., that car); several (e.g., several dogs) adverb describes verbs, adjec- quickly, slowly, suddenly, tives, other adverbs, always, very, yesterday or entire clauses prep- expresses the relation- in, on, around, above, osition ship in time or space between, underneath, between words in a beside, with, upon sentence 56 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT She don’t or she doesn’t? You might easily pick out the second version as the correct match between subject and verb. However, some instances of subject-verb agreement are trickier—even for native speakers of English. Subject-verb agreement is when the subject of the sentence correctly matches the verb in number. If the subject is singular, the verb is singular. If the subject is plural, the verb is plural. Singular: Betto feeds the birds every day. Plural: Betto and Josephine feed the birds every day. Subject-verb agreement can be confusing, however. Look out for problem verb forms and the other common pitfalls listed below. ■ The subject I—Even though I is a single person, it usually takes the plural form of the verb: I look. I do. ■ The verb to be—The irregular verb to be (be, am, is, are, was, were) is a problem verb because of the unusual way it is formed. Remember never to use the be form after a subject. I be going is incorrect. I am going is correct. ■ Doesn’t/don’t, Wasn’t/weren’t—These verb constructions can confuse writers. Doesn’t (does not) and STRUCTURE 57 wasn’t (was not) are singular. Don’t (do not) and weren’t (were not) are plural. (I takes the plural form, don’t) I don’t want to leave. I wasn’t in class yesterday. She doesn’t want to leave. We weren’t in class yesterday. ■ Words or phrases that follow a subject—A common error in making subject-verb agreement is confusing a phrase (words or phrase that follow a subject) with the subject of the sentence. When you read, be careful to locate the true subject of the sentence. Subject and verbs are underlined in the following examples. One of the boys is missing. The paintings by Pedro Reiss are bold and commanding. The pr esident, along with three members of his Cabinet, r eturned to Washington today. ■ Singular nouns that end in s—Some words like measles, mumps, news, checkers or marbles (games), physics, economics, sports, and politics are singular despite their plural form, because we think of them as a single thing. Some are singular or plural depending on how they are used in a sentence. The news begins at 6 p.m. Aerobics is a great way to get in shape and reduce stress. ■ Pronoun subjects—Pronouns are misused often in speech and writing. Some pronouns are always singular, whereas others are always plural. A few can be either singular or plural. Each, either, neither, anybody, anyone, . 52 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS question will be harder. If you answer incorrectly, your next question will. combined with another your score in the writing part of the test. portion of the test. STRUCTURE 53 MAKING SENSE OF SENTENCES The grass grows. This is an example of the basic unit of thought in. clause stands alone, it is called a sentence fragment. To make a complete thought, a dependent 54 TOEFL EXAM ESSENTIALS clause needs an independent clause: Though it was wet, Ximena walked on the